Language behavior therapy: A derivative of social behaviorism

BEHAVIORTHERAPY (1972) 3, 165--192

Language Behavior Therapy: A Derivative of Social Behaviorism ARTHUR W. STAATS1

University of Hawaii It is suggested (1) that a personality level is necessary in behavioral theory, (2) that the individual learns enduring personality repertoires that determine his general behavior, (3) that language is composed of several separately learned but intermeshed personality repertoires that are the underlying constituents of personality constructs like intelligence, self-concept, and so on, ( 4 ) that personality repertoires can be modified by language means, according to learning principles, and (5) that behavior therapy must begin to include analyses of personality repertoires and methods of changing such repertoires. Some of the language repertorie are described as are ways by which problems can be treated through the language behavior therapy methods outlined. This provides a theoretical framework for considering certain traditional psychotherapy practices in behavioral terms as well as for broadening behavior therapy theory, research, and practice. The present approach thus aims at unification of traditional personality and psychotherapy theory with learning theory, with the latter providing the basic principles. The general, unified theory is called social behaviorism. In the need for rejecting the major assumptions of psychodynamic theory, the methods of psychotherapy were rejected by Eysenck (1952, 1960b) on empirical grounds in a manner that gave impetus to the development of a behavioral approach. Behavior therapists have generally modeled Eysenck's lead (e.g., Bandura, 1969, p. 56). The present general strategy, whieh was a breakthrough in the development of behavior t h e r a p y eoneeptions and procedures (see Staats, 1957, 1970c), is to apply learning principles directly to problems of h u m a n behavior. It is suggested, however, that ingredients in addition to the basic principles are necessary to provide a profound and comprehensive coneeption of h u m a n behavior that can constitute the foundation for continued advances in the treatment proeedures of clinical psychology. The present p a p e r will attempt to establish a eonceptual basis for a broader behavioral approaeh as well as a basis for an elaboration of behavior therapy l Inquiries and requests concerning this paper should be addressed to Arthur W. Staats, Department of Psychology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822. 165 O 1972 by Academic Press, Inc.

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into the language interactions of patient and therapist in the verbal psychotherapy situation. THE PERSONALITY LEVEL OF LEARNING THEORY The author very early urged the direct application of learning principles to clinical treatment (Staats, 1957). As valuable as direct applications of learning principles have been for our development of behavioral methods, it has been suggested, in a break with traditional behavioral approaches, that a personality level of theory is necessary between the basic learning theory and the actual behavior of the individual (Staats, 1971). This conception (called a behavioral interaction approach) indicates that the individual learns complex repertoires of behavior, "personality repertoires," in his long-term learning h~story. The child very early begins to learn sensorimotor repertoires, language repertoires, social repertoires, emotional repertoires (attitudes, needs, values, cathexes--in short, a motivational system), and so on. Analysis of something like the child's language development (especially relevant for the present discussion) reveals that language consists of exceedingly complex, functionally related repertoires. Both classical and instrumental conditioning principles are involved. Moreover, these language repertoires are essential features of the characteristic behaviors of the individual that are unique to him; that determine his behavior in many situations, his differences from others, the way he will adjust, and what will happen to him that will further affect his behavioral development. The language repertoires are critical parts of personality repertoires that lead to the inference of internal personality processes of intelligence, cognitive styles, need systems of various kinds, the ego, superego, the self-concept, and so on (Staats, 1963, 1968b, 1971). The role of basic learning principles in the acquisition of these complex behavioral repertoires is important, but a theory of human behavior, and attendant treatment methods, require much more. A central concept is that learning takes place only over long periods of time and is continuing in nature. The personality repertoires are learned in a hierarchical, cumulative way with the acquMtion of one repertoire leading into, and sometimes becoming part of, a more complex repertoire. And repertoires learned through separate principles are fused into functional combinations. It is this possibility for long-term, cumulative, hierarchical acquisition of personality repertoires that allows for the very great complexity and infinite variability that we see in individual and group human behavior. These personality characteristics in being relatively enduring, and generally consistent in development, help give the erroneous impression of internal psychodynamic or biological causation. As has been

