In pursuit of service excellence: Investigating the role of psychological contracts and organizational identification of frontline hotel employees

Tourism Management 56 (2016) 8e19

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Tourism Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

In pursuit of service excellence: Investigating the role of psychological contracts and organizational identification of frontline hotel employees Vinh Nhat Lu a, *, 1, Alessandra Capezio a, *, 1, Simon Lloyd D. Restubog a, Patrick R.J.M. Garcia b, Lu Wang c a

Research School of Management, The Australian National University, LF Crisp Building 26, Kingsley Street, College of Business and Economics, The Australian National University, ACT 2601, Australia Grossman School of Business, The University of Vermont, 55 Colchester Ave, 101 Kalkin Hall, Burlington, VT 05405, USA c Australian School of Business, The University of New South Wales, West Lobby Level 5, Australian School of Business Building, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia b

h i g h l i g h t s
We examined drivers of service-oriented behaviors of frontline hotel employees.
Data were collected from frontline employees, their coworkers and supervisors.
Transactional psychological contracts were negatively related to service behaviors.
Relational psychological contracts were positively related to service behaviors.
Organizational identification was a salient mediator.

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 20 June 2014 Received in revised form 19 February 2016 Accepted 14 March 2016

Research in tourism management is yet to examine the role of psychological contracts in shaping organizational identification and influencing service-oriented behaviors of frontline employees. Drawing upon psychological contract and social identity theories, we propose a theoretical model that links the two types of psychological contracts (relational vs. transactional psychological contracts) with organizational identification and service employees' in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. Data collected from 199 matched frontline employee-coworker-supervisor triads in hotels show that while transactional psychological contracts were directly and negatively associated with supervisorreported in-role performance and co-worker reported service-oriented citizenship behaviors, the relationship between relational psychological contracts and both types of service-oriented behaviors were positive and partially mediated by organizational identification. Our findings have important implications for tourism operators by highlighting the important role of different types of psychological contracts in the delivery of high quality service. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Service-oriented organizational citizenship behavior Service-oriented in-role performance Psychological contracts Organizational identification

1. Introduction

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (V.N. Lu), [email protected] (A. Capezio), [email protected] (S.L.D. Restubog), [email protected] (P.R.J.M. Garcia), [email protected] (L. Wang). 1 The first and second authors contributed equally in writing this manuscript. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.03.020 0261-5177/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

“What is a lobby boy? A lobby boy is completely invisible, yet always in sight. A lobby boy remembers what people hate. A lobby boy anticipates the client's needs before the needs are needed. A lobby boy is, above all, discreet to a fault.”

V.N. Lu et al. / Tourism Management 56 (2016) 8e19

Monsieur Gustave H. (2014), Chief Concierge of the Grand Budapest Hotel. The tourism industry plays a significant role in the global economy. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC, 2015), the tourism industry accounts for around 284 million jobs worldwide and contributes more than 7.86 trillion USD (approximately 9.9%) to global GDP in 2015. Over the next decade, it will continue to experience significant growth. By 2025, the tourism industry is expected to create more than 73 million new jobs (WTTC, 2015), two-thirds of which will be based in Asia (Deloitte, 2014), contributing more than 11.38 trillion USD (or 10.5%) to global GDP. According to Mr. Adam Weissenberg, Vice Chairman and U.S. Travel, Hospitality, and Leisure Leader (Deloitte, 2014), not only will tourism organizations need to manage the high demand for growth and geographic expansion, they must also understand the increasing sophistication of international travelers and know how to cater to the increasingly diverse needs of customers from different cultures. To remain competitive in this industry, organizations must put a significant focus on the performance of frontline employees, as the delivery of high quality service is of critical importance to their success (Briggs, Sutherland, & Drummond, 2007). Indeed, tourism management scholars have emphasized the vital role of frontline employees in the development and maintenance of a satisfied and loyal customer base , 2005) and greater organizational profit(Salanova, Agut, & Peiro ability (Fisher, McPhail, & Menghetti, 2010). The behaviors of frontline employees, including in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors, have received significant empirical attention from scholars and business practitioners alike (e.g., Deloitte, 2014; EY, 2014; Tsaur & Lin, 2004; Yen & Teng, 2013). Tourism management research on service-oriented inrole performance and organizational citizenship behaviors has thus far focused on examining attitudinal (e.g., organizational commitment, work engagement) and contextual factors (e.g., justice climate, job demand, human resource practices, see Chen & Chen, 2014; Karatepe, 2013; Tang & Tang, 2012; Tsaur & Lin, 2004; Wei, Qu, & Ma, 2012; Yen & Teng, 2013). However, past research has overlooked the type of relationships employees form with their organizations and their influence on service-oriented behaviors. The dearth of research in this area is somewhat surprising, given that the tourism industry is known for its low wages, high turnover, unfavorable employment conditions, seasonality, and resistance to adopting strategic human resources practices (Knox & Walsh, 2005; Simons & Hinkin, 2001; Zopiatis, Constanti, & Theocharous, 2014). In addition to the challenge of attracting and retaining service employees with the essential skills and experience (Hughes & Rog, 2008; Iverson & Deery, 1997), the tourism industry has recently experienced a major shift in the nature of employment relationship. More specifically, it has become increasingly reliant on the pool of part-time and casual employees (International Labour Organization, 2010). This trend warrants an empirical examination of frontline employees' employment relationship and whether such relationship can impact their serviceoriented behaviors (Bordia, Restubog, Bordia, & Tang, 2010). The employment relationship can be conceived of as a form of social exchange, in which employees invest efforts and commitment into the work, in exchange for economic and social rewards offered by the organization (e.g., Blau, 1964; Levinson, 1965). The terms of employment relationship are captured in psychological contracts, which encapsulate the beliefs of an individual in relation to the reciprocal obligations between the employee (i.e., work contributions) and the employer (i.e., perceived promises and rewards) (Rousseau, 1990). The implications of psychological contract on various work outcomes, such as job satisfaction, trust, and retention, have been documented in other research settings (see

