- Email: [email protected]
Idiom comprehension in childhood: An assessment tool and age norms
Brain and Language 87 (2003) 188–191 www.elsevier.com/locate/b&l
Idiom comprehension in childhood: An assessment tool and age norms Joelene Huber-Okrainec and Maureen Dennis* Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 1X8
Introduction Idioms are non-literal phrases whose figurative interpretations cannot be derived from their literal meanings. As the most frequently used form of figurative language (Brinton, Fujiki, & Mackey, 1985), idioms are important for language, reading, and social communication (e.g., Secord & Wiig, 1993). Idiom comprehension is important in both normal (e.g., Cacciari & Levorato, 1989) and aberrant language development. Figurative language disorders have been identified in children with a range of neurodevelopmental disorders, including mental disability (Ezell & Goldstein, 1991), language learning disability (Secord & Wiig, 1993), head injury (Dennis & Barnes, 1990), spina bifida (Huber-Okrainec & Dennis, 2002), and semantic-pragmatic language disorder (Kerbel & Grunwell, 1998). Despite the frequency of figurative language impairments in children, there exists no assessment tool for idioms that includes ageof-acquisition norms throughout the years of formal schooling. We describe an assessment tool and age norms for the comprehension of 48 familiar idioms.
Method Participants Participants were 104 typically developing children aged 6.0–17.8 years whose first language was English. Participants were assigned to six age groups balanced by gender: six-year olds (N = 12), mean age (SD): 6.40(0.30), range: 6.0–6.83; seven to eight year olds (N = 20), mean age (SD): 7.76(0.58), range: 7.0–8.67; 9- to 10-year olds (N = 16), mean age (SD): 10.08(0.55), range: 9.17–10.83; 11- to 12-year olds (N = 16), mean age (SD): 11.86(0.61), range: 11.0–12.83; 13- to 14-year olds (N = 16), mean age (SD):13.94(0.69), range: 13.0–14.83; and 15- to 17year olds (N = 24), mean age (SD):16.39(0.88), range: 15.0–17.83. All participants had average IQ scores (Wechsler, 1999). Procedure The task consisted of 48 familiar idioms from the Titone and Connine (1994) study of student ratings of familiarity (how frequently an idiom is encountered) and meaningfulness (how understandable the meaning is). * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H.-O. Joelene).
Idiom acquisition errors include: literal interpretations (e.g., Brinton et al., 1985), lexically related interpretations (includes some aspects of literal meanings of words in the idiom but represents neither figurative nor literal meaning, Kempler, Van Lancker, Marchman, & Bates, 1999), and unrelated interpretations (Nippold & Rudzinski, 1993). Therefore, four pictures were drawn to represent a figurative, literal, unrelated, and lexically related meaning for each idiom (Fig. 1, clockwise). A comprehension task rather than an expression task was used (see Cacciari & Levorato, 1989) that did not require reading skills. Children were asked to choose the picture that best represented each idiom.
Results Age norms are presented in Appendix A. ANOVA models were conducted testing age group as the between subjects factor for each of the four response options. Post hoc tests were conducted using Tukey’s test (p = .05) and a corrected Bonferroni significance level (p = .003). There was a main effect of age group for each of the four forcedchoice interpretations; figurative [F(5,98) = 99.06, p < .000], literal [F(5,98) = 52.61, p < .000], lexically related [F(5,98) = 31.56, p < .000], and unrelated [F(5,98) = 3.04, p = .014]. Post hoc tests revealed the pattern of age group results. Six-year-olds made figurative interpretations significantly less often than 7- to 17-year olds, and seven to eight year olds interpreted idioms figuratively significantly less often than nine to seventeen year olds. Nine to ten year olds interpreted idioms figuratively significantly less often than 15- to 17-year olds. Sixyear-olds made literal interpretations significantly more often than 7- to 17-year olds, and seven to eight year olds interpreted idioms literally significantly more often than 9- to 17-year olds. Six to eight year olds made significantly more lexically related errors than older children. The age groups did not differ for unrelated interpretations.
