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Judgement of mood in music following right hemisphere damage
Archives of C~inicolffwopsychology, Vol. 5, pp. 359-371, Printed in the USA. All rights reserved.
1990 CopyrIght
0 1990 National
0887-6177190 $3.04 + .@‘I Academy of Neuropsychology
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Clynda
Damage
Kinsella, Margot Prior, and Vicki Jones
La fiobe University, Bundoora,
Victoria, Australia 3083
Evidence on hemispheric specialization has implicated the right hemisphere as having a special role in the mediation of emotion. Since music is an area in which both cognitive and affective aspects of perception can be assessed, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of right hemisphere damage on perception of emotional meaning or mood in music. An initial pilot study was conducted to select music on which normal subjects were consistent in their judgement of musical mood. The musical stimuli consisted of extracts of classical piano music. The technique used as a measure of musical mood was the Semantic Differential. Tracks of music and adjectival scales were selected for the experimental study in which 15 right hemisphere lesioned patients and normal controls were compared in their response to music. The right hemisphere group demonstrated a characteristic response in their judgement of mood in music. The results are discussed in terms of the role of pitch in judgement of mood in music and in terms of the relationship between music and language.
The earliest suggestion of differential hemisphere involvement in affective behaviour comes from the clinical observation of unilaterally brain damaged subjects (Gainotti, 1972; Goldstein, 1939). Specifically, polar opposite emotional reactions were observed to occur in patients after left and right hemisphere damage. The catastrophic-depressive response of the left hemisphere subjects was compounded by frequent accompanying aphasic disor-
Acknowledgments-The authors thank the Music Department, La Trobe University, especially Brian Parrish for the generation of the computer-based music stimuli; Andrew Mann and Greg Murray for able assistance in the data collection and analysis; Bruce Ford, for permission to access his patients for the purposes of research; and the stroke patients who gave their time so willingly to this research. Requests for reprints should be sent to Dr. G. Kinsella, Department of Psychology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia 3083.
359
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G. Kinsella, M. Prior, and FCJones
ders but the characteristic indifference response of the right hemisphere subjects was taken to implicate the right hemisphere as having a special role in the mediation of emotion. This observation has since been explored in a large number of clinical and experimental studies reported over the last decade (Buck & Duffy, 1980; Cicone, Wapner, & Gardner, 1980; De Kosky, Heilman, Bowers, & Valenstein, 1980; Ross, 1981). In general the research consistently suggests a right hemisphere dominance for the processing of emotive stimuli for the expression of emotion, and for the elaboration of emotionally appropriate behaviour. However, the differential processing conception of hemisphere specialization implies that it is not affective functions per se that are localized in the right hemisphere, but rather the holistic mode of processing of the right hemisphere which preferentially treats stimuli in such a way that “they retain their immediateness and rich affective value” (Gainotti, 1972, p. 53). The holistic mode of processing is seen to be necessary for the simultaneous appreciation of all the elements of a stimulus, and hence, the apprehension of its affective meaning. Whether the right hemisphere also predominates in the perception of emotional meaning or mood in music has not been documented but research on hemisphere specialization (Bradshaw & Nettleton, 1981) suggests that the connotative emotional aspects of music are processed by the right hemisphere. The co-occurrence of amusia and dysprosody has been reported by several authors (Barbizet, 1978; Botez & Wertheim, 1959), thus both research on music perception and on hemispheric specialization would support such a proposal. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of right hemisphere damage on judgements of mood in music. Since minimal work had previously been conducted in this area, this study was largely exploratory. However, it was possible to derive three hypotheses from the clinical and experimental literature. Firstly, the experimental literature on emotional processing would suggest a general insensitivity to mood in music and a tendency to a neutral response bias in judgements of musical mood. Secondly, this research also suggests that while judgements of emotional dimensions of music will be disrupted by right hemisphere lesions, “non-emotional” judgements such as time or rhythm will be unaffected. Alternatively, the clinical picture of right hemisphere damaged patients suggests a tendency to minimize difficulties and respond in a fatuous and occasionally euphoric manner. So that lastly, in regard to music, one would expect patients to minimize negative mood states and show a positive response bias in judgemerits of musical mood. In order to test these hypotheses, judgements were to be made of musical excerpts epitomizing different moods by clinical and control subjects, using a procedure based on the semantic differential technique.
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Damage
361
METHOD Pilot Study
As an initial step in this area a study was necessary in order to establish whether consistency of judgements of mood in music could be achieved by normal subjects, and secondly to select musical excerpts which were rated reliably and could be used with the brain lesioned population. There is little research on the “normal” response to mood in music, but Meyer (1956) has suggested that there is a close association between culturally conventionalized expressions of emotion and the ‘expression’ of mood or emotion in music. This theory is largely untested but does give encouragement to the view that there would be consistency in the response of listeners (from a given cultural background) in judgements of musical mood. The subjects for the pilot study were 80 psychology undergraduate students whose ages ranged from 18-40 years. The Semantic Differential of Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum (1957) was chosen as the measurement technique. In its general form the Semantic Differential consists of a set of bipolar adjective scales on which the subject is required to rate a stimulus or concept. For each item the subject must indicate the direction of association with the stimulus, and its intensity on a 7-point scale. Thirteen adjectival scales were selected by three judges (including one professional musician) as relevant to mood in music, i.e., bright-dark; angry-gentle; calm-agitated; ugly-beautiful; hard-soft; fast-slow; happy-sad; strong-weak; active-passive; thrilling-soothing; heavy-light; sharp-dull; and cloudy-sunny. Two general considerations were influential in the choice of the type of music to be used as stimuli. Firstly, according to Meyer (1957), the musical communication of mood becomes standardized within a particular style, and recognition of mood is dependent on familiarity with that style. Because the proposed study would focus on a relatively elderly population it was therefore necessary to use music with which they were likely to be familiar, rather than a style which was novel. Secondly, it was thought that orchestral music would increase the number of variables to which the subject could respond; therefore, solo piano pieces were used. A total of 30 one-minute extracts of recorded piano music were used as stimuli. Three criteria operated in the selection of these extracts. These were: the affective content of the piece; the consistency of mood throughout the extract; and contrast with other pieces, allowing a range of moods to be rated. Extracts from the piano music of Ravel, Chopin, Liszt, and Debussy as well as some mood improvisations comprised the 30 extracts. In order to reduce testing time 40 subjects heard the first 15 tracks, and the second 40 subjects heard the second 15 tracks. Both groups were
