Identity salience and shifts in product preferences of Hispanic consumers: Cultural relevance of product attributes as a moderator

Journal of Business Research 62 (2009) 826–833

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Journal of Business Research

Identity salience and shifts in product preferences of Hispanic consumers: Cultural relevance of product attributes as a moderator Veena Chattaraman a,⁎, Nancy A. Rudd b, Sharron J. Lennon c a b c

Department of Consumer Affairs, Auburn University, 308 Spidle Hall, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USA Department of Consumer Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA Department of Fashion and Apparel Studies, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA

A R T I C L E

I N F O

Article history: Received 19 July 2007 Accepted 18 April 2008 Keywords: Cultural relevance Identity Salience Acculturation Hispanic

A B S T R A C T Culturally relevant products, services, and communications play a crucial role in the success of ethnic targeted marketing. Employing a bi-dimensional approach, two studies examine how cultural relevance of product attributes interacts with acculturation level, and situational and contextual factors to affect product attribute evaluations (PAE) of Hispanic consumers. Across both studies, cultural relevance had main effects on PAE. In Study 1, cultural relevance interacted with cultural situations to affect PAE. Hispanic consumers evaluated Hispanic (or Mainstream) relevant product attributes more favorably when exposed to a Hispanic (or Mainstream) cultural situation. In Study 2, cultural relevance interacted independently with cultural primes and acculturation level to significantly affect PAE. PAE shifted as a result of cultural primes and moved toward being typical to the activated cultural identity. Results are discussed in the context of consumer acculturation, social identity-based consumption, biculturalism, and cultural frame shifting. © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The landscape of local and global markets has changed dramatically in light of transnational migrations and particularly, the increased migration of people to different parts of Europe and the United States. Growing cultural pluralism in markets presents both an opportunity and challenge to businesses operating within this dynamic, volatile, and politically charged market environment. With an estimated increase of 121% between 1990 and 2009 (Humphreys, 2004), the growing Hispanic population is the biggest contributor to U.S. demographic shifts. Responding to increasing cultural diversity in the marketplace, many firms have used targeted communications that “draw on various references to the ethnic culture in an attempt to enhance communication with and gain the approval of the intended audience” (Holland and Gentry, 1999, p. 65). However, the use of cultural imagery in advertising and promotions to sell products to ethnic consumers has met with some criticism (Cozens, 2003; Holland and Gentry, 1999; Laroche et al., 1998; Penaloza and Gilly, 1999). Firstly, cultural symbols used in communications prompt unanticipated emotional responses in consumers, leading to attributions about the motives of marketers (Holland and Gentry, 1999). Secondly, perpetuation of stereotypes emerges as a key concern in ethnic advertising, since the line between cultural stereotypes and positive cultural imagery is blurry (Laroche et al., 1998). ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 334 844 3258 (O); fax: +1 334 844 1340. E-mail address: [email protected] (V. Chattaraman). 0148-2963/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.04.002

Businesses are thus increasingly realizing that solely communications-based ethnic target marketing approaches are less effective than holistic service-based strategies. In a study conducted by the Yankelovich Multicultural Monitor, 65% of Hispanic respondents indicated that Spanish-language advertisements did not influence greater trust in brands (Korzenny and Korzenny, 2005). Instead, it was proposed that cultural relevance of communications and products to consumers' lives could build greater trust (Korzenny and Korzenny, 2005). This is illustrated in Proctor & Gamble's (P&G) effort to decommoditize the toilet paper category for the Hispanic market. Although, P&G's Charmin has been the only brand to advertise in Spanish; the company decided to launch its ‘Scents’ line based on the cultural insight that Hispanic women seek scented products for their home as a “way to make their homes feel special and inviting to the constant flow of visiting friends and family” (Korzenny and Korzenny, p. 56). This culturally relevant approach resulted in an increased share for Charmin Scents in the Hispanic versus the general segment and spurred the successful development of the laundry detergent, Gain, which has an 80% higher market share in the Hispanic segment (Peale, 2004). The above efforts bear parallels with the emergent service-dominant logic in marketing (Vargo and Lusch, 2004; Lusch et al., 2007), which focuses on improving business performance by ‘serving’ customers better. The approach also emphasizes consumer-centrism and proposes a shift in the locus of value-creation. Value is not embedded in the product by the marketer; rather, value emerges through the consumption experience (Vargo and Lusch, 2004; Lusch et al., 2007). Drawing the link between the service-dominant logic and ethnic target marketing, which has largely emphasized a communications-based perspective to