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indicated, it is essential that these various personality repertoires be analytically described (see Staats, 1971). It should be noted that what the person is at any time in the sense of how he will respond to a situation, how he differs from others, what he can do--depends upon his already acquired personality repertoires. In this and other senses the individual's personality repertoires are independent variables as well as dependent variables, While it is true that psychology must be concerned with seeking understanding of the conditions that produce aspects of personality, it is equally important to study the manner in which the personality repertoires, once acquired, determine the individual's characteristics of behavior in a variety of situations. It is also necessary to indicate the manner in which different aspects of personality interact and how they determine the individual's further behavioral development. Because this approach contains empirical principles that indicate how human behavior can be self directive and creative, and in that sense free, it is actually a humanistic behaviorism (Staats, 1971). This approach is quite contrary to Skinner's elemental behaviorism (1971). For clinical psychology it is especially important to understand how the repertoires can be dealt with to obtain general behavioral change. This paper will describe certain language personality repertoires, as a theoretical basis for a language behavior therapy approach. LANGUAGE REPERTOIRES AND PSYCHOTHERAPY The present author, in outlining behavior therapy principles included an outline of some of the mechan sins of "verbal learning psychotherapy" (Staats, 1963, pp. 509-511). " ( I ) t should be possible for psychotherapy, in any of the areas of behavioral maladjustment discussed herein, to take place on a verbal level. Deficit behavior, inappropriate behaviors, stimulus control, the reinforcer system, should all be accessible to change through verbal means . . . . "(Staats, 1963, p. 509). References to these possibilities have been made by other behavior therapy oriented theorists (Salzinger, 1969; Kanfer & Phillips, 1970). In these cases, however, elaboration of the conception was not made. In fact, doubt was expressed concerning the importance of language psychotherapy. "Improvement in conditioning techniques may eventually relegate interview therapy to the status of an adjunct for behavior modification techniques" (Kanfer & Phillips, 1970, p. 402). It is suggested, on the contrary, that language is one of the most powerful methods by which human behavior is controlled and changed. Any general method for producing behavior change will have to include language methods as central. Moreover, individual and group language

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behavior therapy has the same theoretical and empirical legitimacy as straightforward conditioning procedures. Language behavior therapy also appears to offer avenues of treatment not available elsewhere. It thus behooves us to begin to analyze in greater detail what is involved, and more importantly to begin vigorously researching the area. One of the important steps to take toward this goal is to describe the various learned repertoires of skills involved in language. For a language behavior therapy approach must actually be based upon knowledge of these repertoires, in addition to the understanding of the basic learning principles. LANGUAGE (OR SYMBOLIC OR COGNITIVE) BEHAVIOR THERAPY The overview of this approach may be stated in brief. It is suggested that a very pervasive type of learning involved in various types of repertoirial complexes is that of language. Actually, language itself is composed of various subrepertoires that the individual learns. The subrepertoires are functionally intertwined into the large repertoire that we call language. Much human interaction takes place on the basis of these previously acquired language repertoires. The repertoires are acquired on the basis of learning principles--both classical and instrum e n t a l - a n d these principles are also involved in the functioning of the repertoires in human interaction. In understanding the human interaction, however, it is necessary to fully understand the repertoires involved. The fact is, the human interaction hinges upon the previous learning of the repertoires, and the interaction is thus determined by the repertoires as well as by the principles. At this point some of the subrepertoires of which the individual's language is eomposed will be outlined. (More complete accounts are available in Staats, 1963, 1968a, 1971.) In each ease, something will be said of the relevance of the subrepertoire in language (or cognitive) behavior therapy. THE VERBAL-MOTOR REPERTOIRE AND LANGUAGE BEHAVIOR THERAPY One of the most functional aspects of the language repertoire involves the control of all of the individual's motor responses in a manner that is potentially infinitely varied. The principle involved in the acquisition and function of the repertoire is that of instrumental conditioning. If the child is reinforced for a response in the presence of a word stimulus, the stimulus will come to control or elicit the response. The individual must learn an exceedingly large repertoire of such verbal-motor units--his

