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Impulsive consumer buying as a result of emotions
Impulsive Consumer Buying as a Result of Emotions Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang Gottwald. I/nil-ersig
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Definition of Impulsive Buying Decisions In classifications of consumer decision behavior one finds such concepts as impulse buying 1261, spontaneous action 1371, or stimulus buying 1491, to mention only a few. These concepts cover decisions made neither rationally nor habitually, a kind of decision behavior that cannot be characterized by the extent ofcognitions alone. Historically, paramount importance was assigned to the definition of impulse buying on the basis of unplanned purchases: impulse buying is the difference between actually concluded and previously planned purchases. This is the predominant definition 12, 3, 15,28, 29, 35,481. Some authors define impulsive purchases as thoughtless actions characterized by quick acting. They are stimulated by motivation and perception, the stimulation having to be strong enough to overcome restraints. Measuring impulse buying as an unplanned purchase thus is no longer sufficient 16, 23. 3 I, 441. Kroeber-Riel [30] views impulsive consumer behavior as a directly stimulus-controlled and therefore reactive behavior. The consumer largely reacts to stimuli in the buying situation. Impulsive behavior also depends on the personality of the consumer. If one views impulse behavior as reactive. the stimuli directly control the buying decision. Consumers’ cognitive control is limited (they do not act, only react), whereas their affective involvement may attain different states. .~d~i~c~ss corrcspondc~lce 100. D-4 790 Padcrhorn.
to Peter
Weinberg,
OFBUSINESSR~~EARCH~~,~~-~~ @ Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc., 1982 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York, NY 10017
JOURNAL
University
of’ Paderborn,
Warburger
Str.
Wesr Gertllany.
(1982) 43 014a-2963ia2/01043-lss2.75
44
Peter Weinberg and !Vol,@atzg Gottwald
Linking the existing definitions together [47], we see that impulsive buying decisions can be defined on the basis of affective, cognitive, and reactive determinants of consumer behavior: uJktive: cognitive:
high activation of the consumer, little intellectual control of the buying decision, rractive:largely automatic behavior actuated by a special stimulus situation. Thus impulsive buying decisions are “unplanned” in the sense of but not all unplanned purchases are impulsively “thoughtless,” decided. Unplanned purchases may be made absolutely rationally. In order to delineate impulsive decisions, one has to look for variables that characterize decision behavior on the three dimensions mentioned above. Therefore it is necessary to decide at which stage of the decision process impulsive buying decisions occur. A buying process can be dissected into several stages, each of which may be characterized by a higher or lesser degree of impulsivity. If one is interested in the process of impulsive decision making, it appears feasible to consider decision and behavior separately. The focus is on activation and stimulus situation, and the stages in the buying decision process of particular interest are the buying intention and/or the purchase. It is important to record the activation and the stimulus situation, especially in such buying decisions or buying acts where cognitive control is minimal. This is essential to delineate them from limited and extensive problem solving. Since under the definition applied here, impulsive buying decisions are accompanied by strong emotions, an attempt must be made to determine the direction, intensity, and quality of the stimulus pattern. Measuring Impulsive Buying Behavior
The degree of uctivutiotz can be measured physiologically in a laboratory and by observation in the field. In the first case, measuring galvanic skin reaction (GSR) is especially appropriate, in the second the observation of mimic expressions, gestures, and actions. GSR measurements as laboratory results do not allow assertions about the purchase itself, but record the activation that accompanies the buying decision. Observation, on the other hand, may concentrate on the specific mimic expressions and gestures in the buying situation that characterize the impulsivity of the buying decision and the spontaneous buying act in the real situation.
45
Impulsive Buying
According to the definition chosen, impulse purchases are characterized by the fact that cognitive processes have only little influence upon the result of the decision. As cognitive processes occur consciously, the interview is best for the collection of data. The instrument of interviewing has been employed particularly in empirical investigations to measure unplanned purchases. The target of the interviews was mostly the planning process. We are concerned with those buying decisions where information processing is minimal. Concentrating on the affective processes involved in impulse buying, we feel it appropriate to inquire into the cognitive self-assessment of consumers by asking for the direction, intensity, and quality of the emotions perceived. For the recording of the reactive processes, the combined use of observation and interview is possible. Besides inquiring into individual perception of the stimulus situation, one must observe the extent to which specific stimuli trigger automatic stimulus reactions. By comparing the results obtained from interviewing and observation, we can determine to which stimuli the consumer responds thoughtlessly. An Empirical Study Aims of the Study
The following was attempted:
To record the activation that accompanies the buying decision and the purchase by observation of the minimal expressions (affective process); to ascertain by interview the information processing concerning the buying decision (cognitive process), as well as the self-perception of the emotions; to create a stimulus situation that causes the test persons to decide spontaneously on a purchase (reactive process). For this purpose an artificial buying situation was created with unknown products. This eliminated the problem of having to differentiate between unplanned and impulsive purchases. Furthermore, the experiment was set up in such a way that buying decision and purchase occurred at the same time. The following questions were to be clarified: Is it possible to ascertain various emotions by interview (self-perception) and to observe them in the test persons’ mimical expressions (external perception)‘? Can impulse buyers be distinguished from nonbuyers in their emotions‘? What are the relations between self-perception and external perception of impulsive decision behavior’?