9

Restubog, Kiazad, & Kiewitz, 2015). In this study, we extend prior work by integrating psychological contract and social identity theories to develop a novel theoretical model that links psychological contracts (capturing relational and transactional psychological contracts) with organizational identification and ultimately frontline employees' service-oriented behaviors (i.e., serviceoriented in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors). In doing so, our research advances the existing understanding of the role and importance of psychological contracts in promoting service excellence in the tourism sector. This paper is structured as follows. First, we review the psychological contract literature and develop a set of testable research hypotheses. Second, we describe our research context, data collection approach and the measurement items in our proposed conceptual model. Next, we formally test our hypothesized predictions. This is followed by a discussion of our key research findings and their implications for the tourism industry. Finally, we conclude by highlighting the key theoretical contributions, study limitations and directions for future research. 2. Theory and research hypotheses 2.1. Psychological contracts and service-oriented behaviors Psychological contracts reflect “an individual's beliefs regarding reciprocal obligations … when the individual believes that he or she owes the employer certain contributions (e.g., hard work, loyalty, sacrifice) in return for certain inducements (e.g., high pay, job security)” (Rousseau, 1990, p. 390). In addition to being highly subjective, promissory and reciprocal in their nature (Robinson & Rousseau, 1994; Rousseau, 1990), psychological contracts govern the employeeeemployer relationship and serve as a powerful determinant of employee behavior (Hui, Lee, & Rousseau, 2004; Millward & Hopkins, 1998; Robinson & Morrison, 1995; Rousseau, 1989, 1990). Psychological contract theory has distinguished two distinctive forms of psychological contracts in employment relations, namely transactional and relational psychological contracts (Restubog, Hornsey, Bordia, & Esposo, 2008; Zagenczyk, Restubog, Kiewitz, Kiazad, & Tang, 2014; Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski, & Bravo, 2007). The key differences between the two types of psychological contracts include the duration of the employment arrangement (shortterm vs. open-ended), degree of specificity (highly vs. loosely specified), exchange of resources (tangible vs. intangible), and performance-reward contingencies (highly contingent vs. low or non-contingent) (Rousseau, 1990). A transactional contract is typically narrow-focused and has a purely economic, monetary, and materialistic emphasis (Millward & Hopkins, 1998; Raja, Johns, & Ntalianis, 2004). That is, employees oriented towards transactional psychological contracts perceive their organization primarily as a source of income and a place to work (Millward & Hopkins, 1998). Their contributions are also limited, due to their low levels of organization attachment. As such, employees with a transactional-oriented psychological contract are more likely to quit their jobs as they tend to use their current position as a stepping stone to gain better ones (Raja et al., 2004; Rousseau, 1990). Psychological contract scholars have begun to pay attention to explain the relationship between the two types of psychological contracts and work outcomes. For example, Raja et al. (2004) found that relational psychological contracts were negatively associated with turnover intentions and positively related with job satisfaction and affective commitment. Conversely, transactional psychological contracts were positively related to turnover intentions and negatively associated with job satisfaction and affective commitment. Zagenczyk et al. (2014) found that transactional

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psychological contracts were positively related to workplace deviance, whereas relational psychological contracts were positively associated with organizational citizenship behaviors and negatively related to workplace deviance. Collectively, these studies suggest that the different types of psychological contracts elicit different work reactions. In the research reported here, we focus on both service-oriented in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors as service-related outcomes because of their importance in the tourism industry. While in-role performance reflects roleprescribed customer service, including expected behaviors of employees during service encounters, service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors refer to discretionary behaviors that are “above and beyond” the employees' prescribed duties and responsibilities oftentimes contributing to exceptional customer service (Bettencourt & Brown, 1997). As part of their job, frontline employees must demonstrate professionalism and courtesy towards customers at all times and know how to efficiently address customer problems and inquiries in service encounters. They further undertake extra-role and voluntary behaviors such as acts of helpfulness, initiative, and goodwill, which are not enforced within the employment contract or specified in employees' job description (Organ, 1988). It also occurs when frontline employees anticipate and act to address customer needs and wants, even before the customer identifies such a need. Examples of these service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors include a front office associate of a hotel arranging a birthday cake for a customer or personally accompanying a foreign client to a local pharmacy. Although previous research has examined the role of psychological contract in influencing work related behaviors, findings have been inconsistent. For example, a study by Millward and Hopkins (1998) showed that transactional psychological contracts are associated with low commitment, weak organizational integration, limited flexibility and attitude of easy exit. In another study, Bal, Kooij, and De Jong (2013) found transactional psychological contracts are negatively associated with work engagement and affective commitment. Similarly, Zagenczyk et al. (2014) reported a negative relationship between transactional psychological contracts and organizational citizenship behaviors. However, a study by Hui et al. (2004) found a positive relationship between transactional psychological contract and employees' organizational citizenship behavior. The significant positive relationship reported in Hui et al. (2004) might be specific to their research context of the Chinese manufacturing industry, in which transactional contracts were prominent and long-term employment opportunities were limited. In such context, transactional contracts may be experienced as a “good enough” form of employment relationship, thereby resulting in positive organizational citizenship behaviors (Hui et al., 2004). In the context of our research, given that a transactional psychological contract is characterized by short-term commitment and economic exchange, frontline employees oriented toward a transactional psychological contract will invest less physical, cognitive, and emotional resources into their performance (Chang, Hsu, Liou, & Tsai, 2013). In addition to receiving low pay, these employees might perceive that their jobs offer little rewards and limited career development opportunities. As a consequence, they are more likely to underperform in terms of meeting their inrole service requirements, and are less likely to go the extra mile to ensure that customer needs are met. Thus, we predict that: H1a. Transactional psychological contract is negatively related to service-oriented in-role performance. H1b. Transactional psychological contract is negatively related to service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors.

Relational psychological contracts are based on a long-term employment relationship grounded in relational and socioemotional exchanges (Hui et al., 2004; Millward & Hopkins, 1998). The non-monetary nature inherent within a relational psychological contract focuses on loyalty, support, trust, job security, as well as career growth and development (Hui et al., 2004; Rousseau, 1990). Employees with relational psychological contracts highly value their relationship with the organization, and are interested in securing a long-term employment (Chang et al., 2013). By implication, they often act as organizational citizens by performing above and beyond their assigned duties and responsibilities to promote organizational success (Rousseau, 1995). Supporting this assertion, Millward and Hopkins (1998) found that employees with relational psychological contracts undertake a high number of extra hours worked per week without pay. In contrast to those that espouse transactional contracts, employees with relational psychological contracts are more likely to persevere and are less likely to quit (Raja et al., 2004). As such, it is likely that employees with relational psychological contracts will be willing to exceed their role requirements to achieve even higher levels of service delivery. Thus, we offer the following hypotheses: H2a. Relational psychological contract is positively related to service-oriented in-role performance. H2b. Relational psychological contract is positively related to service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors.