Discussion This study provides information about the course of idiom comprehension throughout the school-age years, and makes available current norms for the acquisition of 48 familiar idioms. It also provides a tool to assess idiom comprehension development in school-age children. Idiom comprehension improves throughout the school-age years, whilst individual idioms are mastered at different ages. When children begin school, idioms are interpreted literally or with reference to individual lexical items. Although their idiom comprehension has improved, 8- to 10-year olds are less accurate than are older children at
0093-934X/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00264-5
Abstract / Brain and Language 87 (2003) 188–191
Fig. 1. Example of stimuli: In hot water. identifying figurative meaning. Idiom comprehension improves into the late school-age years, with 14- to 17-year olds interpreting idioms figuratively more often than children 6–13 years of age.
References Brinton, B., Fujiki, M., & Mackey, T. (1985). Elementary school-age children’s comprehension of specific idiomatic expressions. Journal of Communication Disorders, 18, 245–257.
189
Cacciari, C., & Levorato, M. C. (1989). How children understand idioms in discourse. Journal of Child Language, 16, 387–405. Dennis, M., & Barnes, M. A. (1990). Knowing the meaning, getting the point, bridging the gap, and carrying the message: Aspects of discourse following closed head injury in childhood and adolescence. Brain and Language, 39, 428–446. Ezell, H. K., & Goldstein, H. (1991). Comparison of idiom comprehension of normal children and children with mental retardation. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34, 812–819. Huber-Okrainec, J., & Dennis, M. (2002). Idiomatic language deficits in children with spina bifida and hydrocephalus. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 294. Kempler, D., Van Lancker, D., Marchman, V., & Bates, E. (1999). Idiom comprehension in children and adults with unilateral brain damage. Developmental Neuropsychology, 15, 327–349. Kerbel, D., & Grunwell, P. (1998). A study of idiom comprehension in children with semantic-pragmatic difficulties. Part II: Betweengroups results and discussion. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 33, 23–44. Nippold, M. A., & Rudzinski, M. (1993). Familiarity and transparency in idiom explanation: A developmental study of children and adolescents. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 728–737. Secord, W.A., & Wiig, E.H. (1993). Interpreting figurative language expressions. Folia Phoniatr, 45, 1–9. Titone, D. A., & Connine, C. M. (1994). Descriptive norms for 171 idiomatic expressions: Familiarity, compositionality, predictability, and literality. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 9, 247–270. Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
A piece of cake Break the ice Bury the hatchet Have cold feet Hit the sack In hot water Kick the bucket Over the hill Pull someone’s leg Skate on thin ice Tie the knot Wear the pants Be on cloud nine Bite someone’s head off Blow someone’s mind Eat his words Frog in one’s throat Give the cold shoulder Paint the town Pop the question Rack one’s brain Shoot the breeze Under the weather
Idiom
50.0 16.7 25.0 50.0 8.3 41.7 0.0 8.3 41.7 16.7 8.3 33.3 16.7 8.3 50.0 33.3 50.0 25.0 16.7 16.7 41.7 0.0 25.0
Fig
33.3 75.0 58.3 41.7 58.3 50.0 75.0 41.7 50.0 75.0 91.7 50.0 58.3 50.0 50.0 41.7 50.0 66.7 58.3 66.7 41.7 58.3 50.0
Lit.
6 year olds
16.7 8.3 16.7 8.3 25.0 8.3 25.0 33.3 8.3 0.0 0.0 16.7 25.0 25.0 0.0 16.7 0.0 0.0 25.0 8.3 16.7 33.3 25.0
Lex. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 16.7 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.7 0.0 8.3 0.0 8.3 0.0 8.3 0.0 8.3 0.0
70.0 20.0 40.0 45.0 30.0 50.0 25.0 35.0 50.0 15.0 40.0 30.0 30.0 55.0 55.0 70.0 90.0 30.0 40.0 45.0 85.0 15.0 55.0
Unr. Fig 15.0 30.0 45.0 30.0 25.0 30.0 50.0 30.0 30.0 70.0 25.0 50.0 15.0 15.0 20.0 10.0 5.0 40.0 20.0 15.0 5.0 20.0 15.0
Lit. 0.0 40.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 5.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 30.0 20.0 50.0 20.0 25.0 15.0 5.0 25.0 35.0 35.0 5.0 60.0 25.0
Lex.