46
Peter
Weinberg
and Wolfgang
Gottwald
The focus of the investigation was thus on the emotions of the test persons that were to be revealed from the mimical expressions and by interviewing. Measuring motoric indicators such as mimical expressions is a nonreactive method when the observation remains unnoticed by the test person. These measuring methods seem noteworthy for market research when verbal or physiological methods cannot be applied (e.g., when the affective process occurring during the buying process or the trial of new goods in a store is to be determined). Origin of the Data Sample The present study was conducted at the University of Paderbom in 1979. During four days of June a sale of self-designed decals took place at special stands inside the university buildings. The test persons (buyers/nonbuyers of the decals) were secretly filmed by a video camera. The point of sale changed daily to avoid repeat purchases as much as possible. After the test persons left the sales stand, they were interviewed with a standardized questionnaire by trained interviewers. They were now told that they had been filmed during their purchase/nonpurchase and were given the option of granting or refusing their consent for a scientific study of the film material together with the interviews. Almost all persons interviewed granted their consent. Fourty-seven buyers and 154 nonbuyers could be recorded. Fifteen sequences of buyers and 15 sequences of nonbuyers were selected from the film material and spliced together to a new film. The criterion for selection was the quality of the pictures. The length of the individual sequences varied between 3 and 17 seconds. This film was then shown to 35 persons who did not belong to the test persons. Prior to the presentation they were only informed that the film was about the sale of decals. They did not know which sequence showed a buyer and which a nonbuyer. After each sequence the film was stopped and the observers were asked to enter their impressions in a questionnaire. This part of the investigation produced a total of 1020 individual assessments. Psychology of Facial Expressions Mental processes, in particular emotions, can become manifest in various ways (e.g., through changes in skin resistance blood pressure, pulse frequency, and so on). Besides these reactions that can be observed only with the aid of annaratuses. directly observable indicators (e.g., mimical expressions and gestures) can be recorded as well. Nonreactive measurements of this kind have been tested repeatedly. Education [22,38] is concerned with these indicators under the aspect of teacher-student interaction, and psychiatry [X] under the aspect of diagnosis and therapy. Social psychology [ 19,401 devotes its interests to
Impulsive
Buying
47
these indicators with regard to interpersonal communication [4]. There has also been basic research on mimical expression and gestures [5,27], and the issue has even been treated in the popular literature [ 16,341. Since the present investigation examined particularly mimical expression, the following refers exclusively to that aspect of nonverbal communication. Other aspects, such as gestures and body posture, may also provide information on mental processes, but to date facial expression has been investigated in most cases, since it is considered a particularly reliable indicator of emotional processes. The investigation of how the various forms of mimical expression come about and what mental processes are hidden behind them has a long tradition of research. Based on findings from intercultural studies, Darwin [7] already alleged in 1872 that the mimical expression of emotions is predominatly genetically determined. Meanwhile we have considerable empirical evidence for the correctness of his statement [9, 10,251. Ekman [lo] assumes that there are genetic programs for emotions that determine emotional expression, including the interplay of facial muscles in specific emotions, and are fairly similar with all people. Cultural differences in emotional expression can be attributed to conventions that codetermine the degree to which an emotion may be shown or has to be masked. Similarly, the consequences of emotional expressions differ from culture to culture. These examples show that it is of particular importance to record acts of emotional expression unobtrusively. Up to now investigations dealt mainly with the question of how many distinguishable emotions become manifest in facial expression. For this purpose so-called evaluation or decoding studies were carried out in which test persons were presented stimuli (usually potographs in which actors displayed specific emotions) whose emotional content they were asked either to describe freely or to classify in preconceived categories. Thus the facial expression represented in the photographs was the independent variable and the observers’ reaction to it the dependent variable. The partly contradictory results can be attributed, to a large extent, to the difficulties in the semantic delineation of the various categories. The same facial expressions were frequently described by different terms. On the one hand this indicates that the verbal description of facial expression may have been ambiguous; on the other hand, the observers might have had different opinions of the semantic content of the given terms. But despite these and other methodological difficulties and inaccuracies, seven categories of emotion could be distinguished in various investigations. Research will have to show whether further
48
Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang Gottwald
categories can be found. Ekman, Friesen, and Ellsworth [ 131 summarize categories of emotion and possible synonyms from various studies. Woodworth [50] realized that six different categories were frequently confounded in various ways. He organized his categories on a 6-point scale according to the frequency of confusion. The two categories confounded the least were “happiness” and “contempt,” and they therefore marked the two extreme points of his scale. The remaining categories were arranged in accordance with their frequency of confusion. But Schlosberg [4 I], who continued the investigations and arrived at similar results, found out that even the two extreme points of the scale were often mistaken for each other. From this he concluded [42] that a circular order similar to that of the color disk might exist for qualities of mimical expression. He arranged the six categories in a circle and intuitively chose two dimensions that, according to him, fit into this order. He named the two extremes of one dimension “pleasurelistlessness” and those of the other dimension “devotion-rejection.” Based on these dimensions he rated the same photographs that, in 194 1, had led him to assume the circular order. He then compared the results. The correlation thus determined was greater than 0.9. In a later study [43] Schlosberg added a third dimension, which he named “sleep tension, ’ ’ or more generally, “activity level.” In other projects the dimensions were not determined intuitively but by improved methodological approaches. The preferred method in these experiments was the semantic differential [ 1, 17, 20, 24, 36, 451. A verying number of dimensions was found, but it became obvious that two dimensions predominated: direction (pleasure-listlessness) and strength (intensity or activity level) of an emotion. When analyzing the qualities of mimical expression by component and/or encoding studies, the methodological aproach is a different one. The face is no longer regarded as an entity, but is segmented into individual components (e.g., forehead, eye, and mouth areas). The independent variable is not the facial expression but the emotion of the individual on which the mimical expression depends. The individual components of the face are then examined to find out to what extent emotions are being expressed and change. Various authors have investigated different types of emotions and components in this way [ 18, 2 I, 32, 33, 461. A particularly promising approach stems from Ekman [ 11, 12, 141. Using the FAST technique (Facial Affect Scoring Technique), he subdivides the face into three independent components (eyebrows/forehead, eyes/eyelids, and the lower part of the face) each of which is assessed separately by trained
49
Impulsive Buying
observers using comparative photographs. Owing to its systematic approach, this method seems likely to become an important tool for the investigation of facial language in the future. For this empirical study a dimenMeasurement of the Variables sional/categorizing approach was chosen that draws on Reykowski [39] who differentiates between several aspects of emotions: strength (intensity of an emotion), direction (directional symptom of an emotion), quality (content of an emotion). Based on past investigations, we selected items rated on 6-point scales labeled from “no” through “less” to “more” and that could be arranged as follows: strength: direction: quality: ference,
stimulating, exciting, inspiring enthusiasm, amusing, pleasant, delightful, interest, boredom, surprise, astonishment, anger, enthusiasm, joy, glee, doubt.