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“sell to” ethnic consumers, the focus would shift toward providing a deeper, more meaningful, and implicitly relevant consumption experience. Although, a strong case is being made for cultural relevance in current marketing practice, scholarly literature on multicultural marketing exhibits a gap in examining the effects of this significant factor on consumer behavior. This study examines how cultural relevance of product attributes (i.e., the color of apparel products) interacts with dispositional factors (i.e., acculturation level) and situational and contextual factors (i.e., explicit cultural situations and implicit cultural primes) to affect product attribute evaluations (PAE) of Hispanic consumers. 2. Theoretical framework A stream of research on social identity-based consumption has demonstrated that drawing attention to a social identity (SI), such as a cultural identity, through the use of cultural cues can make the identity ‘momentarily salient,’ resulting in preferences congruent to the activated or ‘salient’ identity (Forehand and Deshpande, 2001; Forehand et al., 2002; LeBoeuf, 2002; Stayman and Deshpande, 1989). SIs refer to social categories such as ethnicity or gender that are selfdefining for an individual (Hogg et al., 1995). ‘Salience’ or ‘accessibility’ of an SI refers to the activation of the SI conceptual structure in the individual's self-concept through spontaneous self-categorization in response to social contexts and stimulus cues (Reed, 2002). A salient SI entails that group members describe themselves more in terms of their social group, a process called self-stereotyping (Haslam et al., 1998; Rijswijk et al., 2006). This process involves depersonalization, wherein individuals define themselves interchangeably with other group members (Haslam et al., 1998) and adopt attitudes and behaviors that are stereotypical to the group (Turner, 1987). The theory of SI-based consumption (Reed, 2002; Reed and Forehand, unpublished) articulates a two-stage framework for examining when and how SIs, such as cultural identities, influence the development of attitudes and purchase behaviors. The framework posits that this influence occurs through one of two stages: 1) accessibility or salience, and 2) diagnosticity. Identity salience or accessibility is further influenced by three factors: 1) situational factors or explicit social contexts, that make an individual aware of his/ her social identification; 2) contextual factors (e.g. reference group symbols, visual images — national flags) that make an individual process information based on the implicitly activated SI; and 3) dispositional factors such as strength of association between the selfconcept and the SI (Reed and Forehand, unpublished). These factors are reviewed in detail in the next section. The diagnosticity of SI is influenced by the relevance of the SI to the evaluated object, which includes symbolic, goal or action relevance (Reed and Forehand, unpublished). The framework further posits that accessibility and diagnosticity interact to influence responses to marketing stimuli. 3. Literature review 3.1. Role of products in consumer acculturation Consumer acculturation is the complex process of intercultural contact wherein immigrant consumers acquire knowledge and skills to engage in consumer behavior within the mainstream culture (Penaloza, 1989, 1995; Penaloza and Gilly, 1999). This process includes “how one learns to buy and consume goods as well as how one learns the meanings that we attribute to ourselves and others as consumers of goods” (Penaloza, 1989, p. 110). These meanings of products and possessions are particularly salient to those individuals who are in the process of identity transition (Mehta and Belk, 1991; Solomon, 1983) or those who feel less complete in their self-defining identities (Wicklund and Gollwitzer, 1982). During the process of transnational migration, nostalgic possessions are often used to “fulfill roles that family, friends,

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and familiar environment once performed for the emigrant” (Mehta and Belk, 1991, p. 398). Viewed from this perspective, cultural products serve as transitional objects that are ritually adopted in the lives of new immigrants and facilitate identity transition by linking people to their past experiences and their cultural identity (Mehta and Belk, 1991). Solomon (1983) postulates that products are consumed for their broader social meanings that originate at the societal level, as well as private meanings that are derived from subjective individual experiences. This ‘experiential view’ of consumption provides a phenomenological lens to understanding consumption as a “subjective state of consciousness with a variety of symbolic meanings, hedonic responses, and esthetic criteria” (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982, p. 132.). This view also differs from the rational consumer decision-making model in its emphasis on ‘subjectivity’ and, particularly, the subjective responses that consumers experience in their interaction with products (Addis and Holbrook, 2001). Consequently, products function less as a good or service, and more as an embodiment of symbolic meaning attributed through individual subjectivity. Addis and Holbrook (2001) further differentiate two types of ‘value’ that consumers derive from the consumption experience — utilitarian value referring to benefit derived from the objective characteristics and technical performance of the product, and hedonic value referring to benefit derived from ‘subjective responses’ to the product's intangible, symbolic or aesthetic aspects. They propose that, the consumption experience exists on a continuum between the two extremes of hedonic and utilitarian. This conceptualization is more valid in the context of culture-specific consumption, than viewing products as strictly hedonic or utilitarian since the same product could lend itself to a more hedonic (or symbolic) versus utilitarian experience depending on the context of use or promotion. The consumption of products during the acculturation process represents a more hedonic or symbolic consumption experience, wherein ‘value’ and ‘meaning’ emerge from the rich interaction of consumer and context subjectivity and the product's intangible, symbolic or aesthetic attributes. 3.2. Cultural relevance of product attributes Products such as apparel, jewelry, home furnishings, fragrance, music, and videos consumed within particular cultures often serve as symbolic artifacts of cultural identity and “security blankets” for consumers who have migrated away from their culture of origin (Mehta and Belk, 1991). Researchers have argued that consumption symbols such as brands and products serve as ‘carriers of culture’ by going beyond their objective properties and utilitarian value to communicate cultural meaning (Aaker et al., 2001). This cultural meaning is said to reside in the symbolic and expressive attributes of products and brands (Shavitt, 1990; Aaker et al., 2001). However, viewed from the experiential perspective, cultural meaning and value really reside in the minds of consumers and originate from subjective consumption experiences and socio-cultural contexts. For example, the color white symbolizes matrimony and peace in the U.S., whereas, in India, it is the color of mourning and widowhood. Based on this discussion, cultural relevance can be conceptualized as a subjective variable that results when symbolic and expressive attributes of products evoke desired culture-specific meanings in consumers' minds and render culture-specific benefits in the consumption experience. Color is an important brand and product attribute that conveys different symbolic meanings in different cultures (DeLong et al., 2004). Red is considered an appealing and lucky color in China; whereas blue, the most preferred color among mainstream American consumers (Lind, 1993; Radeloff, 1991), is considered a cold color by these consumers (DeLong et al., 2004). A nationwide poll commissioned by American Demographics, found that cultural factors significantly influence color preferences (Paul, 2002) of different ethnic groups in the U.S. In this poll, Hispanic consumers broadly demonstrated a preference for a warmer palette; however, variations did exist with Mexicans preferring more