7 to 8 year olds
15.0 10.0 0.0 10.0 30.0 15.0 0.0 15.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
100 75.0 87.5 81.3 75.0 93.8 56.3 68.8 93.8 87.5 81.3 68.8 56.3 100 93.8 87.5 93.8 87.5 68.8 68.8 93.8 68.8 75.0
Unr. Fig 0.0 0.0 12.5 6.3 0.0 6.3 25.0 25.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 31.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Lit. 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 37.5 0.0 6.3 6.3 6.3 12.5 31.3 25.0 0.0 25.0 18.8
Lex.
9 to 10 year olds
0.0 25.0 0.0 6.3 25.0 0.0 12.5 6.3 6.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3
75.0 75.0 100 62.5 93.8 93.8 75.0 75.0 100 100 100 50.0 68.8 93.8 93.8 100 100 87.5 81.3 100 93.8 75.0 87.5
Unr. Fig 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0
Lit.
0.0 6.3 0.0 31.3 6.3 0.0 18.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.8 18.8 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 12.5 18.8 0.0 6.3 12.5 12.5
Lex.
11 to 12 year olds
Appendix A Frequency (%) of figurative, literal, lexically-related and unrelated interpretations for 48 familiar idioms by age group
12.5 18.8 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.8 12.5 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0
100 100 100 100 100 100 93.8 100 100 100 100 87.5 100 100 100 100 100 87.5 81.3 100 93.8 87.5 100
Unr. Fig
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Lit.
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 18.8 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0
Lex.
13 to 14 year olds
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0
95.8 100 95.8 100 100 100 100 91.7 100 95.8 95.8 95.8 87.5 100 87.5 100 100 95.8 91.7 100 100 91.7 100
Unr. Fig
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Lit.
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 4.2 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0
Lex.
15 to 17 year olds
4.2 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 4.2 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0
Unr.
190 Abstract / Brain and Language 87 (2003) 188–191
8.3 16.7 8.3 0.0 33.3 33.3 16.7 25.0 16.7 50.0 25.0 16.7 16.7 16.7 50.0 33.3 0.0 16.7 8.3 25.0 33.3 25.0 25.0 41.7 25.0
75.0 41.7 58.3 50.0 50.0 16.7 75.0 41.7 75.0 33.3 58.3 50.0 58.3 25.0 25.0 33.3 75.0 16.7 66.7 33.3 33.3 33.3 50.0 41.7 41.7
16.7 25.0 33.3 50.0 16.7 25.0 8.3 33.3 8.3 16.7 16.7 25.0 25.0 50.0 25.0 33.3 8.3 58.3 16.7 41.7 33.3 41.7 25.0 8.3 33.3
0.0 16.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 16.7 8.3 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0
15.0 45.0 75.0 25.0 90.0 50.0 30.0 25.0 15.0 45.0 70.0 35.0 20.0 55.0 85.0 70.0 25.0 60.0 40.0 40.0 60.0 85.0 60.0 40.0 65.0
25.0 35.0 20.0 55.0 0.0 10.0 60.0 45.0 55.0 40.0 10.0 40.0 35.0 10.0 0.0 10.0 35.0 20.0 50.0 25.0 15.0 10.0 25.0 45.0 15.0
60.0 20.0 5.0 20.0 10.0 20.0 10.0 25.0 20.0 5.0 20.0 20.0 45.0 30.0 10.0 20.0 35.0 20.0 5.0 35.0 15.0 5.0 15.0 10.0 10.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
Note. Fig, Figurative; Lit, Literal; Lex, Lexically-related; Unr, Unrelated.