curiosity,
indif-
These 17 items were used for self-perception (i.e., buyers of the decals and nonbuyers were interviewed after leaving the point of purchase) as well as for external perception (i.e., the evaluation of filmed test persons’ mimical expressions by observers). In addition the observers of the film sequences were asked to indicate whether or not, in their opinion, the person shown in the sequence had purchased a decal. This made it possible to distinguish between actual und presumed “impulse buyers” on the basis of the opinions expressed by the observers. Strength, direction, and quality of the emotions were thus recorded by means of verbal and motoric indicators. Consequently, special attention could be paid to the validity of the results. In addition to the external perception and self-perception of the emotions involved in the buying decision, cognitive information processing was recorded. After the buying decision, buyers and nonbuyers were asked what they had thought until they decided to buy or not to buy the product. The test persons were given the option of several answers. Results of the Study The structure of the variables was first explored by factor analysis. The correlation matrices were factorized separately for adjectival and substantival items for interviews (self-perception), as well as for film evaluations (external perception). The data were generated by varimax rotation, and with one exception only those factors with an eigenvalue of more than 1.O were taken into consideration.
50
Table 1: Factor
Peter
Weinberg and Wolfkang
of Adjectival
Structure
Gottwald
Items
Type of Investigation Self-Perception
Amusing Stimulating Pleasant Exciting Delightful Inspiring enthusiasm Eigenvalue
External Perception
F-1
F2
Fl
F2
-0.02 0.59 0.54 0.61 0.40 0.55
0.32 0.12 0.31 -0.01 0. 74 0.50
0.73 0.40 0. 72 0.32 0.87 0.68
0.38 0. 76 0.47 0. 74 0.30 0.42
1.47
1.01
2.53
1.76
Tables 1 and 2 show the resulting factor structures. Table 3 assigns hypothetical names to the dimensions thus obtained and compares them with those found in the literature. Only variables having factor loads greater than .50 are considered. The results of the factor analysis can be summarized as follows (see Table 3):
Table 2: Factor
Structure
of Substantival
Items
Type of Investigation Self-Perception X Interest Boredom Surprise Astonishment Curiositp Indifference Anger Enthusiasm Joy Glee Doubt Eigenvalue
FI 0.31 -0.04 0.14 -0.02 0.06 -0.10 0.04 0.60 0. 79 0.30 0.05 1.21
F2
0.17 0.11 0. 71 0.61 0.25 0.01 0.15 -0.04 0.13 0.18 0.17 1.08
External Perception F3
0.56 -0.36 0.15 -0.05 0.32 -0.51 -0.02 0.24 0.08 0.19 0.10 0.94
Fl
F2
0.60 -0.60 0.15 -0.01 0.50 -0.69 -0.41 0.37 0.26 0.24 -0.32 1.99
0.27 -0.24 0.27 0.08 0.22 -0.21 -0.17 0.63 0.82 0. 78 --0.4 1 2.16
F3
0.33 -0.08 0.72 0.73 0.47 --0.19 0.21 0.27 0.32 0.24 0.11 1.71
Impulsive Buying
51
Table 3: Hypothetical
Dimensions
Hypothetical Dimension
Nomenclature in literature
Variables Self-perception
Variables External Perception
Strength emotions
attentive activity
exciting stimulating inspiring enthusiasm (uleasant)
stimulating exciting
Direction of emotions
Pleasurelistlessness
delightful (inspiring enthusiasm)
delightful amusing pleasant (inspiring enthusiasm)
Quality of emotions
glee
joy enthusiasm
joy surprise
joy glee enthusiasm
surprise
surprise astonishment
astonishment surprise
interest
interest
interest indifference
-indifference interest -boredom curiosity
of
Identical hypothetical dimensions can be found for external perception and self-perception. The nomenclature chosen corresponds to that reported in the literature [131. In self-perception as well as in external perception, a distinction can be made between the strength and the direction of emotions. The items can be grouped according to three factors indicating the qualities of emotions: joy, surprise, interest. Such items as doubt and anger remain unclear. In view of their negative emotional direction it could be expected that these categories would remain unoccupied. The results of the factor analysis show that it is possible to record different emotions by interview and to observe them in the mimical expression of the test persons. Apparently, in both tests the results reflect the same emotional dimensions. It now seems of interest to find out whether the buyers under examination reflect the characteristics of impulse buyers and how they can be distinguished from nonbuyers. Tables 4 and 5 show mean ratings for the 17 items for buyers and
52
Peter
Table 4: Mean Ratings Obtained
from Self-perception
Weinberg
and Wolfgang
Gottwald
f Actual Buyers (n = 47)
Item
3.74 1.89 2.89 1.45 3.49 2.55 3.57 0.23 1.60 0.89 2.66 0.32 0.00 1.89 1.79 3.28 0.57
Amusing Stimulating Pleasant Exciting Delightful Inspiring enthusiasm Interest Boredom Surprise Astonishment Curiosity Indifference Anger Enthusiasm Joy Glee Doubt (1 Significant b Significant C Significant
01< 0.05 (Y< 0.01 OL$ 0.05
d Significant
OL4 0.01
Actual Nonbuyers (n q 154) 3.09 1.66 2.48 1.32 2.89 1.75 2.46 0.49 1.90 1.51 2.91 0.94 0.16 0.71 0.92 2.52 0.79
Difference
5
+0.65ad +0.23 +0.41 +0.13 +0.6OaC +0.80bd +J.l Jbd -0.26 -0.30 -0.62bc -0.25 -0.62ad -0.16= +l.l8bd +0.87bd +0.76bd -0.22
X2-test I_test
nonbuyers for external perception and self perception. T-tests as well as chi-square tests for the self-perception data show that the buyers assess themselves as significantly more amused, more delighted, and more enthusiastic than nonbuyers. They perceived the direction and strength of their emotions more distinctly than did nonbuyers. In addition, buyers experienced significantly more interest, enthusiasm, joy, and glee, but less astonishment and indifference than nonbuyers. These qualities of emotions thus also allow us to discriminate between buyers and nonbuyers on the basis of their self-perception. Comparing these results with the most essential characteristics of impulsive decision behavior (here, significant stimulus situation and strong activation), we may consider the buyers examined to be impulsive buyers (i.e., such buyers who have impulsively decided to buy). The self-perception of their emotional behavior differed significantly from nonbuyers.