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G. Kinsella, M. Prior, and V; Jones
asked to rate each track on each of the 13 selected scales. In order to obtain reliable indices of musical mood from these data, the foIlowing criteria were applied for selection of musical examples for the clinical study: mean ratings less than 2.5 or greater than 5.5 with standard derivations less than .88 (i.e., exclusion of stimuli with neutral ratings or very wide variations). The scales were selected as those that most efficiently discriminated the majority of tracks and in this manner six scales were selected for inclusion: fast-slow; happy-sad; bright-dark; hard-soft; angry-gentle; heavy-light. In the music selection the aim was to obtain a range of contrasting moods among the tracks selected, while keeping the number of tracks to a minimum. The tracks and mood profile scales selected from the Pilot Study can be seen in Table 1. The piIot study demonstrated that normal subjects were consistent in a number of ratings of mood in music, though this consistency was dependent on the particular piece and the dimension on which it was rated, Subjects tended to disagree when the scale failed to reliably depict the mood of the piece, suggesting that when the music was neutral with respect to a particular dimension, subjects were bringing varying personal interpretations to bear, rather than recognizing a stylistically standardized mood. EXPERIMENTAL
STUDY
Subjects
A series of 15 right cerebral hemisphere lesioned subjects were selected from records of patients presenting to Caulfield Rehabilitation HospitaI, Melbourne. All had a diagnosis of cerebrovascular accident restricted to the right hemisphere and confirmed by CT scan. All subjects were right-handed, had no evidence on CT scan of additional neurological disease, and on clinical examination had no evidence of a significant hearing defect. In all cases the cerebrovascular accident had occurred at least three months prior to the testing (range: three months to five years). The site of lesion ranged widely but they were all cortical lesions (3 fronto-parietal, 1 fronto-temporo-parietal, 3 temporo-par&al, 5 parietal, 1 parieto-occipital, and 1 middle cerebral artery lesion without localization). There were 8 males and 7 females aged between 46 and 78 years, with a mean age of 66 years. None of the subjects was a professional musician. Using Barbizet’s method of classifying musical capacity (1978) subjects ranged from those with no interest in music, to good musicians well versed in practical and theoretical levels. Fifteen normal control subjects, similar in terms of sex, age and musical experience were also tested (8 males, 7 females; mean age: 66 years; age range: 48-79 years). A neurological control group was not included in this study. Clearly to be
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Damage TABLE 1 Following the Pilot Study, Tracks and Mood Profiles Considered Experimental Study
for Selection in the
Mood Profile
Track Improvisation
Slow, sad, strong,
- ‘Sad’
Slow, sad, heavy, cloudy
Chopin’s
Fast, happy, bright,
Waltz No. I in E flat major. - “Valse
Fast, bright,
active bright,
Chopin’s
Waltz No. 6 in D flat major.
Fast, strong,
Chopin’s
Fantasie
Hard,
Listz’ Variations
in F minor on Bach
fast, strong,
Identified
dark,
Chopin’s Piano Sonata No. 2 in B flat minor “Funeral March’
Chopin’s Waltz No. 2 in A flat major Brilliante’ (Op. 34, No. 1)
363
heavy
active, sunny
active active
Dark,
heavy, angry
Improvisation-‘Angry’
Hard,
agitated,
strong,
dark,
Improvisation-‘Angry’
Hard,
agitated,
strong,
active
heavy, angry
able to make any conclusive inferences regarding the effect of laterality of lesion site, a left hemisphere control group would be required. We attempted to construct such a group, but not unexpectedly, the presence of significant aphasic difficulties prevented the formation of matched groups of patients with homologous left and right hemisphere lesions. The left hemisphere group that we could assess had less severe lesions than the right hemisphere group, but even they found the verbal aspects of the task onerous, and clearly found the task stressful. To successfully incorporate left hemisphere lesioned subjects, an alternate method of determining response to mood in music would need to be adopted (e.g., nonverbal symbols for mood states), but it is predicted that the aphasic subject with severe comprehension difficulties would remain inaccessible for reliable assessment on the kind of task used here.
Stimuli-
The Semantic Differential
From the pilot study, six adjectival scales were selected on which normal subjects were found to be consistent in their ratings of musical mood (See Figure 1). As can be seen, the scales were presented vertically rather than horizontally in order to reduce the intrusion of visual-field defects or hemi-inatten-
G. Kinsella, M. Prior, and fl Jones
364 sort
quite
extremely quite
soft
slightly
or
hard
hard
extremely
happy
quite
happy
neither sad
happy
slightly
sad
quite hard
quite
light
light
light
bright
extremely
angry
extremely
angry
slightly
quite
angry
neither gentle
angry
slightly
fast
fast
slightly quite
gentle
quite
quite
slow
or
dark
dark
extremely
slow
dark
dark
slow
*actual
bright
slightly
slow
extremely
bright
neither dark
or
bright
bright
slightly
fast
neither slow
gentle
extremely
fast
slightly 0~
gentle
extremely gentle
clr
light
extremely
sad
awrY
quite
heavy
slightly
sad
extremely
heavy
neither light
01‘
heavy
heavy
slightiy
hard
quite
extremely
happy
slightly
soft
neither hard
quite
sort
soft
slightly i
tN2‘3YY
happy
extremely
length
of
scales
-
6”
FIGURE 1. The semantic differential* used in the experimental study.
tion as significant factors. One set of scales was provided for each track and each track of music was rated on all six scales. Music Stimuli
Eight tracks of music comprised the music stimuli. Selection from the pilot study was on the basis of the consistency of normal subjects ratings of musical mood. A practice piece was also included and the nine tracks can be seen in Table 2. These piano excerpts covered a range of contrasting moods and were each approximately one minute long. The nine tracks were recorded on to cassette tape and played free-field to the subjects in the order presented in Table 2.
TABLE 2 The Music Stimuli and Mood Profiles Used in the Experimental Study ‘J&k Number
Title
Composer
Mood Profile
Ravel
Pavane pour one infante defunte
I
Robert Williams
Improvisation - ‘Sad’
slow, sad, dark,heavy
2
Chopin
Waltz in E flat Major
3
Listz
Variations on Bach
4
Chopin
Berceuse des-dur
fast, bright, happy dark, heavy, awry soft, gentle
5
Chopin
Fantasy in F minor
hard, fast
6
Chopin
Funeral March
slow, sad, heavy
7
Robert Willj~s
improvisation - ‘Angry’
hard, dark, heavy, angry
8
Chopin
Waltz Brilliante
fast, bright
(practice)
Subjects were introduced to the semantic differential scales by the experimenter explaining that the adjectival scales might be used to describe the mood in music. Each track of music was played to the subject, and upon completion of each track, the subject was asked to consider each of the scales, firstly as to which of the polar adjectives was descriptive (e.g., was it hard or soft?) and then as to the intensity of the description {slightly, quite, or extremely?). If the subject expressed a difficulty in remembering a piece it was replayed once. This procedure was repeated a second time with the control subjects in order to estimate the stability of their ratings. The interval between testing and retesting was seven days, RESULTS Test-Retest Reliability of the Semantic Differential Test-retest correlations of the control subjects’ mood ratings ranged from .64 to .94. This level of reliability was considered sufficiently high to confidently attribute any group differences to right hemisphere damage rather than to normal variation.