With flying colors Back of one’s mind By word of mouth Call the shots Hold your horses Lose one’s touch Lose your grip Pass the buck Play with fire Shut your trap Speak your mind Steal the show Waste your breath Be the spitting image Button your lips Cost an arm and a leg Keep a level head Learn by heart Learn the ropes Lie through one’s teeth Lose your cool Pour one’s heart out Slip one’s mind Talk a mile a minute Would give the world
93.8 56.3 81.3 62.5 100 43.8 81.3 75.0 50.0 93.8 100 50.0 93.8 100 100 93.8 50.0 100 62.5 93.8 93.8 87.5 93.8 56.3 81.3
0.0 6.3 0.0 37.5 0.0 12.5 18.8 12.5 31.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 25.0 0.0
6.3 37.5 18.8 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 12.5 12.5 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 18.8 6.3
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 37.5 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 31.3 0.0 25.0 6.3 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 12.5
87.5 62.5 93.8 68.8 100 68.8 93.8 68.8 68.8 93.8 87.5 68.8 87.5 100 100 100 53.3 81.3 62.5 87.5 100 100 87.5 75.0 81.3
6.3 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 12.5 12.5 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.3 6.3 18.8 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 25.0 0.0
6.3 37.5 6.3 6.3 0.0 6.3 0.0 18.8 12.5 0.0 0.0 31.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.7 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 26.7 0.0 18.8 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.8
93.8 68.8 100 81.3 100 62.5 100 81.3 87.5 100 100 62.5 93.8 100 100 100 68.8 81.3 75.0 93.8 100 100 93.8 87.5 93.8
0.0 6.3 0.0 18.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0
6.3 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 37.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.8 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 31.3 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 31.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3
100 66.7 100 87.5 100 75.0 95.8 87.5 91.7 100 100 54.2 100 100 100 100 79.2 91.7 91.7 100 100 100 100 91.7 95.8
0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 4.2 4.2 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0
0.0 29.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 45.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.8 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 4.2 Abstract / Brain and Language 87 (2003) 188–191 191
Idiom comprehension in childhood: An assessment tool and age norms Joelene Huber-Okrainec and Maureen Dennis* Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 1X8
Introduction Idioms are non-literal phrases whose figurative interpretations cannot be derived from their literal meanings. As the most frequently used form of figurative language (Brinton, Fujiki, & Mackey, 1985), idioms are important for language, reading, and social communication (e.g., Secord & Wiig, 1993). Idiom comprehension is important in both normal (e.g., Cacciari & Levorato, 1989) and aberrant language development. Figurative language disorders have been identified in children with a range of neurodevelopmental disorders, including mental disability (Ezell & Goldstein, 1991), language learning disability (Secord & Wiig, 1993), head injury (Dennis & Barnes, 1990), spina bifida (Huber-Okrainec & Dennis, 2002), and semantic-pragmatic language disorder (Kerbel & Grunwell, 1998). Despite the frequency of figurative language impairments in children, there exists no assessment tool for idioms that includes ageof-acquisition norms throughout the years of formal schooling. We describe an assessment tool and age norms for the comprehension of 48 familiar idioms.
Method Participants Participants were 104 typically developing children aged 6.0–17.8 years whose first language was English. Participants were assigned to six age groups balanced by gender: six-year olds (N = 12), mean age (SD): 6.40(0.30), range: 6.0–6.83; seven to eight year olds (N = 20), mean age (SD): 7.76(0.58), range: 7.0–8.67; 9- to 10-year olds (N = 16), mean age (SD): 10.08(0.55), range: 9.17–10.83; 11- to 12-year olds (N = 16), mean age (SD): 11.86(0.61), range: 11.0–12.83; 13- to 14-year olds (N = 16), mean age (SD):13.94(0.69), range: 13.0–14.83; and 15- to 17year olds (N = 24), mean age (SD):16.39(0.88), range: 15.0–17.83. All participants had average IQ scores (Wechsler, 1999). Procedure The task consisted of 48 familiar idioms from the Titone and Connine (1994) study of student ratings of familiarity (how frequently an idiom is encountered) and meaningfulness (how understandable the meaning is). * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H.-O. Joelene).