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traditional colors, such as reds, blues and blacks; Puerto Ricans preferring livelier colors, such as pinks and purples; and Cubans preferring pastels and flamingo pinks. The origins of such culturespecific preferences can be attributed to the symbolic meanings that colors hold within particular cultures, and are clearly reflected across cultural artifacts such as works of art, textiles, and crafts. This study conceptualizes cultural relevance primarily as a subjective variable that is expected to have differential effects in interaction with consumer and context subjectivity (explored in subsequent hypotheses). However, since minority ethnic groups operate within the broader context of mainstream American culture, the ethnic distinctiveness experienced by these groups will lead to a base level of cultural identity salience across all group members (McGuire et al., 1978). The salient cultural identity should positively influence consumer attitudes toward identity relevant products (Reed, 2002), leading to a main effect for cultural relevance on product evaluation. The proposition is tested through the following hypotheses: H1. a) Cultural relevance of product attributes will have a main effect on PAE. b) Hispanic consumers will evaluate product attributes (apparel colors) culturally relevant to the Hispanic aesthetic more positively than those relevant to the Mainstream aesthetic. 3.3. Situational identity salience and cultural relevance of product attributes Situational factors such as the ethnic composition of an individual's social environment (McGuire et al., 1978), and the ethnic composition of the immediate consumption situation (Stayman and Deshpande, 1989; Wooten, 1995), can make an SI momentarily salient. Stayman and Deshpande (1989) use the term situational ethnicity to describe episodic ethnic identification. The authors claim that different social/consumption situations evoke different norms of behavior, and thus the social surroundings and product type jointly explain the influence of ethnicity on behavior. They found that ethnic consumers were more likely to make ethnic food choices when dining with parents in an ethnic situation than when dining with business associates in a non-ethnic situation. Similarly, Wooten (1995) examined the interaction effects of distinctiveness and social surroundings on product choice and found that participants were more likely to choose ethnic foods when dining with “own ethnicity” members than when dining with “other ethnicity” business associates. The effects found in the above studies can be explained as follows: the ethnic and non-ethnic situations heightened or diminished the salience of the cultural identity respectively, leading to an increase or decrease in in-group stereotypical attitudes. Hence, consumers are less likely to choose cultural products when exposed to mainstream situations than when exposed to ethnic situations. The same rationale can be extended to propose that culturally relevant product attributes will receive more positive evaluations when the cultural identity is heightened in salience through a congruent cultural situation than when the cultural identity is diminished in salience through a competing cultural situation. This proposition is tested in the following hypotheses: H2. a) Cultural relevance of product attributes will interact with cultural situations to affect PAE. b) Hispanic consumers will evaluate product attributes culturally relevant to the Hispanic (or Mainstream) aesthetic more positively when exposed to a Hispanic (or Mainstream) cultural situation than when exposed to a Mainstream (or Hispanic) cultural situation. 3.4. Contextual identity salience and cultural relevance of product attributes Contextual factors such as advertising cues can also influence cultural identity salience in the absence of explicit processing of SI information (Forehand and Deshpande, 2001; Reed and Forehand,