4 Significant b Significant c Significant d Significant
Amusing Stimulating Pleasant Exciting Delightful Inspiring enthusiasm Interest Boredom Surprise Astonishment Curiosity Indifference Anger Enthusiasm Joy Glee Doubt
Item
2.25 2.07 2.21 1.11
2.19
1.73 2.68 1.92 2.38 2.53 2.61 1.89 0.97 1.61 1.78 2.02 2.60
3.06 2.49 2.69 2.18 2.86
2.20 3.08 1.52 2.63 2.49 2.90 1.60 0.86 2.04 2.43 2.86 2.18
OLQ 0.05 (YQ 0.01 X2-test a < 0.05 r-test (I < 0.01
Actual Nonbuyers (fi = sio)
Actual Buyers (n =-5 10)
X,
-o.42bd
-0.11 +0.43 +0.6@ +o.S4bd
-0.04 +o.29 -0.2Pd
-0.4obd +o.wd
+o.Wd
+o.47bd
+0.48bd +0.4 1bd +0.67bd
+o.4zbd
+0.81b“
fl
Difference
2.70 3.70 0.97 2.83 2.50 3.32 0.90 0.49 2.58 2.95 3.35 1.47
3.33 2.94 3.26 2.48 3.36
Presumed Buyers (n z-318)
F2
Table 5: Mean Ratings Obtained from External Perception
1.10 1.49 1.72 2.03 2.8 1
1.63 2.51 2.06 2.36 2.52 2.50 2.13
2.34 1.98 2.09 1.74 2.15
Presumed Nonbuyers (n = 702)
+o.b-Ibd -0.02b +0.82b‘f -1.2W -0.6 lbd +l.o9d +1.2W +1.32bd -1.Wd
+l.lW -1.09bd
+l.o7bd
+1.17bd +o.74bd +1.21bd
-o.42bd +o.Tobd +o.37bd -o.sW -os2bd -o.M’d +o.Tlbd
-0.01
-0.6 2bd +o.W’d -0.20”
-osobd
-o.wd -o.dW -o.s7bd -o.joad -o.sobd
+o.!W’d +&96bd
f3
-0.14 +0.02 +0.01 +0.11 -0.24 -0.13 +0.12 +0.06 -0.01 -0.21c
+o.l7bc
+0.10
-0.09 +0.09 +0.12 +0.03 +0.04
xq
(n = 5 lo)./. pres. nonbuyers (II = 702) Difference
(rl = 5 1OI.j. pres. buyers (II = 318) Difference
x2
Difference
act. nonbuyers
act. buyers
G -. S
k
?’
E k
3 -ci
54
Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang
Gottwald
The t- and chi-square test for the external perception data show that, except for “astonishment” and “anger,” actual buyers are perceived as more emotionalized than actual nonbuyers (cf. X1). This shows that mimical expression serves as a useful indicator in the discrimination between purchase and nonpurchase. Since the observers had to indicate, after each film sequence, whether in their opinion the persons shown had been buyers or nonbuyers, groups of presumed buyers and presumed nonbuyers could be distinguished. From the total of 1020 statements, 3 18 indicated presumed buyers and 702 presumed nonbuyers. In all items presumed buyers were classified as significantly more emotionalized than presumed nonbuyers (cf. X2). The results concerning cognitive information processing confirm that there is a significant (Q 5 0.05) relationship between the buying decision made and the contributing cognitive factor “intended use of the decals. ” But these relationships are relatively weak (a,,,, < 0.3), so that we can say that purchases are only moderately controlled by the uses intended. In addition, the influence of price was spontaneously rated as “less interesting” by most buyers. This finding about the buyers’ low cognitive involvement is supported by their self-reported global emotional involvement, which was recorded for control purposes ( aCO, > 0.6). In interpreting these results, we must give additional consideration to the fact that the interview may have provoked post hoc justifications for the purchase. On the whole, it appears highly problematic to record the cognitive control of impulse purchases by interviewing. Summary of Findings The most essential results of this study are summarized as follows: Impulse buyers assess themselves as being more emotionalized than nonbuyers. Impulse buyers differ significantly in their mimical expressions from nonbuyers. Information processing plays a part in the buying decision. But despite the possibility of laterjustification of the buying behavior, its influence is smaller than that of the emotional engagement. The data are not representative but methodologically oriented to test whether and how emotions in impulsive buying decisions can be recorded. Identical factor structures could be found for external and self-perception. The “facial language” of people seems to be a valid indicator for emotions in impulse buying decisions.
Impulsive
55
Buying
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Reinert, Gerd-Bodo, and Thiele, Joachim, kation. Ehrenwirth, Munich, 1977.
39.
Reykowski,
40.
Scherer, Klaus R., and Wallbott, Harald D., eds., Nonverbale Forschungsberichte sum Interaktionsverhalten. Beltz, Weinheim,
41.
Schlosberg, mentalPsy.
42.
Schlosberg, Harold, J. ExperimentalPsy.
Ronald 1967):
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der mimil-17.
P., Customer 21-31.
Werner, Konsumentenverhalten,
Carney,
and Hunt,
Desmond,
Janusz,
New York, 5th
Impulse
Purchasing
2nd ed. Vahlen,
Munich,
W. A., The Startle Pattern, Johnson
Repr.,
Behavior.
1980.
New York,
in Mimik. Gestik und Phonik. Barth,
Der Mensch mit dem wir leben, Droemer-Knaur, Gerd
1960.
ed., Ausdruckspsycho-
F., Handlexikon
Nonverbale
Psychologie der Emotionen.
Harold, A Scale for the Judgment 29 (1951): 497-510.
Munich,
1978.
Werbung und Marketing. Fischer,
padagogische
Auer, Donauworth,
of Facial
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des priKommuni-
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Expression,
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in Two Dimensions,
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Buying Rev. 61,
43.
Schlosberg, Harold, (1954): 81-88.
44.
Stern, Hawkins, 1962): 59-62.
45.
Sweeny, pression
46.
Thompson, J., Development of Facial Expression Children,Archives Psy. 37, No. 264 (1941).
4-l.