Idiom acquisition errors include: literal interpretations (e.g., Brinton et al., 1985), lexically related interpretations (includes some aspects of literal meanings of words in the idiom but represents neither figurative nor literal meaning, Kempler, Van Lancker, Marchman, & Bates, 1999), and unrelated interpretations (Nippold & Rudzinski, 1993). Therefore, four pictures were drawn to represent a figurative, literal, unrelated, and lexically related meaning for each idiom (Fig. 1, clockwise). A comprehension task rather than an expression task was used (see Cacciari & Levorato, 1989) that did not require reading skills. Children were asked to choose the picture that best represented each idiom.
Results Age norms are presented in Appendix A. ANOVA models were conducted testing age group as the between subjects factor for each of the four response options. Post hoc tests were conducted using Tukey’s test (p = .05) and a corrected Bonferroni significance level (p = .003). There was a main effect of age group for each of the four forcedchoice interpretations; figurative [F(5,98) = 99.06, p < .000], literal [F(5,98) = 52.61, p < .000], lexically related [F(5,98) = 31.56, p < .000], and unrelated [F(5,98) = 3.04, p = .014]. Post hoc tests revealed the pattern of age group results. Six-year-olds made figurative interpretations significantly less often than 7- to 17-year olds, and seven to eight year olds interpreted idioms figuratively significantly less often than nine to seventeen year olds. Nine to ten year olds interpreted idioms figuratively significantly less often than 15- to 17-year olds. Sixyear-olds made literal interpretations significantly more often than 7- to 17-year olds, and seven to eight year olds interpreted idioms literally significantly more often than 9- to 17-year olds. Six to eight year olds made significantly more lexically related errors than older children. The age groups did not differ for unrelated interpretations.
Discussion This study provides information about the course of idiom comprehension throughout the school-age years, and makes available current norms for the acquisition of 48 familiar idioms. It also provides a tool to assess idiom comprehension development in school-age children. Idiom comprehension improves throughout the school-age years, whilst individual idioms are mastered at different ages. When children begin school, idioms are interpreted literally or with reference to individual lexical items. Although their idiom comprehension has improved, 8- to 10-year olds are less accurate than are older children at
0093-934X/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00264-5
Abstract / Brain and Language 87 (2003) 188–191
Fig. 1. Example of stimuli: In hot water. identifying figurative meaning. Idiom comprehension improves into the late school-age years, with 14- to 17-year olds interpreting idioms figuratively more often than children 6–13 years of age.
References Brinton, B., Fujiki, M., & Mackey, T. (1985). Elementary school-age children’s comprehension of specific idiomatic expressions. Journal of Communication Disorders, 18, 245–257.