unpublished). Forehand and Deshpande (2001) exposed Asians and Caucasians to an Asian ethnic prime and measured its impact on ethnic self-awareness and response to targeted advertising. The study found that exposure to an ethnic prime increased participants' likelihood of mentioning ethnicity in self-descriptions and caused Asian participants to respond more favorably to an ethnically-targeted Nokia cellular phone advertisement that followed the identity prime. Hong et al. (2000) conducted a series of cognitive priming experiments, and found that cultural primes consisting of cultural icons such as national flags could influence the attributional styles of bicultural participants. Participants primed with American icons generated fewer external causal explanations than participants primed with Chinese icons. The cultural primes thus influenced the differential weight that bicultural participants attributed to social versus dispositional causes. Along similar lines, LeBoeuf (2002) exposed bicultural Chinese-Americans to Chinese and American implicit cues and found that they exhibited greater likelihood of choosing a usual colored car and traditional meal when exposed to Chinese implicit cues and a uniquely-colored car and unique meal when exposed to American implicit cues. Based on the literature reviewed, the following hypotheses were proposed: H3. a) Cultural relevance of product attributes will interact with cultural primes to affect PAE. b) When exposed to Hispanic (or Mainstream) cultural primes, product attributes culturally relevant to the Hispanic (or Mainstream) aesthetic will be evaluated more positively by Hispanic consumers. 3.5. Dispositional identity salience and cultural relevance of product attributes Strength of ethnic identification and level of acculturation are two constructs that have been frequently applied to investigate individual differences in ethnic consumer behavior. The former indicates intensity of affiliation with an ethnic group (Deshpande et al., 1986). The latter refers to the acquisition of host culture traits (Laroche et al., 1998). Laroche et al. (1998) differentiate that: “ethnic identity measures have tapped maintenance/retention of the culture of origin whereas acculturation measures have focused on acquisition of a host or dominant culture” (p. 129). Acculturation research can be further classified based on two competing paradigms, the uni-dimensional versus the bi-dimensional model of acculturation. The uni-dimensional model measures acculturation on a continuum with the culture of origin and the host culture as the endpoints, wherein an increase in orientation toward the host culture signifies a decrease in orientation toward the culture of origin (Cuellar et al., 1995). Researchers have argued against this model since it creates bipartite classifications of consumers with low/high ethnic identity and acculturation and fails to identify biculturals who identify strongly with both cultures (Laroche et al., 1998). As a result, new measures of acculturation incorporate a bi-dimensional approach by measuring orientation toward each culture separately (Cuellar et al., 1995; Marin and Gamba, 1996). Based on this bi-dimensional model, this study employs a tripartite segmentation of Hispanic consumers (Hispanic-dominant, Mainstream-dominant and Balanced bicultural), which is also relevant to current marketing practice (Hammer and Skolnicki, 2005). With respect to the consumption patterns of each segment, research has demonstrated that as compared to weak Hispanicidentifiers, strong Hispanic-identifiers are more likely to: use Spanishlanguage media, buy prestige brands, buy brands advertised to their ethnic group (Deshpande et al., 1986); prefer same-ethnicity service providers, targeted media and buy brands used by family and friends (Donthu and Cherian, 1994). Kara and Kara (1996) found that Hispanic consumers high in acculturation were very similar to EuroAmericans in terms of value placed on certain product attributes; however, Hispanic consumers low in acculturation were significantly different. Since research on balanced-bicultural consumers is limited,

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the hypothesis relating to this group is exploratory and predicts no significant difference in their evaluations of culturally relevant product attributes. Based on this rationale, the following hypotheses are proposed: H4. a) Cultural relevance of product attributes will interact with the acculturation level of the consumer to affect PAE. b) Hispanic-dominant consumers will evaluate product attributes culturally relevant to the Hispanic aesthetic more positively than those relevant to the Mainstream aesthetic. c) Mainstream-dominant consumers will evaluate product attributes culturally relevant to the Mainstream aesthetic more positively than those relevant to the Hispanic aesthetic. d) Balanced-bicultural consumers' evaluation of product attributes culturally relevant to the Hispanic and Mainstream aesthetic will not differ. Two studies were conducted to test the hypotheses proposed in this section. The first hypothesis was tested in both studies. Hypothesis 2, involving explicit cultural cues, was tested in Study 1; Hypotheses 3 and 4, involving implicit cultural cues, were tested in Study 2. 4. Study 1 4.1. Method 4.1.1. Overview and design The study was conducted through an online experiment employing explicit cues to manipulate the momentary salience of Hispanic (or Mainstream) cultural identity through projective consumption scenarios. This methodology has been successfully employed in previous studies (Stayman and Deshpande, 1989; Wooten, 1995). Study 1 employed a 2 (cultural situation: Hispanic or Mainstream) × 2 (cultural relevance: Hispanic or Mainstream) within-subjects design. 4.1.2. Participants and procedure Recruiting emails were sent to 144 female and 200 male Hispanic students randomly drawn from a list of all female and male Hispanic students enrolled at a Midwestern U.S. University. Seventy-seven students participated in the study (response rate — 22.4%). Of these, responses provided by 34 female (47.2%) and 38 male (52.8%) students were usable. Among them, 30.6% of the participants were Mexican/Mexican American/Chicano, 15.3% Puerto Rican, 5.6% Cuban, and 38.9% constituted other Spanish/Hispanic/Latino groups. The mean age of the participants was 22.9 years. The emails sent contained a URL for the online experiment. Four follow-up emails were sent during the data collection period. 4.1.3. Stimuli and measures In the mainstream cultural situation condition, participants were asked to visualize themselves attending a Bruce Springsteen concert. Similarly, in the Hispanic cultural situation condition, participants were asked to visualize themselves attending a Carlos Vives (a Colombian and Latin American composer and singer) concert. Following each cultural situation, participants were asked to evaluate ten color samples for an item of clothing to be worn at this event. Culturally relevant colors, red (Hispanic) and blue (Mainstream), were included within these ten samples. Red was ranked the most preferred color for Hispanic occasions in two focus group interviews conducted (by the researchers) with two triads of female Hispanic students. Respondents evaluated the colors on 7-point semantic differential scales with bipolar endpoints ‘favorable– unfavorable.’ In order to reduce carry-over effects from the repeated measures factor, the two cultural situation manipulations were separated by a question that asked participants to rate the perceived fashionability of the ten apparel colors on a 7-point semantic differential scale with endpoints ‘fashionable–unfashionable’.