2.2. The mediating role of organizational identification Relational psychological contracts may not only regulate in-role and extra-role performance directly, but also indirectly through other mechanisms. Although such mechanisms are not well understood (Hui et al., 2004), Rousseau (1998) suggests that organizational identification may serve as one important mechanism. Organizational identification, which involves the expansion of the self-concept to include the organization and in turn predisposes employees to act in the interests of the organization (Ashforth & Mael, 1989), is more likely to develop through relational psychological contracts. Individuals with relational psychological contracts are more likely to identify with the organization for two reasons. First, having a relational psychological contract implies that the organization, through its socialization processes, has met the employee's expectations in terms of providing socio-emotional rewards by engendering trust, loyalty, providing support, and fostering fairness, alongside providing economic or monetary rewards (Rousseau, 1995). In exchange for such benefits, employees will be emotionally invested in the welfare and success of the organization. Thus, identifying with the organization, and incorporating it into the self-concept, is a way that employees with relational psychological contracts can manifest their relational obligations and help them maintain strong ties with the organization. Instead of developing and growing in an organization, such employees develop and grow with the organization. Second, relational psychological contracts create a need for employees to foster a longer-term relationship with the organization which has important implications for identification. Having a longer-term orientation to the employment relationship means that employees are more likely to associate their sense of self-worth with the success of the organization because of their desire to meet their relational obligations and sustain a longer-term relationship with the organization (Millward & Hopkins, 1998; Restubog et al., 2008).

V.N. Lu et al. / Tourism Management 56 (2016) 8e19

Given that organizational identification represents an attachment to the organization in which its characteristics and success are incorporated into an individual's self-concept (Dutton, Dukerich, & Harquail, 1994), it is recognized to have important implications for the behaviors of the individual. Social identity theory postulates that individuals act and behave in ways that are consistent with the strength and focus of their identification, and doing so enhances their self-esteem (Van Knippenberg, 2000). When employees identify with their organization, self-interests and organizational interests become enmeshed such that organizational accomplishments become personal accomplishments. Under conditions of high identification, genuine concern for the success and effectiveness of the organization is enhanced (Dutton et al., 1994). Indeed, employees with greater levels of organizational identification are less restricted in defining their job roles and engage in activities that benefit the organization (Christ, Van Dick, Wagner, & Stellmacher, 2003; Van der Vegt, Van de Vliert, & Oosterhof, 2003). Further, individuals with a strong identification with the organization are likely to increase their in-role performance and direct more effort towards their roles because it serves the interests of the organization and in so doing reinforces their self-esteem (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Riketta, 2005; Van Knippenberg, 2000; Van Knippenberg & Van Shie, 2000). Since the success of tourism operators is heavily contingent on the provision of high quality customer service, we predict that employees who strongly identify with the organization put in extra effort toward their in-role performance involving high quality customer service. Thus, it is likely that employees identifying with the organization will contribute more than what is expected of them. In addition to increasing service-oriented in-role performance, organizational identification is likely to bolster service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors. Employees with a strong identification have a strong interest in promoting organizational success, and as such, are likely to engage in altruistic behaviors because doing so contributes to organizational effectiveness (Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2004). Indeed, organizational identification increases service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors which extend beyond in-role task requirements (Restubog et al., 2008). In a meta-analysis, Riketta (2005) found that organizational identification was positively associated with organizational citizenship behaviors. Furthermore, organizational identification may be related to both service-oriented in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors because having a relational psychological contract reinforces an employee's identification with the organization, and this in turn boosts customeroriented in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. As such, we propose that: H3a. Relational psychological contract is indirectly related to service-oriented in-role performance via organizational identification. H3b. Relational psychological contract is indirectly related to service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors via organizational identification. Conversely, organizational identification is unlikely to emerge from transactional psychological contracts due to their content. The basis of transactional psychological contracts is purely economic and short-term, and independent from an employee's identity which is more likely to be derived from sources other than the organization (Millward & Hopkins, 1988). Unlike relational psychological contracts, transactional psychological contracts are purely instrumental and economic rather than socio-emotional. Accordingly, employees with such contracts have little intention of developing a longer-term relationship with the organization

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beyond economic exchange. Given that organizational identification is more likely to emerge from conditions that foster relational psychological contracts rather than those which give rise to transactional psychological contracts, we propose that organizational identification is unlikely to serve as a mediator between transactional psychological contracts and outcomes. Thus, we expect that transactional psychological contracts will only have a direct effect on service behaviors rather than through cognitive or perceptual mechanisms. The hypothesized relationships are summarized in Fig. 1. 3. Method 3.1. Research context The Philippines is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN, 2015), whose Tourism Strategic Vision 20162015 states: “By 2025, ASEAN will be a quality tourism destination offering a unique, diverse ASEAN experience, and will be committed to responsible, sustainable and inclusive tourism development, so as to contribute significantly to the socioeconomic well-being of ASEAN people”. Among the key focus areas derived from this vision are quality tourism, labor and skills competence development, sustainable growth and development, connectivity and travel facilitation. In line with the regional plan, the current government has facilitated an influx of investment and development activities in the tourism industry. With the popular campaign ‘It's more fun in the Philippines’, the Philippines achieved a record high number of around 4.83 million inbound tourists in 2014 (Department of Tourism, 2015; Torres, 2015). In 2015, its tourism industry is expected to generate 4.33 million jobs and contribute approximately 34 billion USD to the national GDP (WTTC, 2015). As a result of its bold initiative, the Philippines will continue to spend about 28 billion USD in capital investment into the tourism industry over the next decade (WTTC, 2015). Such a promising outlook in its tourism industry makes the Philippines an ideal research context for the study. 3.2. Participants and procedure Using a convenience sampling approach, we collected data from a sample of full-time frontline employees of hotels in the Philippines. Survey questionnaires were administered to the 303 participants, who were undertaking an advanced course in hotel operations and service management in Manila, over two phases, approximately 2 weeks apart. We measured the independent and mediator variables (e.g., relational psychological contracts, transactional psychological contracts, organizational identification, and demographic variables) in phase 1 and obtained the outcome variables (e.g., service-oriented in-role performance and serviceoriented organizational citizenship behaviors) in phase 2. Each employee received a brief survey kit which was administered and collected at the end of the day. Completed questionnaires contained identity codes to enable employee responses to be matched with those of her/his corresponding supervisor and co-worker. The participants in our study were clearly informed that they could choose to withdraw from the research at any time. Upon completion of the surveys, all participants received a coffee voucher as a token for participating in the study. In the first phase, we received a total of 272 employee surveys corresponding to a response rate of 89.77%. In the second phase, two weeks after the first round of data collection, the 272 employees received two brief survey forms. One survey form assessing service-oriented in-role performance was given to their immediate supervisor and the second survey form assessing service-oriented