189
Cacciari, C., & Levorato, M. C. (1989). How children understand idioms in discourse. Journal of Child Language, 16, 387–405. Dennis, M., & Barnes, M. A. (1990). Knowing the meaning, getting the point, bridging the gap, and carrying the message: Aspects of discourse following closed head injury in childhood and adolescence. Brain and Language, 39, 428–446. Ezell, H. K., & Goldstein, H. (1991). Comparison of idiom comprehension of normal children and children with mental retardation. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34, 812–819. Huber-Okrainec, J., & Dennis, M. (2002). Idiomatic language deficits in children with spina bifida and hydrocephalus. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 294. Kempler, D., Van Lancker, D., Marchman, V., & Bates, E. (1999). Idiom comprehension in children and adults with unilateral brain damage. Developmental Neuropsychology, 15, 327–349. Kerbel, D., & Grunwell, P. (1998). A study of idiom comprehension in children with semantic-pragmatic difficulties. Part II: Betweengroups results and discussion. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 33, 23–44. Nippold, M. A., & Rudzinski, M. (1993). Familiarity and transparency in idiom explanation: A developmental study of children and adolescents. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 728–737. Secord, W.A., & Wiig, E.H. (1993). Interpreting figurative language expressions. Folia Phoniatr, 45, 1–9. Titone, D. A., & Connine, C. M. (1994). Descriptive norms for 171 idiomatic expressions: Familiarity, compositionality, predictability, and literality. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 9, 247–270. Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
A piece of cake Break the ice Bury the hatchet Have cold feet Hit the sack In hot water Kick the bucket Over the hill Pull someone’s leg Skate on thin ice Tie the knot Wear the pants Be on cloud nine Bite someone’s head off Blow someone’s mind Eat his words Frog in one’s throat Give the cold shoulder Paint the town Pop the question Rack one’s brain Shoot the breeze Under the weather
Idiom
50.0 16.7 25.0 50.0 8.3 41.7 0.0 8.3 41.7 16.7 8.3 33.3 16.7 8.3 50.0 33.3 50.0 25.0 16.7 16.7 41.7 0.0 25.0
Fig
33.3 75.0 58.3 41.7 58.3 50.0 75.0 41.7 50.0 75.0 91.7 50.0 58.3 50.0 50.0 41.7 50.0 66.7 58.3 66.7 41.7 58.3 50.0
Lit.
6 year olds
16.7 8.3 16.7 8.3 25.0 8.3 25.0 33.3 8.3 0.0 0.0 16.7 25.0 25.0 0.0 16.7 0.0 0.0 25.0 8.3 16.7 33.3 25.0
Lex. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 16.7 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.7 0.0 8.3 0.0 8.3 0.0 8.3 0.0 8.3 0.0
70.0 20.0 40.0 45.0 30.0 50.0 25.0 35.0 50.0 15.0 40.0 30.0 30.0 55.0 55.0 70.0 90.0 30.0 40.0 45.0 85.0 15.0 55.0
Unr. Fig 15.0 30.0 45.0 30.0 25.0 30.0 50.0 30.0 30.0 70.0 25.0 50.0 15.0 15.0 20.0 10.0 5.0 40.0 20.0 15.0 5.0 20.0 15.0
Lit. 0.0 40.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 5.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 30.0 20.0 50.0 20.0 25.0 15.0 5.0 25.0 35.0 35.0 5.0 60.0 25.0
Lex.
7 to 8 year olds
15.0 10.0 0.0 10.0 30.0 15.0 0.0 15.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
100 75.0 87.5 81.3 75.0 93.8 56.3 68.8 93.8 87.5 81.3 68.8 56.3 100 93.8 87.5 93.8 87.5 68.8 68.8 93.8 68.8 75.0
Unr. Fig 0.0 0.0 12.5 6.3 0.0 6.3 25.0 25.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 31.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Lit. 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 37.5 0.0 6.3 6.3 6.3 12.5 31.3 25.0 0.0 25.0 18.8
Lex.
9 to 10 year olds
0.0 25.0 0.0 6.3 25.0 0.0 12.5 6.3 6.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3
75.0 75.0 100 62.5 93.8 93.8 75.0 75.0 100 100 100 50.0 68.8 93.8 93.8 100 100 87.5 81.3 100 93.8 75.0 87.5
Unr. Fig 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0
Lit.
0.0 6.3 0.0 31.3 6.3 0.0 18.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.8 18.8 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 12.5 18.8 0.0 6.3 12.5 12.5
Lex.
11 to 12 year olds
Appendix A Frequency (%) of figurative, literal, lexically-related and unrelated interpretations for 48 familiar idioms by age group
12.5 18.8 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.8 12.5 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0
100 100 100 100 100 100 93.8 100 100 100 100 87.5 100 100 100 100 100 87.5 81.3 100 93.8 87.5 100
Unr. Fig
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Lit.
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 18.8 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0
Lex.
13 to 14 year olds
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0
95.8 100 95.8 100 100 100 100 91.7 100 95.8 95.8 95.8 87.5 100 87.5 100 100 95.8 91.7 100 100 91.7 100
Unr. Fig
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Lit.