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4.2. Results A two-way repeated measures ANOVA with cultural situation and cultural relevance as the repeated measures factors and PAE as the dependent variable was performed to test H1a and b, and H2a and b. The results revealed the hypothesized main effect for color relevance on PAE [F(1,71) = 10.662, p = .002, partial Eta2 = 13.1%, Observed Power = .896]. As predicted, Hispanic respondents evaluated the Hispanic aesthetic relevant color, red, significantly more positively than the Mainstream aesthetic relevant color, blue (Mred = 5.446, SE = .166; Mblue = 4.707, SE = .173; Mean difference = .738, p = .002). Hence, H1a and b were supported. The results also revealed the hypothesized interaction effect for cultural situation by color relevance on PAE [F(1,71) = 17.314, p = .000, partial Eta2 = 19.6%, Observed Power = .984]. Further, the results support the typical color preferences associated with each culture. When exposed to a Hispanic situation, respondents showed significantly more positive evaluations for the Hispanic aesthetic relevant color, red, than when they were exposed to a Mainstream situation (see Table 1). Similarly, when exposed to the mainstream situation, Hispanic respondents showed significantly more positive evaluations for the mainstream aesthetic relevant color, blue, than when they were exposed to a Hispanic situation. Hence, H2a and b were supported. A final analysis testing any significant difference in the perceived fashionability of the colors was performed using paired samples t-test. Results revealed no significant differences for the perceived fashionability of the two colors [t = .870, df = 71, p = .387]. Although, study 1 used a limited sample size (N = 77), this sample size can be considered optimal for this study since the observed power in testing both hypotheses was above .80, a convention widely applied in research in the behavioral sciences (Cohen, 1992). 5. Study 2 5.1. Method 5.1.1. Overview and design The study was conducted through a two-session online experiment. The first session grouped Hispanic participants based on their bidimensional acculturation and cultural identification scores into three segments: Hispanic-dominant, Mainstream-dominant and Balanced bicultural. The second session employed implicit cues to manipulate the momentary salience of Hispanic (or Mainstream) cultural identity through the cultural icon priming methodology, which has been successfully employed in previous studies (Hong et al., 2000). Study 2 employed a 3 (acculturation level: Hispanic-dominant, Mainstreamdominant, Balanced bicultural) × 2 (cultural prime: Hispanic or Mainstream) × 2 (cultural relevance: Hispanic or Mainstream) mixed factorial design with acculturation level and cultural primes as the betweensubjects factors, and cultural relevance as the within-subjects factor. 5.1.2. Participants and procedure A total of 105 female Hispanic students completed both sessions of this study. The mean age of the participants was 22.5 years. With

Table 1 Pairwise comparisons for the interaction effect of cultural situation by cultural relevance on PAE. Cultural relevance

Cultural situation Hispanic

Hispanic (Red) Mainstream (Blue)

Mean difference

Sig.

.349 − .585

.017 .001

Mainstream

M

SE

M

SE

5.620 4.415

.165 .186

5.271 5.000

.195 .196

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respect to Hispanic origin, 36.6% of the participants were Mexican/ Mexican American/Chicano, 22.8% Puerto Rican, 4% Cuban, and 34.7% constituted other Spanish/Hispanic/Latino groups. The first session of the study was conducted three weeks prior to the second session. Participants were recruited through emails with a URL for the online survey (session 1). Participants grouped into three acculturation segments at the end of the first session were randomly assigned to either the Hispanic prime or the Mainstream prime condition for session 2. Emails instructed participants to access one of the two experimental websites through a specified URL. Bi-weekly follow-up emails were sent during the data collection period. 5.1.3. Session 1 measures Phinney's (1992) Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) was used to measure participants' strength of identification with Hispanic and Mainstream cultures. This attitudinal measure consists of a 14item ethnic identity scale. These items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale anchored by ‘Strongly Agree’ and ‘Strongly Disagree’. A second measure, the Revised Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans (ARSMA-II) developed by Cuellar et al. (1995), was also used to measure orientation toward Hispanic and Mainstream cultures. This behavioral measure tapped four constructs: a) language use and preference; b) ethnic identity and classification; c) cultural heritage and ethnic behaviors; and d) ethnic interactions. Each item was rated on a 5-point scale anchored by ‘Not at all’ and ‘Extremely often or almost always’. The scoring methodology for the ARSMA-II (Cuellar et al., 1995) was applied to both scales to group the respondents into the three acculturation segments. 5.1.4. Session 2 stimuli and measures Within the cultural icon priming methodology (Hong et al., 2000), participants were told the study would first assess their general knowledge of important persons, objects or events. Participants assigned to mainstream primes were exposed to six images representing mainstream cultural icons (4th of July celebration, Statue of Liberty, Abraham Lincoln, Marilyn Monroe, George Washington, and Mount Rushmore) and those assigned to Hispanic primes were exposed to six Hispanic culturally iconic images (Cinco de Mayo festival scene, Carlos Santana, Menudo, Puerto Rican Day Parade, Che Guevara, and Jennifer Lopez). These images were selected based on the results of two focus group interviews conducted with two triads of female Hispanic students. Following the primes, participants were asked to complete a color evaluation task. The culturally relevant, focal colors (red and blue) were positioned within a set of ten color samples, which included eight filler color samples. The two focal colors were placed immediately after the prime and their order was counterbalanced. Prior to color evaluation task, participants were asked to visualize themselves wearing a t-shirt (via a photograph adjoining each color sample), and indicate their preference for each apparel color. Respondents evaluated the colors using 7-point semantic differential scales with three pairs of bipolar descriptors: ‘good–bad’; ‘attractive– unattractive’; and ‘likable–not likable’. Responses on the three items were averaged for each respondent to yield their mean score for PAE. A