Weinberg, Peter, Vereinfachung von Kaufentscheidungen bei Marketing-Zeitschrift ftir Forschung und Praxis 2 (1980): 87-94.
48.
West, John C., Results 15 (1951): 362-363.
49.
Wiswede, Giinter, Munich, 1973.
50.
Woodworth, New York,
Three
Dimensions
Significance
of Emotion,
of Impulse
Buying
Psychol.
Today,
J. Marketing
No.
2
26 (April
D. R., Tindling, D. C., and Schmale, A. H., Dimensions of Affective Exin Four Expressive Modes, Behav. Sci. 15 (September 1970): 393-407.
Robert 1938.
of Two Years of Study
Motivation
und
S., Experimental
of Emotion
into Impulse
Verbraucherverhalten, Psychology,
Holt,
in Blind and Seeing Konsumgtitern, J. Marketing
Buying, 2nd
Reinhart
ed.
Reinhardt,
and Winston,
7711, 1'onl'l'pI plrr1hlr.sc~., hch~~ior.
of
Will! A
.vIfrdx
Ilrrplrl.sc~ blr~illg
llr,qll
l’rlloliorr1ll i.\
i~o~rtllrcYrd
can be identijiedempiricully cfhuyers
und nonbuyers.
i.\
rlr.slMsr1l
trl~ri\~lrrrl~lr. 10
oIw.Uipll~
by interview The results
trrrcl
IOll~
&a
support
l~lrll,.trl~ll’,~i,c~ll
c’o
c$Pderbortt
lwIlro/. r~wliotf,s
and observation the vu/id@
of‘the
a\ llrrll
c~lll~o,ll/~lr.\.silrg
1, Icrrgl4~
r’PlllYi~‘l~
c~tru.sin~qirnprrlsi, oj’the mimicul techniques
buJi/r,g
expression
employed.
Definition of Impulsive Buying Decisions In classifications of consumer decision behavior one finds such concepts as impulse buying 1261, spontaneous action 1371, or stimulus buying 1491, to mention only a few. These concepts cover decisions made neither rationally nor habitually, a kind of decision behavior that cannot be characterized by the extent ofcognitions alone. Historically, paramount importance was assigned to the definition of impulse buying on the basis of unplanned purchases: impulse buying is the difference between actually concluded and previously planned purchases. This is the predominant definition 12, 3, 15,28, 29, 35,481. Some authors define impulsive purchases as thoughtless actions characterized by quick acting. They are stimulated by motivation and perception, the stimulation having to be strong enough to overcome restraints. Measuring impulse buying as an unplanned purchase thus is no longer sufficient 16, 23. 3 I, 441. Kroeber-Riel [30] views impulsive consumer behavior as a directly stimulus-controlled and therefore reactive behavior. The consumer largely reacts to stimuli in the buying situation. Impulsive behavior also depends on the personality of the consumer. If one views impulse behavior as reactive. the stimuli directly control the buying decision. Consumers’ cognitive control is limited (they do not act, only react), whereas their affective involvement may attain different states. .~d~i~c~ss corrcspondc~lce 100. D-4 790 Padcrhorn.
to Peter
Weinberg,
OFBUSINESSR~~EARCH~~,~~-~~ @ Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc., 1982 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York, NY 10017
JOURNAL
University
of’ Paderborn,
Warburger
Str.
Wesr Gertllany.
(1982) 43 014a-2963ia2/01043-lss2.75
44
Peter Weinberg and !Vol,@atzg Gottwald
Linking the existing definitions together [47], we see that impulsive buying decisions can be defined on the basis of affective, cognitive, and reactive determinants of consumer behavior: uJktive: cognitive:
high activation of the consumer, little intellectual control of the buying decision, rractive:largely automatic behavior actuated by a special stimulus situation. Thus impulsive buying decisions are “unplanned” in the sense of but not all unplanned purchases are impulsively “thoughtless,” decided. Unplanned purchases may be made absolutely rationally. In order to delineate impulsive decisions, one has to look for variables that characterize decision behavior on the three dimensions mentioned above. Therefore it is necessary to decide at which stage of the decision process impulsive buying decisions occur. A buying process can be dissected into several stages, each of which may be characterized by a higher or lesser degree of impulsivity. If one is interested in the process of impulsive decision making, it appears feasible to consider decision and behavior separately. The focus is on activation and stimulus situation, and the stages in the buying decision process of particular interest are the buying intention and/or the purchase. It is important to record the activation and the stimulus situation, especially in such buying decisions or buying acts where cognitive control is minimal. This is essential to delineate them from limited and extensive problem solving. Since under the definition applied here, impulsive buying decisions are accompanied by strong emotions, an attempt must be made to determine the direction, intensity, and quality of the stimulus pattern. Measuring Impulsive Buying Behavior
The degree of uctivutiotz can be measured physiologically in a laboratory and by observation in the field. In the first case, measuring galvanic skin reaction (GSR) is especially appropriate, in the second the observation of mimic expressions, gestures, and actions. GSR measurements as laboratory results do not allow assertions about the purchase itself, but record the activation that accompanies the buying decision. Observation, on the other hand, may concentrate on the specific mimic expressions and gestures in the buying situation that characterize the impulsivity of the buying decision and the spontaneous buying act in the real situation.
45
Impulsive Buying
According to the definition chosen, impulse purchases are characterized by the fact that cognitive processes have only little influence upon the result of the decision. As cognitive processes occur consciously, the interview is best for the collection of data. The instrument of interviewing has been employed particularly in empirical investigations to measure unplanned purchases. The target of the interviews was mostly the planning process. We are concerned with those buying decisions where information processing is minimal. Concentrating on the affective processes involved in impulse buying, we feel it appropriate to inquire into the cognitive self-assessment of consumers by asking for the direction, intensity, and quality of the emotions perceived. For the recording of the reactive processes, the combined use of observation and interview is possible. Besides inquiring into individual perception of the stimulus situation, one must observe the extent to which specific stimuli trigger automatic stimulus reactions. By comparing the results obtained from interviewing and observation, we can determine to which stimuli the consumer responds thoughtlessly. An Empirical Study Aims of the Study
The following was attempted:
To record the activation that accompanies the buying decision and the purchase by observation of the minimal expressions (affective process); to ascertain by interview the information processing concerning the buying decision (cognitive process), as well as the self-perception of the emotions; to create a stimulus situation that causes the test persons to decide spontaneously on a purchase (reactive process). For this purpose an artificial buying situation was created with unknown products. This eliminated the problem of having to differentiate between unplanned and impulsive purchases. Furthermore, the experiment was set up in such a way that buying decision and purchase occurred at the same time. The following questions were to be clarified: Is it possible to ascertain various emotions by interview (self-perception) and to observe them in the test persons’ mimical expressions (external perception)‘? Can impulse buyers be distinguished from nonbuyers in their emotions‘? What are the relations between self-perception and external perception of impulsive decision behavior’?