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ability to interact with others depends upon this repertoire. Thus, the child will be trained to an appropriate response to the various verbs in his language. He must come to be appropriately controlled by such words as push, pull, come, go, run, walk, lift, look, touch, give, close, press, squeeze, shake, and so on. Each verbal stimulus must come to be a (discriminative) stimulus that will elicit an appropriate motor response. This type of training goes on to great complexity in the ordinary case. Certain special human skills, for example, that of a dancer, musician, or chemist, where certain words must control especially skilled behaviors, must involve additionally extensive training. It may be added that the child who does not acquire an extensive verbal-motor repertoire will be incapable of normal interaction, and even in his early years will not be able to acquire normal social experience with adults or other children; he will be uncontrollable and unsocialized. Deficits in this repertoire are part of mental retardation and autism (Staats, 1971). In addition to the specific responses under the control of the verbs the individual must also learn to respond "generally" to other verbal stimuli. Thus, in the verbal stimulus "Close the door," the verb must elicit the specific motor response of closing something, the noun then controls response to the particular object. The combination of words controls a specific response to a specific stimulus. On the basis of the combinations of verbs and nouns (and other qualifying words as well), the verbal stimuli can then serve to elicit an infinitely varied number of behaviors to various objects and events--social as well as physical. Moreover, the individual who has acquired such a repertoire can learn new combinations of responses. The choreographer strings together a new combination of verbs that elicit standard movements in the dancer and thereby gets the dancer to perform a new routine. The verbal-motor repertoire may also be the basis for learning responses to new stimuli in another way. The child may be told "Commence playing," and not respond. The parent may then say "Commence means begin," and then say "Commence playing." The child will learn to respond to a new word as he did the old--a case of higher-order instrumental conditioning. These are examples of ways in which verbal instructions can serve to produce new learning, new behavioral skills, in the individual. It is important to realize the relevance of such analyses for a conception of clinical treatment. For behavior change can take place as readily on the basis of the language repertoires as through direct conditioning. There are, as a matter of fact, already examples in the area of behavior therapy. Desensitization, it may be suggested, rests not only upon the learning principles involved, but also upon the individual's previous

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acquisition of the language repertoires involved. It is necessary that the individual, who is told to relax, has previously acquired a verbal-motor repertoire that includes the necessary elements. When the verbal-motor unit has not been acquired, training is necessary. But there is nothing that especially differentiates in principle the use of verbal stimuli (instructions) to control the behavior of the client in relaxation therapy from the same use in a traditional psychotherapy situation. Both may be just as behavioral as direct conditioning. The use to which the verbal-motor repertoire is put may differ in traditional psychotherapy, of course. For example, the therapist may say "Tell me about your relationships with your family when you were a child," and thereby elicit a flow of verbal behaviors. It thus appears that it is not the behavioral principles in the method that is involved in controversy but the use to which the method is put. There are t) pes of psychotherapy that extensively employ verbal means to elicit instrumental responses in the individual (Thorne, 1950; Ellis, 1967) and assertive training inclades this mechanism. It may also be suggested that in any ease (for example, traditional versus desensitization) it is inlportant to understand what is occurring and the previously acquired repertoires upon which the method rests. Only in that way can we begin to deal specifically with the procedures involved and the results to be expected and to utilize the model in projecting treatment methods and research. The procedures of systematic desensitization presently rest upon principles and repertoires not explieized in the conceptual framework of the approach, ill the same manner as does traditional psychotherapy. The availability of the verbal-motor repertoire for the change of behavior has much greater potential than these examples, however. In the same way that the choreographer produces new dance skills by verbal instruction, the behavior therapist can potentially produce new behaviors in his clients. It is useful to instruct the married couple with sexual problems on techniques of intercourse. It is useful to provide verbal stimuli to the adolescent that will mediate more appropriate social and dating behavior. It is useful to indicate how family members can improve their behavior towards one another. It is important that the parent be provided with instructions on how he can train his children to the repertoires of skills they must acquire, as well as how to avoid producing, or to eliminate already acquired, undesirable behaviors. The important point is that the language repertoire is involved in these various aspects of treatment, as well as in others. The principles, the personality repertoire analyses, and the general conception should be available to the behavioral clinician in his task of changing a variety of behaviors in the pure language psychotherapy situation. Many of the

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behavior problems the practicing clinician faces have not been worked out in specific behavior therapy procedures, but can be dealt with by language behavior therapy procedures. THE VERBAL-EMOTIONAL REPERTOIRE

Another central aspect of language is that the individual acquires a "repertoire" that consists of a very large number of words coming to be emotional stimuli. The principle is that of classical conditioning. A word stimulus that is paired with a UCS that elicits an emotional response will also come to elicit the emotional response. In the child, for example, stimuli that elicit negative emotional responses are paired with the word bad and it comes to elicit a negative emotional response. The classical conditioning of emotional responses to words has been demonstrated (Brotsky, 1968; Maltzman, Raskin, Gould, & Johnson, 1965; Staats, Staats, & Crawford, 1958; Zanna, Kiesler, & Pilkonis, 1970). There is also considerable evidence that words elicit positive or negative emotional meaning are large in number, for various languages (Tanaka, Oyama, & Osgood, 1963). That words elicit emotional responses is important in and of itself. It is this quality that, in part, accounts for enjoyment of literature and verbal interactions of various sorts. Words thus may have a symbolic function in providing emotional experiences without the individual having the actual experience. This language repertoire has other important functions in his behavior and learning in ways important to language behavior therapy.