366
Mood Ratings A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was undertaken to analyse the ratings of mood on the semantic differential. The MANOVAconducted on the six dependent variables (scales) used a two-factor design. The first factor was the two matched groups: right hemisphere lesioned subjects and controls. The second factor, track, was a repeated factor representing the eight tracks of music. A summary table of the multivariate tests of significance for the main effects and interaction is displayed in Table 3a. There were no significant overall group effects but highly significant track and group x track interaction effects were found. Mood ratings of the 8 tracks differed significantly on all scales -an expected result (see Table 3b). Highly significant interactions were found in mood ratings on three of the rating scales (see Table 4). These were hard-soft, angry-gentle, and darkTABLE 3 a. Summary of Multivariate Tests of Significance F
Wilk’s Lambda
Effect Group Track Group x Track
Treatment
for
~)f
Main Effects Error df
Prob. of F
0.818
0.89
0.38
6
23
0.04 0.63
20.54 2.23
42 42
894 894
0.001 0.01
b. Summary of Univariate F-tests for Tracks Effect (dj=7,195) Variable hard-soft sad-happy heavy-light angry-gentle slow-fast dark-bright
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
F
205.15 426. I8 278.06 224.27 666.62 434.51
289.89 230.79 288.93 224.27 144.23 208.52
29.30 60.88 39.72 32.03 95.23 62.07
i .45 1.18 1.48 1.15 0.74 1.07
20.13 51.44 26.80 27.86 128.75 58.05
Prob. of F 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
c. Summary of Univariate F-tests for GroupxTrack Interaction (df=7,195)
Variable hard-soft sad-happy heavy-light angry-gentle slow-fast dark-bright
Treatment SS
Error ss
37.28 12.45 19.72 38.54 8.33 20.95
283.89 230.79 288.93 224.28 144.23 208.52
Treatment MS
5.33 1.78 2.82 5.50 1.19 2.99 *(p
Error MS 1.45 1.18 1.48 1.15 0.74 1.07
F 3.66 1.50 1.90 4.79 1.61 2.79
Prob. of F 0.0001* 0.168 0.071 0.0001* 0.13s 0.008*
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Damage
367
TABLE 4 Summary of Significant Simple Main Effects (p< 0.05) Variable hard-soft angry-gentle angry-gentle dark-bright dark-bright
Track
SSA at bi
Pooled Error
F
5 3 7 2 3
6.627 7.49 24.3 5.54 7.49
1.615 1.433 1.433 1.27 1.27
4.103 5.226 16.95 4.362 5.89
bright. As hypothesized, there were no differences in ratings on the fastslow dimensions, but contrary to the hypotheses there were also no differences in ratings on the sad-happy or heavy-light scales. An analysis of the sample main effects was performed on those variables on which significant group x track interactions were found (see Table 4). In summary then, the multivariate analysis showed that while there were no overall group differences in mood ratings, a significant group x track interaction effect was found, i.e., group differences were dependent on the track heard. The post hoc univariate analysis showed that this interaction occurred on mood ratings on three scales: hard-soft; angry-gentle; darkbright. The analysis of simple main effects showed that the groups differed in these ratings of four tracks: 2,3, 5,7. Notably, no differences occurred in ratings of happy-sad, fast-slow, or heavy-light, indicating a differential performance by the right hemisphere lesioned subjects, across the scales. No systematic relationship between previous musical experience and performance on the task was observable. DISCUSSION
The results of the pilot study showed that normal subjects do agree on mood judgements of certain pieces of music, as measured by the semantic differential. There tended to be less agreement when a piece of music was neutral with respect to a particular dimension. Subjects were potentially bringing personal interpretations to bear rather than recognition of a stylistically standardized expression of mood. The tracks selected from the pilot study produced a remarkably similar pattern of responses when rated by the experimental control group. This is particularly notable given the differences in age and educational background between the two groups. Where differences in scale ratings did occur between these groups, they were of degree of association rather than direction of association with the adjectival scales. The generally high level of test-retest reliability obtained from the control subjects on the semantic differential was no doubt in part due to the criteria employed in music
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G. Kinseila, hf. Prior, and K Jones
selection. It is unlikely that a similar level of reliability would be obtained with a random sample of musical pieces. Nevertheless, these results do encourage confidence in the semantic differential as a valid and reliable measure of listener’s interpretation of mood in music. While there were no overall differences between the right hemisphere patients and normal controls in judgements of musical mood, a significant group by track interaction was found. That is, differences between groups in ratings of musical mood were dependent on the track on which judgement was made. The univariate analysis of this interaction showed that it occurred on three of the rating scales: hard-soft; angry-gentle; bright-dark. That no interaction effects were found on the happy-sad scale is notable, and contrary to the hypothesis that right hemisphere damage produces a general deficit in processing emotionality in music, or affective stimuli per se. Though generally the right CVA patients were more conservative in ratings on this dimension, there is no evidence of a response bias across the group as a whole that would support such a hypothesis. The absence of interaction effects on the fast-slow scale is also notable. It was hypothesized that since this was arguably a ‘non-emotional’ measure, right CVA patients would not be impaired in making these judgement. Further, the absence of interaction effects on this scale and the heavy-light and happy-sad scales, suggests that differences found on other scales are not attributable to the right CVA patient’s general inability to cope with the task. Since they were able to use these scales further suggests, albeit tentatively, that the effects obtained were due to right hemisphere damage, rather than to brain damage per se. One would expect if the latter were the case that these patients would be equally impaired in making judgements in all six scales. The study suggests that while there is no overall deficit in processing emotionality in music as a result of right hemisphere damage, a deficit in processing certain aspects of musical mood may occur since significant group differences lay in the interaction effects for the angry-gentle, hardsoft, bright-dark ratings of four tracks: in the ratings of both examples of the ‘angry’ mood (tracks 3 and 7), one example of the ‘hard’ mood (track 5), one example of the ‘bright’ mood (track 2), and one example of the ‘dark’ mood (track 3). On all these tracks the control subjects’ responses were consistent with the mood ratings obtained in the pilot study on these scales. In contrast to the controls, the right hemisphere lesioned group’s ratings of these tracks (but not the ratings on the other experimental tracks) tended to be within the neutral range. This suggests an attenuation of musical processing skills rather than an absolute deficit but it is unclear at what level this attenuation occurs, i.e., at a discriminative level (attenuation of the ability to determine the presence or absence of relevant musical cues) or at an associative level (the subject can