Table 2 Pairwise comparisons for the interaction effect of cultural prime by cultural relevance on PAE. Cultural prime

Hispanic Mainstream

Cultural relevance Hispanic (red)

Mainstream (blue)

M

SE

M

SE

6.017 5.866

.163 .155

5.350 5.650

.167 .160

Mean difference

Sig.

.667 .216

.000 .167

Table 3 Pairwise comparisons for the interaction effect of acculturation level by cultural relevance on PAE. Acculturation level

Hispanic-dominant Balanced bicultural Mainstream-dominant

Cultural relevance Hispanic (red)

Mainstream (blue)

M

SE

M

SE

6.233 5.716 5.876

.199 .183 .202

5.419 5.629 5.452

.205 .188 .208

Mean difference

Sig.

.814 .087 .424

.000 .634 .039

final 7-point semantic differential scale with bipolar descriptors, ‘fashionable–unfashionable’ was included in the questionnaire. 5.2. Results 5.2.1. Reliability analysis The reliability coefficients using Cronbach's alpha were adequate for the following variables: Hispanic identification scale α = .915; Mainstream identification scale α = .894; Hispanic orientation scale α = .900; Mainstream orientation scale α = .722; Product attribute (red) evaluation scale α = .934; Product attribute (blue) evaluation scale α = .911. 5.2.2. Hypothesis testing A three-way mixed ANOVA with cultural relevance as the withinsubjects factor, cultural prime and acculturation levels as the betweensubjects factors, and PAE as the dependent variable was performed to test H1a and b, H3a and b, and H4a, b, c, and d. The ANOVA revealed a main effect for color relevance on PAE [Wilk's λ = .865, F(1,99) = 15.415, p = .000, partial Eta2 = 13.5%]. Hispanic respondents evaluated the Hispanic aesthetic relevant color, red, significantly more positively than the Mainstream aesthetic relevant color, blue (Mred = 5.94, SE = .112; Mblue = 5.50, SE = .116; Mean difference = .442, p = .000). Hence, H1a and b were supported in Study 2. H3a predicted that cultural relevance of product attributes will interact with cultural primes (implicit cultural cues) to affect PAE. H3b further specified the nature of this interaction. When testing the interaction effect, the familywise alpha was set at .05 and the Bonferroni adjustment was used for multiple comparisons. The ANOVA revealed the posited interaction effect for cultural prime by color relevance on PAE [Wilk's λ = .961, F(1,99) = 4.02, p = .048]. Hence, H3a was supported. Results provided in Table 2 revealed that when exposed to a Hispanic cultural prime, Hispanic respondents made significantly more positive evaluations for the Hispanic aesthetic relevant color, red, than the mainstream aesthetic relevant color, blue. When exposed to the mainstream cultural prime, this preference did not reverse; however, the mean difference in the evaluation of the two colors was nonsignificant. This demonstrates that exposure to cultural primes does affect processing of apparel color attributes, causing color preferences to assimilate toward the primed cultural identity. However, the Hispanic culture-based color preference for red was stronger than the effect of the mainstream prime; hence, preference for culturally relevant colors did not reverse when exposed to the mainstream prime. As a result, H3b was only partially supported. H4a predicted that cultural relevance of product attributes will interact with the acculturation level of the consumer to affect PAE. H4b, c, and d predicted the specific nature of the interaction for each acculturation segment. The ANOVA revealed the hypothesized interaction effect for acculturation level by color relevance on PAE [Wilk's λ = .932, F(1,99) = 3.62, p = .030]. Hence, H4a was supported. Results provided in Table 3 revealed that Hispanic-dominant consumers evaluated the Hispanic aesthetic relevant apparel color, red, significantly more positively than the mainstream aesthetic relevant apparel