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V.N. Lu et al. / Tourism Management 56 (2016) 8e19

Transactional psychological contract

Relational psychological contract

H1a

Service-oriented in-role performance (Supervisor reported)

H1b

H2a

Service-oriented organizational citizenship behavior (Coworker reported)

H2b

Organizational identification H3a,b Fig. 1. Proposed conceptual model.

organizational citizenship behaviors was passed onto a co-worker who worked closely with the focal employee on a regular basis. The supervisors and co-workers returned the completed survey forms using the pre-paid reply envelopes directly to the research team. We received 215 supervisor surveys and 230 co-worker surveys yielding a response rate of 79.04% and 84.56%, respectively. Upon closer inspection, we disregarded employee, coworker and supervisor surveys: a) with wrong or missing identity codes, b) with a large number of missing responses (i.e., greater than 50% of unanswered survey questions), and c) which were not completed. Overall, the two rounds of data collection resulted in 199 matched employee e supervisor e co-worker triads. Table 1 provides an overview of the three sub-samples. Specifically, the employee sample consisted of 68% females, 89% were below 30 years of age, and 34% have been with the organization for more than 5 years. The supervisor sample included 54% females with an average age of 35 years and an average tenure of 7 years. The coworker sample consisted of 47% females. Age was assessed using age bands (along with percentage of sample in each band): 26e30 years (36.7%), 31e35 (36.2%), 36e40 (19.6%), 41e45 (4%), and 46e50 (3.5%). Coworker tenure was reported as follows: 1e5 years (10.6%), 6e10 years (53.8%), 11e15 years (28.6%), 16e20 years, (2%), and 21e25 years (5%).

3.3. Measures As English is widely spoken in the Philippines (Bernardo, 2004), survey items were presented in English. With the exception of the demographic variables, the response format of all measurement items was a 7-point Likert scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree, 2 ¼ disagree, 3 ¼ somewhat disagree, 4 ¼ neither disagree nor agree, 5 ¼ somewhat agree, 6 ¼ agree, 7 ¼ strongly agree).

3.3.1. Relational psychological contracts We measured relational psychological contract based on the 9item scale developed by Raja et al. (2004). Based on the seminal work of Millward and Hopkins (1998), Raja et al. (2004) developed a shortened scale of relational psychological contract. This scale has a high level of convergent validity with Rousseau's (2000) Psychological Contract Inventory. The scale has also been adopted and used in recent psychological contract studies (e.g., Chang et al., 2013; Zagenczyk et al., 2014). A sample item for relational psychological contract is, “I am motivated 100% to this company in return for future employment”. 3.3.2. Transactional psychological contracts We measured transactional psychological contracts using the scale designed by Raja et al. (2004). For this study, we used a shorter 7-item measure chosen based on high factor loadings. In order to provide evidence that the shortened 7-item scale of transactional psychological contracts was conceptually equivalent to the 9-item measure, we administered the full measure to an independent sample of 147 restaurant workers in the Philippines. According to the bivariate correlations, both versions of the transactional psychological contract scale are highly related, r ¼ .93, p < .001. A sample item for transactional psychological contract is, “I only carry out what is necessary to get the job done”. 3.3.3. Organizational identification We used a 6-item scale developed by Mael and Ashforth (1992) to assess organizational identification. The focal employee was asked to rate their perceived oneness with the organization. A sample item is, “This hotel's successes are my successes”. 3.3.4. Service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors The 5-item scale on extra-role behavior, developed by Bettencourt and Brown (1997), was used to measure service-

Table 1 Sample description. Data samples

Gender

Age

Tenure

Employee sample Supervisor sample Coworker sample

68% females 54% females 47% females

89% below 30 years old Average ¼ 35 years old 72.9% below 35 years old

34% below 5 years Average ¼ 7 years 64.4% below 10 years

V.N. Lu et al. / Tourism Management 56 (2016) 8e19

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Table 2 Results of the confirmatory factor analysis of the measurement model. Items Transactional psychological contract (a ¼ .86) Parcel 1 My commitment to this organization is defined by my contract. I do not identify with the organization's goals Parcel 2 My loyalty to the organization is contract specific. I work to achieve the purely short term goals of my job. Parcel 3 I work only the hours set out in my contract and no more. I prefer to work as strictly defined set of working hours. I only carry out what is necessary to get the job done. Relational psychological contract (a ¼ .93) Parcel 1 I feel this organization reciprocates the effort put in by its employees. I expect to grow in this organization. My career path in this organization is clearly mapped out. Parcel 2 I am motivated to contribute 100% to this organization in return for future employment benefits. I feel part of a team in this organization. I expected to gain promotion in this organization with length of service and effort to achieve goals. Parcel 3 I have a reasonable chance of promotion if I work hard. To me, working for this organization is like being a member of a family. The organization develops/rewards employees who work hard and exert themselves. Organizational identification (a ¼ .89) Parcel 1 This hotel's successes are my successes. If a story in the media criticizes this hotel, I would feel embarrassed. Parcel 2 When someone praises this hotel, it feels like a personal compliment. When I talk about this hotel, I usually say “we” rather than “they”. Parcel 3 When someone criticizes this hotel, it feels like a personal insult. I am very interested in what others think about this hotel. Service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors (a ¼ .81) Parcel 1 This person voluntarily assists guests even if it means going beyond job requirements. This person goes out of his/her way to help a guest. Parcel 2 This person helps guests with problems beyond what is expected or required. This person often goes above and beyond the call of duty when serving guests. Parcel 3 This person willingly goes out of his/her way to make a guest satisfied. Service-oriented in-role performance (a ¼ .90) This person performs all those tasks for guests that are required of him/her. This person fulfills responsibilities to guests as specified in his/her job description. This person meets formal performance requirements when serving/assisting guests. This person adequately completes all expected customer service behaviors.