46
Peter
Weinberg
and Wolfgang
Gottwald
The focus of the investigation was thus on the emotions of the test persons that were to be revealed from the mimical expressions and by interviewing. Measuring motoric indicators such as mimical expressions is a nonreactive method when the observation remains unnoticed by the test person. These measuring methods seem noteworthy for market research when verbal or physiological methods cannot be applied (e.g., when the affective process occurring during the buying process or the trial of new goods in a store is to be determined). Origin of the Data Sample The present study was conducted at the University of Paderbom in 1979. During four days of June a sale of self-designed decals took place at special stands inside the university buildings. The test persons (buyers/nonbuyers of the decals) were secretly filmed by a video camera. The point of sale changed daily to avoid repeat purchases as much as possible. After the test persons left the sales stand, they were interviewed with a standardized questionnaire by trained interviewers. They were now told that they had been filmed during their purchase/nonpurchase and were given the option of granting or refusing their consent for a scientific study of the film material together with the interviews. Almost all persons interviewed granted their consent. Fourty-seven buyers and 154 nonbuyers could be recorded. Fifteen sequences of buyers and 15 sequences of nonbuyers were selected from the film material and spliced together to a new film. The criterion for selection was the quality of the pictures. The length of the individual sequences varied between 3 and 17 seconds. This film was then shown to 35 persons who did not belong to the test persons. Prior to the presentation they were only informed that the film was about the sale of decals. They did not know which sequence showed a buyer and which a nonbuyer. After each sequence the film was stopped and the observers were asked to enter their impressions in a questionnaire. This part of the investigation produced a total of 1020 individual assessments. Psychology of Facial Expressions Mental processes, in particular emotions, can become manifest in various ways (e.g., through changes in skin resistance blood pressure, pulse frequency, and so on). Besides these reactions that can be observed only with the aid of annaratuses. directly observable indicators (e.g., mimical expressions and gestures) can be recorded as well. Nonreactive measurements of this kind have been tested repeatedly. Education [22,38] is concerned with these indicators under the aspect of teacher-student interaction, and psychiatry [X] under the aspect of diagnosis and therapy. Social psychology [ 19,401 devotes its interests to
Impulsive
Buying
47
these indicators with regard to interpersonal communication [4]. There has also been basic research on mimical expression and gestures [5,27], and the issue has even been treated in the popular literature [ 16,341. Since the present investigation examined particularly mimical expression, the following refers exclusively to that aspect of nonverbal communication. Other aspects, such as gestures and body posture, may also provide information on mental processes, but to date facial expression has been investigated in most cases, since it is considered a particularly reliable indicator of emotional processes. The investigation of how the various forms of mimical expression come about and what mental processes are hidden behind them has a long tradition of research. Based on findings from intercultural studies, Darwin [7] already alleged in 1872 that the mimical expression of emotions is predominatly genetically determined. Meanwhile we have considerable empirical evidence for the correctness of his statement [9, 10,251. Ekman [lo] assumes that there are genetic programs for emotions that determine emotional expression, including the interplay of facial muscles in specific emotions, and are fairly similar with all people. Cultural differences in emotional expression can be attributed to conventions that codetermine the degree to which an emotion may be shown or has to be masked. Similarly, the consequences of emotional expressions differ from culture to culture. These examples show that it is of particular importance to record acts of emotional expression unobtrusively. Up to now investigations dealt mainly with the question of how many distinguishable emotions become manifest in facial expression. For this purpose so-called evaluation or decoding studies were carried out in which test persons were presented stimuli (usually potographs in which actors displayed specific emotions) whose emotional content they were asked either to describe freely or to classify in preconceived categories. Thus the facial expression represented in the photographs was the independent variable and the observers’ reaction to it the dependent variable. The partly contradictory results can be attributed, to a large extent, to the difficulties in the semantic delineation of the various categories. The same facial expressions were frequently described by different terms. On the one hand this indicates that the verbal description of facial expression may have been ambiguous; on the other hand, the observers might have had different opinions of the semantic content of the given terms. But despite these and other methodological difficulties and inaccuracies, seven categories of emotion could be distinguished in various investigations. Research will have to show whether further
48
Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang Gottwald
categories can be found. Ekman, Friesen, and Ellsworth [ 131 summarize categories of emotion and possible synonyms from various studies. Woodworth [50] realized that six different categories were frequently confounded in various ways. He organized his categories on a 6-point scale according to the frequency of confusion. The two categories confounded the least were “happiness” and “contempt,” and they therefore marked the two extreme points of his scale. The remaining categories were arranged in accordance with their frequency of confusion. But Schlosberg [4 I], who continued the investigations and arrived at similar results, found out that even the two extreme points of the scale were often mistaken for each other. From this he concluded [42] that a circular order similar to that of the color disk might exist for qualities of mimical expression. He arranged the six categories in a circle and intuitively chose two dimensions that, according to him, fit into this order. He named the two extremes of one dimension “pleasurelistlessness” and those of the other dimension “devotion-rejection.” Based on these dimensions he rated the same photographs that, in 194 1, had led him to assume the circular order. He then compared the results. The correlation thus determined was greater than 0.9. In a later study [43] Schlosberg added a third dimension, which he named “sleep tension, ’ ’ or more generally, “activity level.” In other projects the dimensions were not determined intuitively but by improved methodological approaches. The preferred method in these experiments was the semantic differential [ 1, 17, 20, 24, 36, 451. A verying number of dimensions was found, but it became obvious that two dimensions predominated: direction (pleasure-listlessness) and strength (intensity or activity level) of an emotion. When analyzing the qualities of mimical expression by component and/or encoding studies, the methodological aproach is a different one. The face is no longer regarded as an entity, but is segmented into individual components (e.g., forehead, eye, and mouth areas). The independent variable is not the facial expression but the emotion of the individual on which the mimical expression depends. The individual components of the face are then examined to find out to what extent emotions are being expressed and change. Various authors have investigated different types of emotions and components in this way [ 18, 2 I, 32, 33, 461. A particularly promising approach stems from Ekman [ 11, 12, 141. Using the FAST technique (Facial Affect Scoring Technique), he subdivides the face into three independent components (eyebrows/forehead, eyes/eyelids, and the lower part of the face) each of which is assessed separately by trained
49
Impulsive Buying
observers using comparative photographs. Owing to its systematic approach, this method seems likely to become an important tool for the investigation of facial language in the future. For this empirical study a dimenMeasurement of the Variables sional/categorizing approach was chosen that draws on Reykowski [39] who differentiates between several aspects of emotions: strength (intensity of an emotion), direction (directional symptom of an emotion), quality (content of an emotion). Based on past investigations, we selected items rated on 6-point scales labeled from “no” through “less” to “more” and that could be arranged as follows: strength: direction: quality: ference,
stimulating, exciting, inspiring enthusiasm, amusing, pleasant, delightful, interest, boredom, surprise, astonishment, anger, enthusiasm, joy, glee, doubt.