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Damage
369
discriminate relevant cues, but fails to understand their meaning or apply ‘labels’ appropriately). Clearly, further research is required to appropriately interpret the nature of the CVA subjects’ difficulty in music processing, but it is of interest at this point to consider the relationship between music and language since music can be considered as a particular form of language which may or may not share the same organization and substrates of ‘normal’ language. One relevant issue is the investigation of prosodic features of language. MonradKrohn (1963) described the prosodic features of language in terms of variations in pitch, rhythm, and stress. Although there has been some debate as to the grammatic or syntactic function of prosodic features in language, there at least seems to be general agreement that prosody can be used to convey the emotions of a speaker. Similarly in music, Marin (1982) suggests that the emotional content of music depends on changes in contour, emphasis, intensity, and speed amongst many other factors as yet not clearly defined. Clinical and experimental evidence is accumulating to indicate that the right cerebral hemisphere is particularly involved in the processing of certain prosodic elements of language (Blumstein & Cooper, 1974; Ross & Mesulam, 1979). Shapiro and Danly (1985), Roberts, Kinsella, and Wales (1981), and Weintraub, Mesulam, and Kramer (1981) have all concluded that the prosodic deficits observed in patients with right brain damage may not be specifically tied to an affective context. These studies have been able to demonstrate a difficulty in intonation (or pitch) processing that becomes a central issue in marking or interpreting particular linguistic decision tasks as well as in processing affective stimuli (cf. Sidtis, 1981). Relating to this, research into the perception by normal subjects of affective mood in music has demonstrated the importance of pitch in the recognition of emotion (e.g., Clynes & Nettheim, 1982). The differential response to mood in music by right hemisphere lesioned subjects could be usefully explored by relating this to disturbances in pitch processing. It is important to highlight that nonprofessional musicians were used as subjects in the present study, and it is recognized that the musical experience or expertise of the subject may significantly affect the response pattern. If a more appropriate method of determining musical experience can be developed then further studies could usefully address this as an important interacting variable. The individual results did not suggest a clear focal neuroanatomical basis for impairment. No particular subgroup among these right hemisphere patients could be identified as performing at a notably lower level than others on this task. No conclusions as to the functional anatomic organization of musical processing within the right hemisphere was warranted from this study. Clearly further follow-up studies are needed which include compre-
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hensive nemopsychological profiling of right hemisphere function. These performances could then be correlated with musical processing abilities. To understand the unique quality of right hemisphere processing it will be necessary to document systematically other group’s responses, in particular a left hemisphere group; but to do this, an appropriate format must be devised. The task was clearly inappropriate for a large number of left hemisphere lesioned subjects, and to have included such a group in this study would have been to ignore the need to create matched groups in terms of lesion site and size of lesion (the concomitant aphasic problem would have precluded this). Possible alternative approaches may include a multiple task/ stimuli approach where converging evidence for differential effects of side of lesion is obtained (e.g., Murray, Prior, & Kinsella, 1988). In conclusion, music is an area in which both cognitive and affective responses of the listener can be investigated. However, this study suggests that further research into the affective response of listeners (both normal and neurological patients) would provide clarification of both the role of the right hemisphere in the mediation of emotion and hemispheric differences in musical processing.
REFERENCES Barbizet, J. (1978). Music within the brain. In M. Molloy, G. V. Stanley and K. W. Walsh (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1978 Brain Impairment Workshop. (pp. 44-48). Melbourne: University of Melbourne. Blumstein, S., & Cooper, W. E. (1974). Hemispheric processing of intonation contours. Cortex, 10, 146-158. Botez, M. I., & Wertheim, N. (1959). Expressive aphasia and amusia. Brain, 82, 186-203. Bradshaw, J. L., & Nettleton, N. (1981). The nature of hemispheric specialization in man. The Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 4, 5 1-91. Buck, R., & Duffy, R. J. (1980). Non-verbal communication of affect in brain-damaged patients. Cortex, 16, 351-362. Cicone, M., Wapner, W., & Gardner H. (1980). Sensitivity to emotional expressions and situations in organic patients. Cortex, 16, 35 l-362. Clynes, M., & Nettheim, N. (1982). The living quality of music: Neurobiological basis of communication of feelings. In M. Clynes (Ed.), Music, mind and brain. New York: Plenum Press. De Kosky, S. T., Heilman, K. M., Bowers, D., & Valenstein, E. (1980). Recognition and discrimination of emotional faces and pictures. Brain and Language, 9, 206-214. Gainotti, G. (1972). Emotional behaviour and hemispheric side of lesion. Cortex, 8, 39-55. Goldstein, K. (1939). The organism: A holistic approach to biology, derived from pathological data in man. New York: American Book. Marin, 0. S. M. (1982). Neurological aspects of music perception and performance. In Deutsch D. (Ed.), Thepsychology ofmusic. London: Academic Press. Meyer, L. B. (1956). Emotion and meaning in music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Monrad-Krohn, G. H. (1963). The third element of speech: Prosody and its disorders. In L. Halpern (Ed.), Problems of dynamic neurology. Jerusalem: Hebrew University Press; pp. 101-117.
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Damage Murray, G., Culture. Osgood, C. Urbana, Roberts, C., language
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Prior, M., & Kinsella, G. (1988). A validation of the Barbizet Scale of Musical In preparation. E., Suci, Ci. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. IL: University of Illinois Press. Kinsella, G., & Wales, R. (1981). Disturbances in processing prosodic features of following right hemisphere lesions. In Cl. A. Broe and G. A. Tate (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Brain Impairment Conference. Sydney: University of Sydney. Ross, E. D. (1981). The aprosodias. Functional-anatomic organization of the effective components of language in the right hemisphere. Archives of Neurology, 38,561-569. Shapiro, B. E., & Danly, M. (1985). The role of the right hemisphere in the control of speech prosody in propositional and affective contexts. Brain and Lunguage, 25, 19-36. Sidtis, J. J. (1981). The complex tone test: Implications for the assessment of auditory laterality effects. Neuropsychologia, 19, 103-l 12. Wemtraub, S., Mesulam, M., & Kramer, L. (1981). Disturbances in Prosody: A right hemisphere contribution to language. Archives of Neurology, 38, 742-744.