oriented organizational citizenship behaviors. This scale was particularly appropriate for our study as it measures citizenship behaviors in the customer service context. We asked each co-worker to rate the extent to which the focal employee was observed exhibiting extra-role behaviors. A sample item is, “This person helps guests with problems beyond what is expected or required”. 3.3.5. Service-oriented in-role performance As with organizational citizenship behaviors, we measured service-oriented in-role performance using four items developed by Bettencourt and Brown (1997). We asked each supervisor to rate the extent to which the focal employee performed his/her duties and responsibilities in the customer service context. A sample item is, “This person meets formal performance requirements when serving/assisting guests”. 3.3.6. Control variables Previous research suggests that older and more experienced workers may outperform their younger and less experienced counterparts in both objective and subjective ratings of

Mean

SD

Factor loading

3.37

1.13

.91

3.35

1.23

.86

3.83

1.15

.72

4.96

1.09

.85

5.20

1.12

.96

5.32

1.21

.92

4.96

1.15

.86

5.01

1.14

.90

4.61

1.21

.78

5.24

.90

.90

4.91

.97

.75

5.11

1.03

.80

5.31 5.51 5.62 5.57

1.16 1.06 1.10 1.09

.92 .83 .69 .82

performance (Liden, Stilwell, & Ferris, 1996). Given this, we controlled for the focal employees' organizational tenure. Further, Liden et al. (1996) found a positive relationship between rater age (e.g., supervisor) and performance ratings. This can be explained by attribution theory, which suggests that older individuals may have greater knowledge of external causes for the performance of subordinates, which will less likely result in immediate and biased ratings (Kelley, 1973). As such, we also controlled for supervisor's and coworker's age. 4. Results 4.1. Confirmatory factor analyses In order to establish the discriminant validity of the study variables, we conducted a series of confirmatory factor analyses using maximum likelihood estimation. Given the sample size limitations, we followed the approach by Little, Cunningham, Shahar, and Widaman (2002) and created item parcels to improve the ratio of N relative to the number of parameters to be estimated. Items were

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V.N. Lu et al. / Tourism Management 56 (2016) 8e19

threshold value of .60. All AVEs were also above the suggested value of .50. Overall, these results provide validity and reliability evidence for the study variables.

Table 3 Fit indices of 4 alternative models. Model

c2

df

c2/df

CFI

TLI

SRMR

RMSEA

c2diff

M1: M2: M3: M4:

364.35 340.16 322.10 188.44

97 95 94 93

3.76 3.58 3.43 2.03

.88 .89 .90 .96

.85 .86 .87 .95

.31 .28 .21 .05

.12 .11 .11 .07

e 24.19 18.06 133.66

Two factors Three factors Four factors Five factors

Note: All c2diff are statistically significant, p < .001.

4.2. Hypothesis testing Although it would have been ideal to use structural equation modeling, our sample size was smaller than the number of pa-

Table 4 Means, standard deviations, reliability, validity, and correlations of all variables. Variables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Organizational tenure Coworker's age Supervisor's age Transactional psychological contract Relational psychological contract Organizational identification Service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors Servie-oriented in-role performance

a

.86 .93 .89 .81 .90

CR

.87 .93 .89 .86 .89

AVE

M

SD

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

.70 .83 .67 .67 .72

2.28 3.02 34.54 3.56 5.16 4.86 5.08 5.50

.60 1.02 6.19 1.04 1.07 1.05 .85 .96

.20** .01 .08 .14* .09 .01 .07

.36*** .16* .04 .03 .04 .16*

.13 .02 .01 .06 .19**

(.83) .24** .14* .27*** .26***

(.91) .51*** .39*** .50***

(.82) .39*** .45***

(.82) .49***

(.85)

Note: Numbers in parentheses are square roots of the average variance extracted. CR ¼ composite reliability; AVE ¼ average variance extracted; M ¼ mean; SD ¼ standard deviation. N ¼ 199; *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

combined into parcels using the factorial algorithm approach wherein items with the highest factor loadings are combined first, followed by the next highest and lowest loadings. Descriptive statistics and factor loadings associated with each parcel are presented in Table 2. The fit of the five-factor model was acceptable, c2(93) ¼ 188.44, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 2.03, CFI ¼ .96, TLI ¼ .95, SRMR ¼ .05, RMSEA ¼ .07 (CI 90%: .06 e .09). The five-factor model was also compared with three alternative models. Model 1 combined constructs based on source; thus service-oriented in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors were combined into Factor 1 since these were measured using co-worker and supervisor ratings, while Factor 2 consisted of self-reported constructs (i.e., transactional and relational psychological contracts, organizational identification), c2(97) ¼ 364.35, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 3.76, CFI ¼ .88, TLI ¼ .85, SRMR ¼ .31, RMSEA ¼ .12 (CI 90%: .11 e .13). In Model 2, we combined the two psychological contract types into Factor 1, organizational identification as Factor 2, and combined service-oriented in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors into Factor 3, c2(95) ¼ 340.16, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 3.58, CFI ¼ .89, TLI ¼ .86, SRMR ¼ .28, RMSEA ¼ .11 (CI 90%: .10 - .13). Model 3 was similar to Model 2 except that we treated the two dependent variables as two separate constructs, c2(94) ¼ 322.10, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 3.43, CFI ¼ .90, TLI ¼ .87, SRMR ¼ .21, RMSEA ¼ .11 (CI 90%: .10 - .12). Results of the chi-square difference test between the five-factor model (Model 4) and the best fitting four-factor model (Model 3) suggested that the former had the best fit c2diff(1) ¼ 133.66, p < .001. Table 3 shows a summary of the different model tests. Overall, the results for Model 4 suggest that the study constructs are distinct from one another. We further examined discriminant validity of the variables by comparing the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) of each construct and its correlation coefficients with other constructs. As seen in Table 4, all square roots of AVE of each construct are greater than the correlation coefficients, confirming the discriminant validity of each latent construct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Convergent validity of the study constructs were also supported by item reliability, composite reliability (CR), and AVEs (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006). The standardized factor loadings of all indicators met the minimum criterion of .50 (Hair et al., 2006). The CRs ranged from .86 to .93, meeting the