curiosity,
indif-
These 17 items were used for self-perception (i.e., buyers of the decals and nonbuyers were interviewed after leaving the point of purchase) as well as for external perception (i.e., the evaluation of filmed test persons’ mimical expressions by observers). In addition the observers of the film sequences were asked to indicate whether or not, in their opinion, the person shown in the sequence had purchased a decal. This made it possible to distinguish between actual und presumed “impulse buyers” on the basis of the opinions expressed by the observers. Strength, direction, and quality of the emotions were thus recorded by means of verbal and motoric indicators. Consequently, special attention could be paid to the validity of the results. In addition to the external perception and self-perception of the emotions involved in the buying decision, cognitive information processing was recorded. After the buying decision, buyers and nonbuyers were asked what they had thought until they decided to buy or not to buy the product. The test persons were given the option of several answers. Results of the Study The structure of the variables was first explored by factor analysis. The correlation matrices were factorized separately for adjectival and substantival items for interviews (self-perception), as well as for film evaluations (external perception). The data were generated by varimax rotation, and with one exception only those factors with an eigenvalue of more than 1.O were taken into consideration.
50
Table 1: Factor
Peter
Weinberg and Wolfkang
of Adjectival
Structure
Gottwald
Items
Type of Investigation Self-Perception
Amusing Stimulating Pleasant Exciting Delightful Inspiring enthusiasm Eigenvalue
External Perception
F-1
F2
Fl
F2
-0.02 0.59 0.54 0.61 0.40 0.55
0.32 0.12 0.31 -0.01 0. 74 0.50
0.73 0.40 0. 72 0.32 0.87 0.68
0.38 0. 76 0.47 0. 74 0.30 0.42
1.47
1.01
2.53
1.76
Tables 1 and 2 show the resulting factor structures. Table 3 assigns hypothetical names to the dimensions thus obtained and compares them with those found in the literature. Only variables having factor loads greater than .50 are considered. The results of the factor analysis can be summarized as follows (see Table 3):
Table 2: Factor
Structure
of Substantival
Items
Type of Investigation Self-Perception X Interest Boredom Surprise Astonishment Curiositp Indifference Anger Enthusiasm Joy Glee Doubt Eigenvalue
FI 0.31 -0.04 0.14 -0.02 0.06 -0.10 0.04 0.60 0. 79 0.30 0.05 1.21
F2
0.17 0.11 0. 71 0.61 0.25 0.01 0.15 -0.04 0.13 0.18 0.17 1.08
External Perception F3
0.56 -0.36 0.15 -0.05 0.32 -0.51 -0.02 0.24 0.08 0.19 0.10 0.94
Fl
F2
0.60 -0.60 0.15 -0.01 0.50 -0.69 -0.41 0.37 0.26 0.24 -0.32 1.99
0.27 -0.24 0.27 0.08 0.22 -0.21 -0.17 0.63 0.82 0. 78 --0.4 1 2.16
F3
0.33 -0.08 0.72 0.73 0.47 --0.19 0.21 0.27 0.32 0.24 0.11 1.71
Impulsive Buying
51
Table 3: Hypothetical
Dimensions
Hypothetical Dimension
Nomenclature in literature
Variables Self-perception
Variables External Perception
Strength emotions
attentive activity
exciting stimulating inspiring enthusiasm (uleasant)
stimulating exciting
Direction of emotions
Pleasurelistlessness
delightful (inspiring enthusiasm)
delightful amusing pleasant (inspiring enthusiasm)
Quality of emotions
glee
joy enthusiasm
joy surprise
joy glee enthusiasm
surprise
surprise astonishment
astonishment surprise
interest
interest
interest indifference
-indifference interest -boredom curiosity
of
Identical hypothetical dimensions can be found for external perception and self-perception. The nomenclature chosen corresponds to that reported in the literature [131. In self-perception as well as in external perception, a distinction can be made between the strength and the direction of emotions. The items can be grouped according to three factors indicating the qualities of emotions: joy, surprise, interest. Such items as doubt and anger remain unclear. In view of their negative emotional direction it could be expected that these categories would remain unoccupied. The results of the factor analysis show that it is possible to record different emotions by interview and to observe them in the mimical expression of the test persons. Apparently, in both tests the results reflect the same emotional dimensions. It now seems of interest to find out whether the buyers under examination reflect the characteristics of impulse buyers and how they can be distinguished from nonbuyers. Tables 4 and 5 show mean ratings for the 17 items for buyers and
52
Peter
Table 4: Mean Ratings Obtained
from Self-perception
Weinberg
and Wolfgang
Gottwald
f Actual Buyers (n = 47)
Item
3.74 1.89 2.89 1.45 3.49 2.55 3.57 0.23 1.60 0.89 2.66 0.32 0.00 1.89 1.79 3.28 0.57
Amusing Stimulating Pleasant Exciting Delightful Inspiring enthusiasm Interest Boredom Surprise Astonishment Curiosity Indifference Anger Enthusiasm Joy Glee Doubt (1 Significant b Significant C Significant
01< 0.05 (Y< 0.01 OL$ 0.05
d Significant
OL4 0.01
Actual Nonbuyers (n q 154) 3.09 1.66 2.48 1.32 2.89 1.75 2.46 0.49 1.90 1.51 2.91 0.94 0.16 0.71 0.92 2.52 0.79
Difference
5
+0.65ad +0.23 +0.41 +0.13 +0.6OaC +0.80bd +J.l Jbd -0.26 -0.30 -0.62bc -0.25 -0.62ad -0.16= +l.l8bd +0.87bd +0.76bd -0.22
X2-test I_test
nonbuyers for external perception and self perception. T-tests as well as chi-square tests for the self-perception data show that the buyers assess themselves as significantly more amused, more delighted, and more enthusiastic than nonbuyers. They perceived the direction and strength of their emotions more distinctly than did nonbuyers. In addition, buyers experienced significantly more interest, enthusiasm, joy, and glee, but less astonishment and indifference than nonbuyers. These qualities of emotions thus also allow us to discriminate between buyers and nonbuyers on the basis of their self-perception. Comparing these results with the most essential characteristics of impulsive decision behavior (here, significant stimulus situation and strong activation), we may consider the buyers examined to be impulsive buyers (i.e., such buyers who have impulsively decided to buy). The self-perception of their emotional behavior differed significantly from nonbuyers.