Verbal Reinforcers in Language Behavior Therapy The emotion eliciting and reinforcing functions of stimuli are inextricably linked. A stimulus that elicits an emotional response in the organism will also serve as a reinforcing stimulus. Food as a stimulus elicits physiological emotional responses upon presentation. It is also a reinforcing stimulus in instrumental conditioning. This has been recognized in such classic learning theories as Hull's, if not as focally as necessary for an adequate human learning theory (see Staats, 1970a, 1970b ). At any rate, when a stimulus is paired in classical conditioning with UCS that elicits an emotional response, the new stimulus as it comes to elicit the emotional responses will also come to be a reinforcing stimulus for the individual. This applies to words as conditioned stimuli that elicit emotional responses. As a consequence, they are capable of functioning as reinforcing stimuli. The function of such words in affecting the behavior of people constitutes one of the most powerful functions of fan-

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guage---and the principle must be well understood to deal with individual behavior and human interaction. One of the foundations of the learning theory applications to clinical psychology has involved the demonstration that behavior could be modified through employing verbal reinforcers (see Krasner, 1958; Kanfer, 1954; Salzinger, 1959). (Truax, 1966, has also referred to the reinforcing properties of the therapist in a paper that includes some valuable behavioral suggestions intermingled with a client-centered personality theory.) The analyses on which these studies were based did not indicate by what principles words can come to be reinforcers, and only employed standard indications of social approval, for example, the word good. When the classical eonditioning of emotional responses to words is recognized, it may be seen that a very large class of positive emotional words exists that can function as positive reinforcers, for example, cheer-

ful, fun, famous, holiday, enjoy, famfly, swim, laughter, smile, honest, blossom, happiness, gift, and so on. Conversely, there is a very large class of negative emotional words that will serve as negative reinforcers and decrease the strength of any response they follow. Examples are guilty,

afraid, spoil, ugly, pain, die, sad, foolish, hate, [at, sick, hunger, harm, ashamed, worry, hurt, and so on (Staats, 1963, 1968a). The instrumental conditioning function of this language repertoire has been shown by individually presenting members of the such words contingent upon some type of behavior, to strengthen or weaken it (Finley & Staats, 1967; Reitz & MacDougall, 1969; Staats, 1964), and by presenting statements that include such words (Golightly & Byrne, 1964). Krasner (1962) has referred to the use of social reinforcers such as the word good in calling the therapist a social reinforcement machine. The possibility of affecting behavioral changes through language extends much more generally, however. For one thing, there are many, many words that may be employed in this process. And the words may be applied in many contexts, in natural language usage--not only through stilted verbal reinforcement procedures where one waits until the subject has performed a desirable behavior, then employing one of the few types of verbal praise. The fact that this has not become a valuable therapeutic technique, it is suggested, resides in its limitations in practice, not in limitations of principle. Moreover, as will be indicated, the therapist can create new reinforcers through language behavior therapy. And, also important, in the language learning type of psychotherapy the therapist can induce in the client modes of language (reasoning, thinking, self-concept) by which the client can appropriately provide his own reinforcement.

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EMOTIONAL CONDITIONING IN LANGUAGE BEHAVIOR THERAPY One of the central aspects of behavior therapy has been in changing emotional responses to stimuli. This is involved, for example, when a drink of alcohol is paired with a negative UCS and the negative emotional response is conditioned to the drink. The same is true when some fetish object is involved, or when the stimuli are pictures of the same sex in treating homosexuality, and so on. On the other hand, objects that originally elicit an inappropriate negative emotional response, as in a phobia, may come to elicit a positive emotional response, or no emotional response, through pairing with a stimulus that elicits a positive emotional response or inhibits a negative emotional response. The following sections will suggest that the same procedures may be conducted through language behavior therapy.