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color, blue. Hence, H4b was supported. However, Mainstreamdominant consumers also evaluated the Hispanic aesthetic relevant apparel color, red, significantly more positively than the mainstream aesthetic relevant apparel color, blue. Hence, H4c was not supported. Balanced-bicultural consumers showed no significant difference in their evaluation of Hispanic and Mainstream-relevant colors. Hence, H4d was supported. 6. Discussion The findings from this research offer several insights on how situational, contextual, and dispositional cultural identity salience interacts with the cultural relevance of product attributes to affect ethnic consumers' response to products. By employing a bi-dimensional (ethnic and mainstream) approach, the findings from two studies inform how Hispanic consumers negotiate the influence of both ethnic and mainstream acculturation agents in the domain of consumption. Consistent with the predictions, both studies found that cultural relevance of product attributes significantly affects PAE. In both studies, Hispanic respondents evaluated the Hispanic aesthetic relevant product attributes significantly more positively than the Mainstream aesthetic relevant product attributes. These results are consistent with studies that have found that consumers are naturally attracted to products that match their salient social identities (Forehand et al., 2002; Kleine et al., 1993; Stayman and Deshpande, 1989). As predicted, Study 1 also demonstrated that explicit cultural cues such as cultural situations interact with cultural relevance of product attributes to significantly influence PAE. This supports Reed and Forehand's (unpublished) two-stage framework. Study 1 further demonstrated that Hispanic consumers evaluate culturally relevant product attributes more positively when exposed to a congruent cultural situation than when exposed to a competing cultural situation. These results are consistent with Oswald's (1999) theorizing that ethnic consumers move between multiple cultural identities, and situational demands influence consumers' need to switch cultural codes and “negotiate day-to-day border crossings between home and host culture” (p. 307). The author uses the terms “culture swapping” and “context-shifting” (Oswald, 1999) to describe this experience of negotiating multiple cultural identities through the semiotic consumption of goods. Consistent with predictions, Study 2 further demonstrated that implicit cultural cues such as cultural primes interact with cultural relevance of product attributes to influence PAE. This finding is again consistent with Reed and Forehand's (unpublished) two-stage framework. Further, Hispanic consumers exposed to the Hispanic prime demonstrated a significant difference in their evaluation of red, the color of Hispanic cultural relevance, and blue, the color of mainstream cultural relevance. However, this difference was non-significant among consumers exposed to the mainstream cultural prime. The prediction was only partially supported since the effect of the mainstream prime did not override the effect of Hispanic culture-based color preference for red. However, the results did reveal that ethnic consumers' PAEs shift as a result of implicit cultural cues and move toward being stereotypical to the activated cultural identity, and that cultural relevance of products is a key moderator in such preference shifts. These results lend support to the findings of other studies that have employed implicit cultural cues (Hong et al., 2000; LeBoeuf, 2002) and have argued that bicultural individuals incorporate more than one culture in their minds and constantly shift between multiple interpretive “cultural frames” in response to social cues in their environment through a process called “frame switching” (Hong et al., 2000). Study 2 also demonstrated support for the hypothesis that cultural relevance of product attributes interacts with consumers' acculturation level to affect PAE. As predicted, Hispanic-dominant consumers evaluated the Hispanic aesthetic relevant product attribute signifi-

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cantly more positively than the mainstream aesthetic relevant product attribute. This result is consistent with numerous studies in which higher levels of ethnic identification and lower levels of acculturation were significantly correlated with greater consumption of ethnic apparel (Forney and Rabolt, 1985–86; Kim and Arthur, 2003); traditional foods (Laroche et al., 1998); ethnic-language media, targeted brands (Deshpande et al., 1986); and targeted media (Donthu and Cherian, 1994). The prediction that Mainstream-dominant consumers would evaluate apparel colors culturally relevant to the Mainstream aesthetic more positively than apparel colors culturally relevant to the Hispanic aesthetic was not supported in Study 2. This result is inconsistent with that of Kara and Kara (1996), who found that Hispanic consumers high in acculturation were very similar to EuroAmericans in terms of the value placed on certain product attributes. This inconsistency could be explained by an emerging trend called ‘retro-acculturation’ among assimilated Hispanics. According to market researchers, assimilated Hispanics are demonstrating a reconnection with Hispanic culture through increased use of Spanish language, Spanish-language media, and retention of Latin customs (Wentz, 2005). Study 2 also demonstrated support for the exploratory hypothesis pertaining to the Balanced-bicultural consumers. These consumers showed no significant difference in their evaluation of Hispanic and Mainstream-relevant colors. This implies that their attitude towards culturally relevant product attributes mirrors their balanced orientation toward both mainstream and Hispanic cultures. In interpreting the results of this study, it is important to note that the findings are based on a single product type (apparel) and a single pair of apparel colors that held symbolic relevance to the Hispanic and Mainstream cultural aesthetic. The results are also based on a single homogenous group of Hispanic students enrolled at a Midwestern university. Hence, caution should be exhibited when generalizing the results of this study to other product types, and other Hispanic microsegments based on age, education, generation, and socio-economic status. Future research should be conducted to increase the generalizability of the results beyond the specific product stimuli by using stimulus sampling procedures (Fontelle et al., 1985). Finally, it is important to note that this study was conducted when there was an ongoing debate in the U.S. Government over the establishment of a ‘Temporary Guest Worker Program’ for undocumented Hispanic immigrants. The prevailing political climate could have biased the momentary salience of the Hispanic cultural identity among the three groups differentially. Hence, caution is needed in generalizing the results across time periods. 7. Conclusion and Implications The process of creating and communicating products and brands for different consumer cultures entails a bidirectional relationship, wherein individual culture-specific needs influence the emergence of cultural meanings, and the communication of these meanings by marketers in turn influences the social reality of individuals both within and across cultural contexts (Aaker et al., 2001). Market artifacts such as products serve as cultural mediators in this complex dialectic relationship between marketers and consumers (Penaloza and Gilly, 1999) by facilitating the maintenance of bicultural or plural identities, and enabling acculturation of immigrant consumers. Developing culturally relevant products, content and experiences is emerging as an important strategy in ethnic marketing; however, no previous research has empirically examined the effectiveness of this strategy. The current study provides insights into the product aspect of this phenomenon by systematically investigating the main and interaction effect of embedded cultural relevance of products on Hispanic consumer evaluations. Beyond the cultural relevance of the product, the empirical results of this study pertaining to cultural