1990 CopyrIght
0 1990 National
0887-6177190 $3.04 + .@‘I Academy of Neuropsychology
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Clynda
Damage
Kinsella, Margot Prior, and Vicki Jones
La fiobe University, Bundoora,
Victoria, Australia 3083
Evidence on hemispheric specialization has implicated the right hemisphere as having a special role in the mediation of emotion. Since music is an area in which both cognitive and affective aspects of perception can be assessed, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of right hemisphere damage on perception of emotional meaning or mood in music. An initial pilot study was conducted to select music on which normal subjects were consistent in their judgement of musical mood. The musical stimuli consisted of extracts of classical piano music. The technique used as a measure of musical mood was the Semantic Differential. Tracks of music and adjectival scales were selected for the experimental study in which 15 right hemisphere lesioned patients and normal controls were compared in their response to music. The right hemisphere group demonstrated a characteristic response in their judgement of mood in music. The results are discussed in terms of the role of pitch in judgement of mood in music and in terms of the relationship between music and language.
The earliest suggestion of differential hemisphere involvement in affective behaviour comes from the clinical observation of unilaterally brain damaged subjects (Gainotti, 1972; Goldstein, 1939). Specifically, polar opposite emotional reactions were observed to occur in patients after left and right hemisphere damage. The catastrophic-depressive response of the left hemisphere subjects was compounded by frequent accompanying aphasic disor-
Acknowledgments-The authors thank the Music Department, La Trobe University, especially Brian Parrish for the generation of the computer-based music stimuli; Andrew Mann and Greg Murray for able assistance in the data collection and analysis; Bruce Ford, for permission to access his patients for the purposes of research; and the stroke patients who gave their time so willingly to this research. Requests for reprints should be sent to Dr. G. Kinsella, Department of Psychology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia 3083.
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G. Kinsella, M. Prior, and FCJones
ders but the characteristic indifference response of the right hemisphere subjects was taken to implicate the right hemisphere as having a special role in the mediation of emotion. This observation has since been explored in a large number of clinical and experimental studies reported over the last decade (Buck & Duffy, 1980; Cicone, Wapner, & Gardner, 1980; De Kosky, Heilman, Bowers, & Valenstein, 1980; Ross, 1981). In general the research consistently suggests a right hemisphere dominance for the processing of emotive stimuli for the expression of emotion, and for the elaboration of emotionally appropriate behaviour. However, the differential processing conception of hemisphere specialization implies that it is not affective functions per se that are localized in the right hemisphere, but rather the holistic mode of processing of the right hemisphere which preferentially treats stimuli in such a way that “they retain their immediateness and rich affective value” (Gainotti, 1972, p. 53). The holistic mode of processing is seen to be necessary for the simultaneous appreciation of all the elements of a stimulus, and hence, the apprehension of its affective meaning. Whether the right hemisphere also predominates in the perception of emotional meaning or mood in music has not been documented but research on hemisphere specialization (Bradshaw & Nettleton, 1981) suggests that the connotative emotional aspects of music are processed by the right hemisphere. The co-occurrence of amusia and dysprosody has been reported by several authors (Barbizet, 1978; Botez & Wertheim, 1959), thus both research on music perception and on hemispheric specialization would support such a proposal. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of right hemisphere damage on judgements of mood in music. Since minimal work had previously been conducted in this area, this study was largely exploratory. However, it was possible to derive three hypotheses from the clinical and experimental literature. Firstly, the experimental literature on emotional processing would suggest a general insensitivity to mood in music and a tendency to a neutral response bias in judgements of musical mood. Secondly, this research also suggests that while judgements of emotional dimensions of music will be disrupted by right hemisphere lesions, “non-emotional” judgements such as time or rhythm will be unaffected. Alternatively, the clinical picture of right hemisphere damaged patients suggests a tendency to minimize difficulties and respond in a fatuous and occasionally euphoric manner. So that lastly, in regard to music, one would expect patients to minimize negative mood states and show a positive response bias in judgemerits of musical mood. In order to test these hypotheses, judgements were to be made of musical excerpts epitomizing different moods by clinical and control subjects, using a procedure based on the semantic differential technique.
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Damage
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METHOD Pilot Study
As an initial step in this area a study was necessary in order to establish whether consistency of judgements of mood in music could be achieved by normal subjects, and secondly to select musical excerpts which were rated reliably and could be used with the brain lesioned population. There is little research on the “normal” response to mood in music, but Meyer (1956) has suggested that there is a close association between culturally conventionalized expressions of emotion and the ‘expression’ of mood or emotion in music. This theory is largely untested but does give encouragement to the view that there would be consistency in the response of listeners (from a given cultural background) in judgements of musical mood. The subjects for the pilot study were 80 psychology undergraduate students whose ages ranged from 18-40 years. The Semantic Differential of Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum (1957) was chosen as the measurement technique. In its general form the Semantic Differential consists of a set of bipolar adjective scales on which the subject is required to rate a stimulus or concept. For each item the subject must indicate the direction of association with the stimulus, and its intensity on a 7-point scale. Thirteen adjectival scales were selected by three judges (including one professional musician) as relevant to mood in music, i.e., bright-dark; angry-gentle; calm-agitated; ugly-beautiful; hard-soft; fast-slow; happy-sad; strong-weak; active-passive; thrilling-soothing; heavy-light; sharp-dull; and cloudy-sunny. Two general considerations were influential in the choice of the type of music to be used as stimuli. Firstly, according to Meyer (1957), the musical communication of mood becomes standardized within a particular style, and recognition of mood is dependent on familiarity with that style. Because the proposed study would focus on a relatively elderly population it was therefore necessary to use music with which they were likely to be familiar, rather than a style which was novel. Secondly, it was thought that orchestral music would increase the number of variables to which the subject could respond; therefore, solo piano pieces were used. A total of 30 one-minute extracts of recorded piano music were used as stimuli. Three criteria operated in the selection of these extracts. These were: the affective content of the piece; the consistency of mood throughout the extract; and contrast with other pieces, allowing a range of moods to be rated. Extracts from the piano music of Ravel, Chopin, Liszt, and Debussy as well as some mood improvisations comprised the 30 extracts. In order to reduce testing time 40 subjects heard the first 15 tracks, and the second 40 subjects heard the second 15 tracks. Both groups were