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 4.2 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0
Lex.
15 to 17 year olds
4.2 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 4.2 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0
Unr.
190 Abstract / Brain and Language 87 (2003) 188–191
8.3 16.7 8.3 0.0 33.3 33.3 16.7 25.0 16.7 50.0 25.0 16.7 16.7 16.7 50.0 33.3 0.0 16.7 8.3 25.0 33.3 25.0 25.0 41.7 25.0
75.0 41.7 58.3 50.0 50.0 16.7 75.0 41.7 75.0 33.3 58.3 50.0 58.3 25.0 25.0 33.3 75.0 16.7 66.7 33.3 33.3 33.3 50.0 41.7 41.7
16.7 25.0 33.3 50.0 16.7 25.0 8.3 33.3 8.3 16.7 16.7 25.0 25.0 50.0 25.0 33.3 8.3 58.3 16.7 41.7 33.3 41.7 25.0 8.3 33.3
0.0 16.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 16.7 8.3 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0
15.0 45.0 75.0 25.0 90.0 50.0 30.0 25.0 15.0 45.0 70.0 35.0 20.0 55.0 85.0 70.0 25.0 60.0 40.0 40.0 60.0 85.0 60.0 40.0 65.0
25.0 35.0 20.0 55.0 0.0 10.0 60.0 45.0 55.0 40.0 10.0 40.0 35.0 10.0 0.0 10.0 35.0 20.0 50.0 25.0 15.0 10.0 25.0 45.0 15.0
60.0 20.0 5.0 20.0 10.0 20.0 10.0 25.0 20.0 5.0 20.0 20.0 45.0 30.0 10.0 20.0 35.0 20.0 5.0 35.0 15.0 5.0 15.0 10.0 10.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
Note. Fig, Figurative; Lit, Literal; Lex, Lexically-related; Unr, Unrelated.
With flying colors Back of one’s mind By word of mouth Call the shots Hold your horses Lose one’s touch Lose your grip Pass the buck Play with fire Shut your trap Speak your mind Steal the show Waste your breath Be the spitting image Button your lips Cost an arm and a leg Keep a level head Learn by heart Learn the ropes Lie through one’s teeth Lose your cool Pour one’s heart out Slip one’s mind Talk a mile a minute Would give the world
93.8 56.3 81.3 62.5 100 43.8 81.3 75.0 50.0 93.8 100 50.0 93.8 100 100 93.8 50.0 100 62.5 93.8 93.8 87.5 93.8 56.3 81.3
0.0 6.3 0.0 37.5 0.0 12.5 18.8 12.5 31.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 25.0 0.0
6.3 37.5 18.8 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 12.5 12.5 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 18.8 6.3
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 37.5 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 31.3 0.0 25.0 6.3 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 12.5
87.5 62.5 93.8 68.8 100 68.8 93.8 68.8 68.8 93.8 87.5 68.8 87.5 100 100 100 53.3 81.3 62.5 87.5 100 100 87.5 75.0 81.3
6.3 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 12.5 12.5 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.3 6.3 18.8 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 25.0 0.0
6.3 37.5 6.3 6.3 0.0 6.3 0.0 18.8 12.5 0.0 0.0 31.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.7 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 26.7 0.0 18.8 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.8
93.8 68.8 100 81.3 100 62.5 100 81.3 87.5 100 100 62.5 93.8 100 100 100 68.8 81.3 75.0 93.8 100 100 93.8 87.5 93.8
0.0 6.3 0.0 18.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0
6.3 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 37.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.8 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 31.3 0.0 6.3 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 31.3 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3
100 66.7 100 87.5 100 75.0 95.8 87.5 91.7 100 100 54.2 100 100 100 100 79.2 91.7 91.7 100 100 100 100 91.7 95.8
0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 4.2 4.2 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0
0.0 29.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 45.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.8 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 4.2 Abstract / Brain and Language 87 (2003) 188–191 191