Emotion Modification in Desensitization and Psychotherapy One type of behavior therapy treatment has been called desensitization. The person is instructed to relax while he is presented with stimuli that elicit a negative emotional response in him. The principle may be considered to involve extinction of the emotional response when the CS is presented with no emotion-eliciting UCS. Many times the (phobic) CS is "presented" by instructing the person to imagine the object or event he fears. As will be indicated later, this involves yet another language repertoire that has not been explicated in the desensitization approach. The main point here, however, is that the same effects may be achieved on the language level in a traditional psychotherapy situation. In fact, this has been a prominent part of some methods of psychotherapy. Clientcentered therapy, for example, has made a great deal of having the client talk, in a nonpunitive atmosphere, about his intimate concerns, including those topics that he fears and is guilty of (has a negative emotional response to). Although client-centered therapy may not utilize learning principles in understanding this aspect of therapy, it is in perfect concert with the goal of changing the individual's inappropriate emotional response to his life situations. To see this it is only necessary to employ a learning theory model that includes the necessary analysis of the emotional properties of language. As part of this it must also be realized that as the emotional response to the verbal stimuli extinguish, or are counterconditioned, in the therapy situation, the individual's response will also change in his actual life interactions. Moreover, making the verbal stimuli less negative will allow the client to use those words in

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his labeling and reasoning--an aspect of behavior change that will be considered further on. It is important to note that it is no different in operative principles to have a person relax when considering anxiety producing topics in systematic desensitization, than it is to have the individual speak of anxiety producing topics in the "non-threatening," relaxed interaction of client-centered therapy--regardless of the differing theoretical frameworks. Thus, these two apparently antagonistic positions may be unified with, it is suggested, productive implications. For example, it would be interesting to investigate the possibility that the types of emotional behavior change achieved in behavior therapy can be induced in clientcentered therapy, for example, treatment of phobias. If client-centered therapy could be founded upon a set of empirically derived, cause and effect set of principles, and methods of research introduced on this basis, it might be possible to develop the method to have the scientific advantages of behavior therapy, with the fluidity, and comprehensiveness of traditional therapy methods. This is but an example, to open up the possibilities for investigation and to break down the boundaries of dogmatic separation.

Emotion Modification in Language Behavior Therapy A major part of behavior therapy has been in the change of emotional responses. Although the emphasis has been on anxiety reduction, it has been indicated that the purview of the field should be widened to deal with all types of emotional change (Staats, 1970a), for example, interpersonal attitudes, values, interests, needs, fetishes, and so on, as well as phobias, anxieties, and other negative emotions. Counterconditioning techniques have been employed to reverse inappropriate emotional responses of both positive and negative sorts of an explicit nature, but a much wider variety of problems must be treated. Language behavior therapy procedures demand a central role in this development, as will be indicated. To begin, the present author (Staats and Staats, 1957, 1958) developed a theoretical rationale and conditioning procedure for changing emotional responses entirely through verbal means. This was done by presenting the stimulus (CS) a number of times, each time while the subject was also auditorily presented with an emotion eliciting word (UCS). The UCS words were all different--but they all elicited the same emotional response, as in the examples already given. It was found that subjects could be conditioned to positive or negative emotional responses, solely on the basis of this language conditioning method

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(Staats and Staats, 1959). The method has been verified many times (e.g., Blanford & Sampson, 1964; Coleman, 1967; Ertel, Oldenberg, Siry, & Vormfelde, 1969; Phelan, Hekmat, & Tang, 1967; Franks & Mantell, 1966; Pollio, 1963), and it is clear that emotional responses can be changed by these language conditioning procedures. These procedures and the language conditioning principles have been extended to an analysis of social interaction and the manner in which behavior towards other people may be modified by changing the subject's attitudes towards those people (Staats, 1964, pp. 205-213, 291-295; 1968b). The mariner in which emotional problems could be solved by language conditioning has also been outlined (Staats, 1968b, 1970a). A study by Early (1968) that uses the language conditioning principles and procedures for behavior modification purposes may be seen as prototypical of one type of language behavior therapy. The problem, that of the social isolation of children in school, was solved by changing the attitudes (emotional responses) of the isolates' classmates towards the n a m e s of the isolates. This was done using the language conditioning procedures in which positive emotional words (UCSs) were paired with the names. The classmates then played more with the isolates, that is, were more attracted to the isolates. Berkowitz and Knurek (1969) have also used the language conditioning method to show that negative emotional conditioning to a person's name mediated aggressive behavior toward the person by experimental group subjects. These studies have extensive clinical implications. For example, a central problem of homosexuality is that persons of the same sex inappropriately elicit positive emotional responses in the patient, and thus mediate approach behaviors. At the same time persons of the opposite sex do not elicit positive emotional responses and thus do not attract. Negative emotional responses even may be elicited in the homosexual and mediate avoidance or hostile behavior toward the opposite sex. The present approach (Staats, 1968a, 1970a) suggests that central to the treatment of homosexuality may be the modification of such inappropriate attitudinal responses, as has been shown by Annon (1971). The modification of such sexual attitudes can occur through language conditioning procedures, it is suggested, as will be elaborated further on. To continue, however, the successful modification of inappropriate anxiety has been the foundation for systematic desensitization, and hence of a main aspect of behavior therapy. Wolpe's work began with the treatment of phobias. It is thus very important to demonstrate that phobias can be successfully treated by language behavior therapy. Since writing this paper a study has been published that corroborates this expectation of the principles and procedures. That is, Hekmat and