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asked to rate each track on each of the 13 selected scales. In order to obtain reliable indices of musical mood from these data, the foIlowing criteria were applied for selection of musical examples for the clinical study: mean ratings less than 2.5 or greater than 5.5 with standard derivations less than .88 (i.e., exclusion of stimuli with neutral ratings or very wide variations). The scales were selected as those that most efficiently discriminated the majority of tracks and in this manner six scales were selected for inclusion: fast-slow; happy-sad; bright-dark; hard-soft; angry-gentle; heavy-light. In the music selection the aim was to obtain a range of contrasting moods among the tracks selected, while keeping the number of tracks to a minimum. The tracks and mood profile scales selected from the Pilot Study can be seen in Table 1. The piIot study demonstrated that normal subjects were consistent in a number of ratings of mood in music, though this consistency was dependent on the particular piece and the dimension on which it was rated, Subjects tended to disagree when the scale failed to reliably depict the mood of the piece, suggesting that when the music was neutral with respect to a particular dimension, subjects were bringing varying personal interpretations to bear, rather than recognizing a stylistically standardized mood. EXPERIMENTAL
STUDY
Subjects
A series of 15 right cerebral hemisphere lesioned subjects were selected from records of patients presenting to Caulfield Rehabilitation HospitaI, Melbourne. All had a diagnosis of cerebrovascular accident restricted to the right hemisphere and confirmed by CT scan. All subjects were right-handed, had no evidence on CT scan of additional neurological disease, and on clinical examination had no evidence of a significant hearing defect. In all cases the cerebrovascular accident had occurred at least three months prior to the testing (range: three months to five years). The site of lesion ranged widely but they were all cortical lesions (3 fronto-parietal, 1 fronto-temporo-parietal, 3 temporo-par&al, 5 parietal, 1 parieto-occipital, and 1 middle cerebral artery lesion without localization). There were 8 males and 7 females aged between 46 and 78 years, with a mean age of 66 years. None of the subjects was a professional musician. Using Barbizet’s method of classifying musical capacity (1978) subjects ranged from those with no interest in music, to good musicians well versed in practical and theoretical levels. Fifteen normal control subjects, similar in terms of sex, age and musical experience were also tested (8 males, 7 females; mean age: 66 years; age range: 48-79 years). A neurological control group was not included in this study. Clearly to be
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Damage TABLE 1 Following the Pilot Study, Tracks and Mood Profiles Considered Experimental Study
for Selection in the
Mood Profile
Track Improvisation
Slow, sad, strong,
- ‘Sad’
Slow, sad, heavy, cloudy
Chopin’s
Fast, happy, bright,
Waltz No. I in E flat major. - “Valse
Fast, bright,
active bright,
Chopin’s
Waltz No. 6 in D flat major.
Fast, strong,
Chopin’s
Fantasie
Hard,
Listz’ Variations
in F minor on Bach
fast, strong,
Identified
dark,
Chopin’s Piano Sonata No. 2 in B flat minor “Funeral March’
Chopin’s Waltz No. 2 in A flat major Brilliante’ (Op. 34, No. 1)
363
heavy
active, sunny
active active
Dark,
heavy, angry
Improvisation-‘Angry’
Hard,
agitated,
strong,
dark,
Improvisation-‘Angry’
Hard,
agitated,
strong,
active
heavy, angry
able to make any conclusive inferences regarding the effect of laterality of lesion site, a left hemisphere control group would be required. We attempted to construct such a group, but not unexpectedly, the presence of significant aphasic difficulties prevented the formation of matched groups of patients with homologous left and right hemisphere lesions. The left hemisphere group that we could assess had less severe lesions than the right hemisphere group, but even they found the verbal aspects of the task onerous, and clearly found the task stressful. To successfully incorporate left hemisphere lesioned subjects, an alternate method of determining response to mood in music would need to be adopted (e.g., nonverbal symbols for mood states), but it is predicted that the aphasic subject with severe comprehension difficulties would remain inaccessible for reliable assessment on the kind of task used here.
Stimuli-
The Semantic Differential
From the pilot study, six adjectival scales were selected on which normal subjects were found to be consistent in their ratings of musical mood (See Figure 1). As can be seen, the scales were presented vertically rather than horizontally in order to reduce the intrusion of visual-field defects or hemi-inatten-
G. Kinsella, M. Prior, and fl Jones
364 sort
quite
extremely quite
soft
slightly
or
hard
hard
extremely
happy
quite
happy
neither sad
happy
slightly
sad
quite hard
quite
light
light
light
bright
extremely
angry
extremely
angry
slightly
quite
angry
neither gentle
angry
slightly
fast
fast
slightly quite
gentle
quite
quite
slow
or
dark
dark
extremely
slow
dark
dark
slow
*actual
bright
slightly
slow
extremely
bright
neither dark
or
bright
bright
slightly
fast
neither slow
gentle
extremely
fast
slightly 0~
gentle
extremely gentle
clr
light
extremely
sad
awrY
quite
heavy
slightly
sad
extremely
heavy
neither light
01‘
heavy
heavy
slightiy
hard
quite
extremely
happy
slightly
soft
neither hard
quite
sort
soft
slightly i
tN2‘3YY
happy
extremely
length
of
scales
-
6”
FIGURE 1. The semantic differential* used in the experimental study.
tion as significant factors. One set of scales was provided for each track and each track of music was rated on all six scales. Music Stimuli
Eight tracks of music comprised the music stimuli. Selection from the pilot study was on the basis of the consistency of normal subjects ratings of musical mood. A practice piece was also included and the nine tracks can be seen in Table 2. These piano excerpts covered a range of contrasting moods and were each approximately one minute long. The nine tracks were recorded on to cassette tape and played free-field to the subjects in the order presented in Table 2.
TABLE 2 The Music Stimuli and Mood Profiles Used in the Experimental Study ‘J&k Number
Title
Composer
Mood Profile
Ravel
Pavane pour one infante defunte
I
Robert Williams
Improvisation - ‘Sad’
slow, sad, dark,heavy
2
Chopin
Waltz in E flat Major
3
Listz
Variations on Bach
4
Chopin
Berceuse des-dur
fast, bright, happy dark, heavy, awry soft, gentle
5
Chopin
Fantasy in F minor
hard, fast
6
Chopin
Funeral March
slow, sad, heavy
7
Robert Willj~s
improvisation - ‘Angry’
hard, dark, heavy, angry
8
Chopin
Waltz Brilliante
fast, bright
(practice)
Subjects were introduced to the semantic differential scales by the experimenter explaining that the adjectival scales might be used to describe the mood in music. Each track of music was played to the subject, and upon completion of each track, the subject was asked to consider each of the scales, firstly as to which of the polar adjectives was descriptive (e.g., was it hard or soft?) and then as to the intensity of the description {slightly, quite, or extremely?). If the subject expressed a difficulty in remembering a piece it was replayed once. This procedure was repeated a second time with the control subjects in order to estimate the stability of their ratings. The interval between testing and retesting was seven days, RESULTS Test-Retest Reliability of the Semantic Differential Test-retest correlations of the control subjects’ mood ratings ranged from .64 to .94. This level of reliability was considered sufficiently high to confidently attribute any group differences to right hemisphere damage rather than to normal variation.