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priming through contextual cues and consumption environments, also offer key implications for place and promotion strategy within the context of ethnic marketing. Investment in developing products that are implicitly relevant to the needs, experiences, and aesthetic of Hispanic consumers can gain the approval of the Hispanic market in general. Two studies empirically demonstrated that Hispanic-relevant product attributes were evaluated more positively than Mainstream-relevant product attributes. This difference was most pronounced for the Hispanicdominant segment, followed by the Mainstream-dominant segment. While it may be expected that cultural relevance will resonate with the Hispanic-dominant segment, recent trends in retro-acculturation among assimilated Hispanics could imply that designing products that are culturally relevant can increase market share within the Mainstream-dominant segment as well. As proof of the complexity of the Hispanic market, the balancedbicultural segment demonstrated no differences in its evaluation of Hispanic and Mainstream-relevant product attributes. This finding offers further insight into Hispanic segmentation. The Hispanic bicultural segment constitutes 53% of the overall Hispanic market, and is anticipated to grow further in coming years (Hammer and Skolnicki, 2005). While biculturalism has been traditionally viewed as an intermediary phase in immigrant acculturation, current trends in bi-dimensional acculturation (strengthening of links with mainstream and ethnic cultures simultaneously) indicate that biculturalism is not transitional, rather an end state in the acculturation process (Korzenny and Korzenny, 2005). Thus, while marketers need to deliver culturally relevant products to the Hispanic market, this strategy in ethnic marketing may need to be re-visited in the future to address the changing needs of the growing Hispanic bicultural segment. This research also offers important implications for ethnic marketers seeking to drive a more favorable evaluation of their products by priming the cultural identity in consumers' minds. The research furnishes further evidence for the recent findings that environmental cues serve as conceptual primes that implicitly affect consumer judgments (Berger and Fitzsimons, 2008). Reese's candies are more accessible in consumers' minds than Snickers or Hershey's Kisses the day before Halloween rather than one week later, simply because Halloween-related orange cues in the environment prime the accessibility of products related to the color orange (Berger and Fitzsimons, 2008). Similarly, this research found that contextual cultural primes can heighten the salience of a cultural identity and can make Hispanic consumers more receptive to culturally relevant products. This firstly implies that advertising and promotional strategy aiming to evoke the Hispanic identity in the minds of consumers will be effective for products that are relevant to this identity. Hence, a culturally relevant product strategy is essential for the effectiveness of cultural priming through advertising and promotions. Secondly, it is important for marketers to identify and understand commonly prevalent cultural cues and their specific linkages in Hispanic environments and develop their products to be relevant to these naturally-occurring cues. For example, if certain colors are associated with particular Hispanic celebrations, marketers would benefit by developing and promoting products linked to these colors during the celebration. While it is likely that the same cultural cue could elicit differential effects from different acculturation-based segments of Hispanic consumers; it is also likely that different geographic segments would be influenced by different cultural cues related to their immediate consumption context. Hence, marketers would also need to consider the cultural cues prevalent in Hispanic contexts within different geographic locations of the U.S. since cultural cues and networks prevalent in a Midwestern locale with lower Hispanic concentration would differ significantly from those in other geographical locations with higher Hispanic concentration, such as California, Texas, or Florida. In developing and promoting culturally relevant products for

Hispanic consumers in different U.S. locations, an understanding of the local Hispanic context and environment can ensure the relevance of the product to the consumer's local cultural experience. In conclusion, marketers' success in the multicultural marketplace is largely dependent on their ‘deep’ understanding of cultural relevance, a construct that resides in the minds of consumers, and originates from the complex interaction of consumer and context subjectivity with the symbolic attributes of products and communications. Acknowledgments The authors thank the associate editor and the two anonymous JBR reviewers for their constructive feedback.

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