rameters to be estimated, resulting in insufficient power required for structural model estimation (Westland, 2010). Furthermore, we tested whether our data met the assumption of multivariate normality. As Mardia's standardized coefficient for the measurement model (92.02) exceeded the criterion of 5, the data appeared to have a multivariate non-normal distribution (Byrne, 2006). Given these, we chose to test the proposed relationships using the PROCESS macro developed by Hayes (2013), because it makes no assumptions about the normal distribution of the indirect and total effects of the mediators. In addition, PROCESS allows for the estimation of bootstrapped confidence intervals for each hypothesized path in the model. Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations are presented in Table 4. Given that supervisor's tenure, supervisor's age (r ¼ .19, p < .01) and coworker's age (r ¼ .16, p < .05) were significantly related to service-oriented in-role performance, these variables were controlled for in the subsequent analyses. Consistent with Hypotheses 1a and 1b, transactional psychological contract was negatively related to supervisor-reported service-oriented in-role performance (b ¼ .23, 95% bootstrap CI from .37 to .10) and co-worker-reported service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors (b ¼ .27, 95% bootstrap CI from .40 to .13). Results also supported Hypotheses 2a and 2b as relational psychological contract was positively related to supervisor-reported service-oriented in-role performance (b ¼ .51, 95% bootstrap CI from .39 to .63) and coworker-reported service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors (b ¼ .39, 95% bootstrap CI from .26 to .52). Hypotheses 3a and 3b proposed that relational psychological contract will be indirectly related to service-oriented in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors via organizational identification. The indirect effect between relational psychological contract and service-oriented in-role performance was significant (indirect effect ¼ .14; 95% bootstrap CI from .06 to .24). In addition, the direct effect of relational psychological contract on service-oriented in-role performance remained statistically significant (direct effect ¼ .37; 95% bootstrap CI from .24 to .50) over and above the indirect effect suggesting partial mediation. Similarly, the indirect effect between relational psychological contract and service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors was significant (indirect effect ¼ .13; 95% bootstrap CI from .03 to .25). The direct effect of relational psychological contract on service-

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15

Table 5 Summary of path coefficients with corresponding bootstrap confidence intervals. Path

Without organizational identification as a mediator (Hypotheses 1a,1b,2a, and 2b) Direct effect of transactional psychological contract Direct effect of relational psychological contract With organizational identification as a mediator (Hypotheses 3a and 3b) Direct effect of transactional psychological contract Direct effect of relational psychological contract Indirect effect of relational psychological contract via organizational identification Indirect effect of transactional psychological contract via organizational identification

Service-oriented in-role performance

Service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors

B

95% CI

B

95% CI

.23 .51

.37 to .10 .39 to .63

.27 .39

.40 to .13 .26 to .52

.19 .37 .14 .06

.30 to .07 .24 to .50 .06 to .24 .14 to .00

.18 .26 .13 .04

.28 to .07 .11 to .41 .03 to .25 .11 to .00

Note: N ¼ 199; 95% confidence intervals are based on 5000 bootstrap samples.

oriented organizational citizenship behaviors also remained significant over and above the indirect effect indicating partial mediation (direct effect ¼ .26; 95% bootstrap CI from .11 to .41). Overall, both Hypotheses 3a and 3b were supported. We also ran additional analyses to test whether transactional psychological contract would be indirectly related to serviceoriented behaviors via organizational identification. The indirect effect was not significant for both service-oriented in-role performance (indirect effect ¼ .06; 95% bootstrap CI from .14 to .00) and service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors (indirect effect ¼ .04; 95% bootstrap CI from .11 to .00). Table 5 provides a summary of the path coefficients and their associated bootstrap confidence intervals. 5. Discussion Our study results confirmed the positive and significant relationships between relational psychological contracts and serviceoriented behaviors. Specifically, frontline hotel employees with relational psychological contracts are more effective in performing their job and are more willing to put in extra customer service effort. These findings are consistent with prior work on psychological contracts in non-service work environments (e.g., Hui et al., 2004; Millward & Hopkins, 1998; Raja et al., 2004; Zagenczyk et al., 2014) which suggested that relational psychological contracts exert a positive influence on employee behaviors (e.g., higher levels of job satisfaction, job commitment, and lower turnover intentions). Our findings lend support to the need for tourism corporations to develop strategies that foster their employees' relational psychological contracts. For instance, the InterContinental Hotels Group highlights the prospects of global career development opportunities and the focus on the uniqueness that individual employees offer to the organization. To demonstrate the effectiveness of its strategy, the group explicitly states on its career page, “Our success flows from the thousands of people around the world who form part of the IHG team. It's their ideas, inspiration and effort that make us who we are. It's their individuality that we love … Not only through the discounts we offer our employees across the world, but also through the global opportunities we can offer ambitious and driven people who work for us” (InterContinental Hotels Group, 2016). In line with Zagenczyk et al. (2014), we found that transactional psychological contracts in our sample were negatively associated with both in-role and extra-role behaviors. Our findings therefore extend prior work (Bal et al., 2013; Millward & Hopkins, 1998; Raja et al., 2004) which focused on lower work engagement, reduced job satisfaction and job commitment, and higher turnover intentions associated with transactional contracts. Specifically, our results suggest that the negative impact of transactional psychological contracts extend beyond employees' satisfaction, commitment, and intentions to both their in-role and extra-role performance. There