366
Mood Ratings A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was undertaken to analyse the ratings of mood on the semantic differential. The MANOVAconducted on the six dependent variables (scales) used a two-factor design. The first factor was the two matched groups: right hemisphere lesioned subjects and controls. The second factor, track, was a repeated factor representing the eight tracks of music. A summary table of the multivariate tests of significance for the main effects and interaction is displayed in Table 3a. There were no significant overall group effects but highly significant track and group x track interaction effects were found. Mood ratings of the 8 tracks differed significantly on all scales -an expected result (see Table 3b). Highly significant interactions were found in mood ratings on three of the rating scales (see Table 4). These were hard-soft, angry-gentle, and darkTABLE 3 a. Summary of Multivariate Tests of Significance F
Wilk’s Lambda
Effect Group Track Group x Track
Treatment
for
~)f
Main Effects Error df
Prob. of F
0.818
0.89
0.38
6
23
0.04 0.63
20.54 2.23
42 42
894 894
0.001 0.01
b. Summary of Univariate F-tests for Tracks Effect (dj=7,195) Variable hard-soft sad-happy heavy-light angry-gentle slow-fast dark-bright
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
F
205.15 426. I8 278.06 224.27 666.62 434.51
289.89 230.79 288.93 224.27 144.23 208.52
29.30 60.88 39.72 32.03 95.23 62.07
i .45 1.18 1.48 1.15 0.74 1.07
20.13 51.44 26.80 27.86 128.75 58.05
Prob. of F 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
c. Summary of Univariate F-tests for GroupxTrack Interaction (df=7,195)
Variable hard-soft sad-happy heavy-light angry-gentle slow-fast dark-bright
Treatment SS
Error ss
37.28 12.45 19.72 38.54 8.33 20.95
283.89 230.79 288.93 224.28 144.23 208.52
Treatment MS
5.33 1.78 2.82 5.50 1.19 2.99 *(p
Error MS 1.45 1.18 1.48 1.15 0.74 1.07
F 3.66 1.50 1.90 4.79 1.61 2.79
Prob. of F 0.0001* 0.168 0.071 0.0001* 0.13s 0.008*
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367
TABLE 4 Summary of Significant Simple Main Effects (p< 0.05) Variable hard-soft angry-gentle angry-gentle dark-bright dark-bright
Track
SSA at bi
Pooled Error
F
5 3 7 2 3
6.627 7.49 24.3 5.54 7.49
1.615 1.433 1.433 1.27 1.27
4.103 5.226 16.95 4.362 5.89
bright. As hypothesized, there were no differences in ratings on the fastslow dimensions, but contrary to the hypotheses there were also no differences in ratings on the sad-happy or heavy-light scales. An analysis of the sample main effects was performed on those variables on which significant group x track interactions were found (see Table 4). In summary then, the multivariate analysis showed that while there were no overall group differences in mood ratings, a significant group x track interaction effect was found, i.e., group differences were dependent on the track heard. The post hoc univariate analysis showed that this interaction occurred on mood ratings on three scales: hard-soft; angry-gentle; darkbright. The analysis of simple main effects showed that the groups differed in these ratings of four tracks: 2,3, 5,7. Notably, no differences occurred in ratings of happy-sad, fast-slow, or heavy-light, indicating a differential performance by the right hemisphere lesioned subjects, across the scales. No systematic relationship between previous musical experience and performance on the task was observable. DISCUSSION
The results of the pilot study showed that normal subjects do agree on mood judgements of certain pieces of music, as measured by the semantic differential. There tended to be less agreement when a piece of music was neutral with respect to a particular dimension. Subjects were potentially bringing personal interpretations to bear rather than recognition of a stylistically standardized expression of mood. The tracks selected from the pilot study produced a remarkably similar pattern of responses when rated by the experimental control group. This is particularly notable given the differences in age and educational background between the two groups. Where differences in scale ratings did occur between these groups, they were of degree of association rather than direction of association with the adjectival scales. The generally high level of test-retest reliability obtained from the control subjects on the semantic differential was no doubt in part due to the criteria employed in music
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G. Kinseila, hf. Prior, and K Jones
selection. It is unlikely that a similar level of reliability would be obtained with a random sample of musical pieces. Nevertheless, these results do encourage confidence in the semantic differential as a valid and reliable measure of listener’s interpretation of mood in music. While there were no overall differences between the right hemisphere patients and normal controls in judgements of musical mood, a significant group by track interaction was found. That is, differences between groups in ratings of musical mood were dependent on the track on which judgement was made. The univariate analysis of this interaction showed that it occurred on three of the rating scales: hard-soft; angry-gentle; bright-dark. That no interaction effects were found on the happy-sad scale is notable, and contrary to the hypothesis that right hemisphere damage produces a general deficit in processing emotionality in music, or affective stimuli per se. Though generally the right CVA patients were more conservative in ratings on this dimension, there is no evidence of a response bias across the group as a whole that would support such a hypothesis. The absence of interaction effects on the fast-slow scale is also notable. It was hypothesized that since this was arguably a ‘non-emotional’ measure, right CVA patients would not be impaired in making these judgement. Further, the absence of interaction effects on this scale and the heavy-light and happy-sad scales, suggests that differences found on other scales are not attributable to the right CVA patient’s general inability to cope with the task. Since they were able to use these scales further suggests, albeit tentatively, that the effects obtained were due to right hemisphere damage, rather than to brain damage per se. One would expect if the latter were the case that these patients would be equally impaired in making judgements in all six scales. The study suggests that while there is no overall deficit in processing emotionality in music as a result of right hemisphere damage, a deficit in processing certain aspects of musical mood may occur since significant group differences lay in the interaction effects for the angry-gentle, hardsoft, bright-dark ratings of four tracks: in the ratings of both examples of the ‘angry’ mood (tracks 3 and 7), one example of the ‘hard’ mood (track 5), one example of the ‘bright’ mood (track 2), and one example of the ‘dark’ mood (track 3). On all these tracks the control subjects’ responses were consistent with the mood ratings obtained in the pilot study on these scales. In contrast to the controls, the right hemisphere lesioned group’s ratings of these tracks (but not the ratings on the other experimental tracks) tended to be within the neutral range. This suggests an attenuation of musical processing skills rather than an absolute deficit but it is unclear at what level this attenuation occurs, i.e., at a discriminative level (attenuation of the ability to determine the presence or absence of relevant musical cues) or at an associative level (the subject can