4 Significant b Significant c Significant d Significant
Amusing Stimulating Pleasant Exciting Delightful Inspiring enthusiasm Interest Boredom Surprise Astonishment Curiosity Indifference Anger Enthusiasm Joy Glee Doubt
Item
2.25 2.07 2.21 1.11
2.19
1.73 2.68 1.92 2.38 2.53 2.61 1.89 0.97 1.61 1.78 2.02 2.60
3.06 2.49 2.69 2.18 2.86
2.20 3.08 1.52 2.63 2.49 2.90 1.60 0.86 2.04 2.43 2.86 2.18
OLQ 0.05 (YQ 0.01 X2-test a < 0.05 r-test (I < 0.01
Actual Nonbuyers (fi = sio)
Actual Buyers (n =-5 10)
X,
-o.42bd
-0.11 +0.43 +0.6@ +o.S4bd
-0.04 +o.29 -0.2Pd
-0.4obd +o.wd
+o.Wd
+o.47bd
+0.48bd +0.4 1bd +0.67bd
+o.4zbd
+0.81b“
fl
Difference
2.70 3.70 0.97 2.83 2.50 3.32 0.90 0.49 2.58 2.95 3.35 1.47
3.33 2.94 3.26 2.48 3.36
Presumed Buyers (n z-318)
F2
Table 5: Mean Ratings Obtained from External Perception
1.10 1.49 1.72 2.03 2.8 1
1.63 2.51 2.06 2.36 2.52 2.50 2.13
2.34 1.98 2.09 1.74 2.15
Presumed Nonbuyers (n = 702)
+o.b-Ibd -0.02b +0.82b‘f -1.2W -0.6 lbd +l.o9d +1.2W +1.32bd -1.Wd
+l.lW -1.09bd
+l.o7bd
+1.17bd +o.74bd +1.21bd
-o.42bd +o.Tobd +o.37bd -o.sW -os2bd -o.M’d +o.Tlbd
-0.01
-0.6 2bd +o.W’d -0.20”
-osobd
-o.wd -o.dW -o.s7bd -o.joad -o.sobd
+o.!W’d +&96bd
f3
-0.14 +0.02 +0.01 +0.11 -0.24 -0.13 +0.12 +0.06 -0.01 -0.21c
+o.l7bc
+0.10
-0.09 +0.09 +0.12 +0.03 +0.04
xq
(n = 5 lo)./. pres. nonbuyers (II = 702) Difference
(rl = 5 1OI.j. pres. buyers (II = 318) Difference
x2
Difference
act. nonbuyers
act. buyers
G -. S
k
?’
E k
3 -ci
54
Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang
Gottwald
The t- and chi-square test for the external perception data show that, except for “astonishment” and “anger,” actual buyers are perceived as more emotionalized than actual nonbuyers (cf. X1). This shows that mimical expression serves as a useful indicator in the discrimination between purchase and nonpurchase. Since the observers had to indicate, after each film sequence, whether in their opinion the persons shown had been buyers or nonbuyers, groups of presumed buyers and presumed nonbuyers could be distinguished. From the total of 1020 statements, 3 18 indicated presumed buyers and 702 presumed nonbuyers. In all items presumed buyers were classified as significantly more emotionalized than presumed nonbuyers (cf. X2). The results concerning cognitive information processing confirm that there is a significant (Q 5 0.05) relationship between the buying decision made and the contributing cognitive factor “intended use of the decals. ” But these relationships are relatively weak (a,,,, < 0.3), so that we can say that purchases are only moderately controlled by the uses intended. In addition, the influence of price was spontaneously rated as “less interesting” by most buyers. This finding about the buyers’ low cognitive involvement is supported by their self-reported global emotional involvement, which was recorded for control purposes ( aCO, > 0.6). In interpreting these results, we must give additional consideration to the fact that the interview may have provoked post hoc justifications for the purchase. On the whole, it appears highly problematic to record the cognitive control of impulse purchases by interviewing. Summary of Findings The most essential results of this study are summarized as follows: Impulse buyers assess themselves as being more emotionalized than nonbuyers. Impulse buyers differ significantly in their mimical expressions from nonbuyers. Information processing plays a part in the buying decision. But despite the possibility of laterjustification of the buying behavior, its influence is smaller than that of the emotional engagement. The data are not representative but methodologically oriented to test whether and how emotions in impulsive buying decisions can be recorded. Identical factor structures could be found for external and self-perception. The “facial language” of people seems to be a valid indicator for emotions in impulse buying decisions.
Impulsive
55
Buying
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