are two possible explanations for this finding. The first explanation is that employees with transactional psychological contracts tend to focus on the tangible rewards from their jobs (e.g., pay, see Millward & Hopkins, 1998). Hence, they are likely to do the bare minimum when serving customers, which is considered inadequate for the tourism industry. For instance, these employees will make no effort in making suggestions to improve customer service delivery and are not effective in acting as ambassadors of the organization. In other words, transactional psychological contracts preclude employees from engaging in service-oriented behaviors. The second explanation of the negative relationships between transactional psychological contracts and service-oriented behaviors is the nature of the tourism sector. Its repetitive work routine, unfavorable working conditions, low wages and a lack of promotional opportunities suggest a high level of economic and employment uncertainty for the employees, who might perceive that they have fewer organizational obligations to perform. Hence, the little enjoyment they gain from their employment will prompt them to only “perform in ways consistent with the contributions they are paid to make” (Rousseau, 2004, p. 122). This in turn leads to reduced service-oriented work behaviors. As a result, our investigation of relational and transactional psychological contracts in the context of frontline customer service in hotels also has important implications for practitioners, especially in terms of recruiting and retaining employees with a high customer-centric mindset. Our empirical analysis of the mediating role of organizational identification warrants further discussion. On the one hand, our analysis indicated that organizational identification did not mediate the relationships between transactional psychological contracts and service-oriented behaviors. This further provides support for the direct negative influence of transactional psychological contracts on service-oriented behaviors. On the other hand, our results showed that organizational identification is one important psychological mechanism which translates relational psychological contracts into service-oriented in-role and extra-role behaviors. That is, employees with relational psychological contracts are more likely to identify with their organizations. Moreover, organizational identification is beneficial to the organizations and their constituents. It affords employees with a sense of security, belongingness, and purpose (O'Reilly III & Chatman, 1986). Similarly, employees who strongly identify with their organization demonstrate organizational loyalty and protect organizational interests (Dutton et al., 1994). Previous studies in service and retail settings have also emphasized the importance of organizational identification in customer-related outcomes. Identification is positively associated with service quality (Bell & Menguc, 2002), customer satisfaction (Solnet, 2007), customer identification with the organization and increased customer spending (Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, & Maxham III, 2010). In this study, we have found that relational psychological contract is an important antecedent of

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organizational identification. Our findings are also consistent with prior conceptual work linking these two constructs (Rousseau, 1998), and also support the findings of Restubog et al. (2008) who show that relational psychological contract breach contributed to diminishing trust and organizational identification, which in turn reduced organizational citizenship behaviors. As such, it is important for tourism providers to recognize the quality of the employment relationship in enabling organizational identification which has beneficial behavioral consequences. 6. Implications for tourism operators In addition to intense industry competition, tourism providers are confronted by increasingly diverse demands and preferences from customers (EY, 2014). The behaviors of frontline employees in this industry are heavily scrutinized by customers and the wider public, making their effectiveness more pivotal to the success of organizations in this industry. Given the well-established linkage between service-oriented behaviors of frontline employees and customer satisfaction and service outcomes (Bell & Menguc, 2002; Bettencourt & Brown, 1997; Tsaur & Lin, 2004), our study has important implications for hotel operators and the tourism industry more generally. Our results highlight the nature of employees' employment relationship, demonstrated through psychological contracts, can significantly influence their pro-social service behaviors in a hotel setting. Our results suggest that in order to enhance the service-oriented in-role and extra-role behaviors of frontline employees, tourism organizations need to develop and foster relational as opposed to transactional psychological contracts with their employees. This is because relational psychological contrasts enable employees to develop a stronger organizational identity. In order to do so, it is important for managers of tourism organizations to be highly responsive, supportive, and respectful to employees and treat them as valued members of the organization with the potential for career development and progression (Bordia, Restubog, Bordia, & Tang, in press; Restubog, Bordia, & Bordia, 2011; Rousseau, 1998). While doing so will enable service excellence, it does require changes to the traditional work arrangements in the tourism sector (e.g., repetitive work routine, unfavorable working conditions, low wages, etc.) that have otherwise fostered transactional psychological contracts. One possible strategy to foster employees' development of relational psychological contracts and engender their sense of organizational identification is to adopt mentoring programs, flexible job design, appropriate training programs and performance appraisals, as well as clear career pathways throughout the organization (Pan, 2015; Wan, Wong, & Kong, 2014; Yang, 2007). Another strategy is to implement internal marketing activities. Internal marketing refers to “the philosophy for managing the organization's human resources based on a marketing perspective” (George, 1990, p. 64), ensuring that the employees fully understand the organization (its business activities, brand image, goals and strategic direction) and that the employees will perform and deliver customer services with organizational interests at heart. The internal marketing activities of a tourism organization should entail three dimensions, including internal communication, training, and internal marketing research (Huang & Rundle-Thiele, 2014). These internal marketing activities are facilitated by a culture of open communication and responsive management, enabling employees to openly discuss with supervisors and coworkers ways to improve their job conditions, and suggest new ideas to bolster customer service delivery. Through these initiatives, frontline employees realize the value of service quality and are motivated to be at their best in service encounters (Huang & Rundle-Thiele, 2014; Karatepe, 2013; Sharpley & Forster, 2003; Tang & Tang, 2012). The

effectiveness of these activities can be captured through internal measurements of employees' job satisfaction and organizational commitment, as well as external customer feedback about the service-oriented behaviors of the frontline workers. Further, in terms of specific implications for recruitment and selection, tourism organizations should take into account the ways in which potential employees differ in their psychological contracts when selecting job candidates. Job candidates looking for longterm employment opportunities as well as specialized training and development opportunities are more likely to form relational contracts with their organizations (Rousseau, 2004). Personality traits can also influence the type psychological contracts that an employee is oriented toward. For example, employees with high neuroticism or equity sensitivity are more likely to have transactional psychological contracts, whereas workers who are highly conscientious and have high self-esteem will prefer relational psychological contracts (Raja et al., 2004; Restubog, Bordia, & Tang, 2007; Rousseau, 2004). 7. Conclusion, contributions and future research directions Employees' service-oriented behaviors play an increasingly critical role in the success of tourism organizations (Buonocore, 2010; Fisher et al., 2010). The key issues that pose a significant challenge to service excellence in this industry include poor worklife balance, high customer complaints, high turnover and low employee commitment (Karatepe & Sokmen, 2006). The current study aims to enrich the existing knowledge about the drivers of service-oriented behaviors of frontline employees in the tourism industry. Through the sample of 199 matched employee-coworkersupervisors triads in hotels in the Philippines, we have shown that relational psychological contracts increase service-oriented behaviors whereas transactional psychological contracts diminish such behaviors. We also have shown that relational psychological contracts impact service-oriented behaviors through organizational identification. In contrast, transactional psychological contracts are likely to prevent service employees from developing strong organizational identification which reduces their service-oriented inrole performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. Altogether, our findings highlight that in the tourism context, the type of relationships employees form with their organization is a critical antecedent for organizational identification and service excellence. More specifically, our study makes four important contributions to the tourism management literature and addresses several calls for research on employee perceptions and behaviors within tourism organizations (Buonocore, 2010; Solnet, 2007). First, prior research has identified several predictors of serviceoriented in-role and organizational citizenship behaviors of tourism employees. These include individual differences (e.g., ability to form working relationships with leader, customer, and coworkers, organizational commitment, and work engagement) and job-related characteristics such as job demands, job resources, and workload (Chen & Chen, 2014; Kim, O'Neil, & Cho, 2010; Ma & Qu, 2011; Wang & Wong, 2011; Wei et al., 2012). Increasing research attention has also been devoted to organizational factors such as justice climate, high performance, human resources practices and service climate (Karatepe, 2013; Tang & Tang, 2012; Yen & Teng, 2013). However, our current understanding on the antecedents of service-oriented behaviors of frontline employees in the tourism industry remains incomplete. To this end, our study focused on the nature of the employment relationship and examined the previously overlooked roles of psychological contracts in predicting service-oriented in-role and extra-role service-oriented behaviors of frontline hotel employees in the Philippines. Second, this study contributes to a limited number of studies