Judgement of Mood in Music Following Right Hemisphere Damage
369
discriminate relevant cues, but fails to understand their meaning or apply ‘labels’ appropriately). Clearly, further research is required to appropriately interpret the nature of the CVA subjects’ difficulty in music processing, but it is of interest at this point to consider the relationship between music and language since music can be considered as a particular form of language which may or may not share the same organization and substrates of ‘normal’ language. One relevant issue is the investigation of prosodic features of language. MonradKrohn (1963) described the prosodic features of language in terms of variations in pitch, rhythm, and stress. Although there has been some debate as to the grammatic or syntactic function of prosodic features in language, there at least seems to be general agreement that prosody can be used to convey the emotions of a speaker. Similarly in music, Marin (1982) suggests that the emotional content of music depends on changes in contour, emphasis, intensity, and speed amongst many other factors as yet not clearly defined. Clinical and experimental evidence is accumulating to indicate that the right cerebral hemisphere is particularly involved in the processing of certain prosodic elements of language (Blumstein & Cooper, 1974; Ross & Mesulam, 1979). Shapiro and Danly (1985), Roberts, Kinsella, and Wales (1981), and Weintraub, Mesulam, and Kramer (1981) have all concluded that the prosodic deficits observed in patients with right brain damage may not be specifically tied to an affective context. These studies have been able to demonstrate a difficulty in intonation (or pitch) processing that becomes a central issue in marking or interpreting particular linguistic decision tasks as well as in processing affective stimuli (cf. Sidtis, 1981). Relating to this, research into the perception by normal subjects of affective mood in music has demonstrated the importance of pitch in the recognition of emotion (e.g., Clynes & Nettheim, 1982). The differential response to mood in music by right hemisphere lesioned subjects could be usefully explored by relating this to disturbances in pitch processing. It is important to highlight that nonprofessional musicians were used as subjects in the present study, and it is recognized that the musical experience or expertise of the subject may significantly affect the response pattern. If a more appropriate method of determining musical experience can be developed then further studies could usefully address this as an important interacting variable. The individual results did not suggest a clear focal neuroanatomical basis for impairment. No particular subgroup among these right hemisphere patients could be identified as performing at a notably lower level than others on this task. No conclusions as to the functional anatomic organization of musical processing within the right hemisphere was warranted from this study. Clearly further follow-up studies are needed which include compre-
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hensive nemopsychological profiling of right hemisphere function. These performances could then be correlated with musical processing abilities. To understand the unique quality of right hemisphere processing it will be necessary to document systematically other group’s responses, in particular a left hemisphere group; but to do this, an appropriate format must be devised. The task was clearly inappropriate for a large number of left hemisphere lesioned subjects, and to have included such a group in this study would have been to ignore the need to create matched groups in terms of lesion site and size of lesion (the concomitant aphasic problem would have precluded this). Possible alternative approaches may include a multiple task/ stimuli approach where converging evidence for differential effects of side of lesion is obtained (e.g., Murray, Prior, & Kinsella, 1988). In conclusion, music is an area in which both cognitive and affective responses of the listener can be investigated. However, this study suggests that further research into the affective response of listeners (both normal and neurological patients) would provide clarification of both the role of the right hemisphere in the mediation of emotion and hemispheric differences in musical processing.
REFERENCES Barbizet, J. (1978). Music within the brain. In M. Molloy, G. V. Stanley and K. W. Walsh (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1978 Brain Impairment Workshop. (pp. 44-48). Melbourne: University of Melbourne. Blumstein, S., & Cooper, W. E. (1974). Hemispheric processing of intonation contours. Cortex, 10, 146-158. Botez, M. I., & Wertheim, N. (1959). Expressive aphasia and amusia. Brain, 82, 186-203. Bradshaw, J. L., & Nettleton, N. (1981). The nature of hemispheric specialization in man. The Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 4, 5 1-91. Buck, R., & Duffy, R. J. (1980). Non-verbal communication of affect in brain-damaged patients. Cortex, 16, 351-362. Cicone, M., Wapner, W., & Gardner H. (1980). Sensitivity to emotional expressions and situations in organic patients. Cortex, 16, 35 l-362. Clynes, M., & Nettheim, N. (1982). The living quality of music: Neurobiological basis of communication of feelings. In M. Clynes (Ed.), Music, mind and brain. New York: Plenum Press. De Kosky, S. T., Heilman, K. M., Bowers, D., & Valenstein, E. (1980). Recognition and discrimination of emotional faces and pictures. Brain and Language, 9, 206-214. Gainotti, G. (1972). Emotional behaviour and hemispheric side of lesion. Cortex, 8, 39-55. Goldstein, K. (1939). The organism: A holistic approach to biology, derived from pathological data in man. New York: American Book. Marin, 0. S. M. (1982). Neurological aspects of music perception and performance. In Deutsch D. (Ed.), Thepsychology ofmusic. London: Academic Press. Meyer, L. B. (1956). Emotion and meaning in music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Monrad-Krohn, G. H. (1963). The third element of speech: Prosody and its disorders. In L. Halpern (Ed.), Problems of dynamic neurology. Jerusalem: Hebrew University Press; pp. 101-117.
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Prior, M., & Kinsella, G. (1988). A validation of the Barbizet Scale of Musical In preparation. E., Suci, Ci. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. IL: University of Illinois Press. Kinsella, G., & Wales, R. (1981). Disturbances in processing prosodic features of following right hemisphere lesions. In Cl. A. Broe and G. A. Tate (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Brain Impairment Conference. Sydney: University of Sydney. Ross, E. D. (1981). The aprosodias. Functional-anatomic organization of the effective components of language in the right hemisphere. Archives of Neurology, 38,561-569. Shapiro, B. E., & Danly, M. (1985). The role of the right hemisphere in the control of speech prosody in propositional and affective contexts. Brain and Lunguage, 25, 19-36. Sidtis, J. J. (1981). The complex tone test: Implications for the assessment of auditory laterality effects. Neuropsychologia, 19, 103-l 12. Wemtraub, S., Mesulam, M., & Kramer, L. (1981). Disturbances in Prosody: A right hemisphere contribution to language. Archives of Neurology, 38, 742-744.