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examining associations among psychological contracts and employee pro-social behaviors in the tourism industry. Most of the studies on psychological contracts have focused on contract breach (i.e., failure on the part of the organization to fulfill promised obligations) and its impact on employee attitudes and behaviors (Bordia, Restubog, & Tang, 2008; Kiazad, Seibert, & Kraimer, 2014; Kiewitz, Restubog, Zagencyzk, & Hochwarter, 2009; Restubog et al., 2008; Restubog, Bordia, & Tang, 2006; Restubog et al., 2015). We enrich research in this area by investigating the effects of relational and transactional psychological contracts on service-oriented inrole performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. The third contribution of this paper is the integration of psychological contract and social identity theories to identify an important mediating mechanism through which psychological contracts drive service-oriented behaviors. Specifically, we found support for the role of organizational identification as a critical intervening mechanism, which has received limited attention in tourism research (Solnet, 2007). In addition to the empirical and theoretical contributions, our study also makes an important methodological contribution. More than 90% of hospitality and tourism management studies rely on single source data (Line & Runyan, 2012). This is problematic because single source data are prone to measurement error and common methods bias (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). A major methodological strength of the present study involves the triangulation of data from three different sources. We assessed the types of psychological contracts from employees, service-oriented in-role performance from supervisors, and serviceoriented organizational citizenship behaviors from co-workers. Nevertheless, our study is not without its limitations. A major limitation of our work is that we used a cross-sectional design, thereby, precluding us from drawing conclusions regarding the causal relationships among the study variables. While we have utilized a temporal design separating the measurement of the independent, mediator and outcome variables, our findings cannot establish causality but only support the plausibility of the proposed relationships among the variables. A second limitation is that we did not collect data on customer outcomes. However, on the basis of prior research (e.g., Bell & Menguc, 2002; Bettencourt & Brown, 1997; Tsaur & Lin, 2004), we would expect service-oriented inrole and extra-role behaviors to increase customer satisfaction and service quality. Third, we collected data from the Philippines. As culture can have both cognitive and motivational influences on an individual's formation of psychological contract (Thomas, Au, & Ravlin, 2003), future research may want to explore how psychological contracts influence service behaviors of employees from different countries and cultural settings. Given the growing literature on psychological contract breach, future research may examine what happens when service organizations renege each type of contract and how they can repair these contractual transgressions. For example, does relational psychological contract breach result in worse outcomes than transactional contract breach, given that relational contracts are more salient to employees' identification process? Further, given that we only found support for partial mediation, future studies should examine other mediating mechanisms that could potentially influence the relationship between relational psychological contracts and service-oriented behaviors. While our study established the role of organizational identification as one mediating mechanism, more research is needed to investigate how psychological contracts shape service-oriented behaviors through other psychological mechanisms. For instance, work on psychological contracts suggests that psychological contracts influence perceptions and cognitions pertaining to employees' obligations in relation to them performing their work roles (Rousseau, 1995). Based on this, it would be interesting for future

17

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Vinh Lu is Senior Lecturer in the Research School of Management at the Australian National University. Vinh conducts research in the fields of entrepreneurship, career development, and service delivery. His research has been published in the Journal of Vocational Behavior, Health Psychology, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Strategic Marketing, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Personality and Individual Differences, Service Industries Journal, among others.

Alessandra Capezio is a Senior Lecturer in the Research School of Management at the Australian National University. Her research focuses on career development, social identification, leadership, and corporate governance. Her research has been published in the Journal of Management Studies, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Journal of Construction and Engineering Management, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Career Assessment, Australian Journal of Management, and Asia Pacific Journal of Management.

Simon Lloyd D. Restubog is Professor of Management in the Research School of Management at the Australian National University. His research interests include the dark

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side of human behavior in organizations, antecedents and maintenance of psychological contracts, and career development. Simon has published on these topics in a wide variety of journals including, the Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Management, Journal of Management Studies, Leadership Quarterly, Journal of Vocational Behavior, British Journal of Industrial Relations, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, among others. He is serving on the editorial boards of the Journal of Management, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Business & Psychology, Group & Organization Management, and Journal of Management & Organization.

Patrick Garcia is Assistant Professor in Organizational Behavior (tenure-track) in the Grossman School of Business at The University of Vermont. His research focuses on the antecedents, mechanisms, and consequences of workplace aggression (e.g., supervisory abuse and workplace deviance) as well as the role of socio-cognitive factors in career development. To date, he has published in well-respected outlets such as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Leadership Quarterly, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Research in Personality, Personality and Individual Differences, and Journal of Career Assessment.

Lu Wang is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Management at University of New South Wales' Australian School of Business. Nick's current research focuses primarily on leadership and emotions. His research has been published in Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, Journal of Management, Leadership Quarterly, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Research in Personality, Personality and Individual Differences, Journal of Business and Psychology, Journal of Service Management, Management & Organization Review, among others.