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Vanian (1971) have conducted a study in which they used the language conditioning procedures to treat cases of snake phobia. They selected subjects with strong phobic responses and divided them into experimental and control groups. The 15 experimental subjects received 18 language conditioning trials in which the word snake (the CS) was paired with positive emotional words (the UCSs). The control group had the same experience but the word peach was substituted for snake. The experimental group showed positive attitude change significantly greater than the eontrol group toward the word snake, on a rating scale. Moreover, the language conditioning treatment generalized to actual snakes, as measured by a standard test of proximity of approach to a live snake. It may be concluded that the basic research verifying the principles of the language conditioning of emotional responses is extensive. As indicated, there are also studies that corroborate the approach in social interaction, including solution of problems of social interaction. There is now evidence that problems previously treated by systematic desensitization can be treated by language behavior therapy. In these various studies both attitude (or fear) rating scales have been successfully employed, as well as direct behavioral measures. Basic studies have also tested the principles with physiological measures. It may be suggested that the prineiples and procedures now require extension to the variety of elinieal problems to which they are appropriate, and to extensive empirical test. For example, it has been shown that physiological anxiety responses to phobic stimuli can be reduced through systematic desensitization. Is it possible to change physiological anxiety responses through language conditioning procedures? The principles and empirical findings would suggest so. In addition, since the language conditioning is relatively easy and rapid, it may be possible to demonstrate the learning of (or deepening of) phobias, in a procedure like the Hekmat and Vanian study, using the negative language conditioning procedures--employing a reversal design to remove the phobias. This would be theoretieally and experimentally signifieant, giving information on the original learning of phobias. Moreover, sinee the language eonditioning methods include a negative emotional (anxiety) eonditioning potentiality, it should be possible to treat eases of inappropriately strong positive emotions-like fetishes, addictions, homosexuality, and so on within the same procedures. Of even greater importance is development of standardized procedures for the therapeutic language conditioning methods, as well as the development of maximally effective procedures. It is possible to employ

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automatic methods of administration of the language conditioning therapy. Perhaps the therapy could also be effected through standard reading materials as well as through the auditory methods of presentation. In principle, thusly, it must be realized that it is just as behaviorally (and scientifically) sound to change the individual's emotional system through language as it is to change it through forms of conditioning that directly resemble animal conditioning procedures. It seems possible, moreover, to deal with a wide ranging number of problems of emotional response in the subject's life on the basis of language, in a series of clinical interviews. Also, frequently the individual with a salient problem like a phobia, fetish, or difficulty like impotence, will also have a number of other emotional problems in life adjustment that may be dealt with over a period of time. It may also be added here that the extent to which there are individual differences in what stimuli are emotional to the individual has not been realized sufficiently in contemporary behavior therapy. The individual may be considered to have learned to respond emotionally to a multitude of social and physical objects and events. Exemplary classes of such emotional-motivational stimuli are: social stimuli, esthetic stimuli, work stimuli, achievement stimuli, sex related stimuli, ethical stimuli, behavioral stimuli of others, material possessions stimuli, activities and recreation stimuli, the stimuli of oneself and one's behavior, and so on. The vastly complex system of learned emotional stimuli for the individual constitutes a most central aspect of his personality in the behavioral sense. (See Staats, 1970a, for a more complete account.) It is important to realize that, to a significant extent, this system is formed through language conditioning, and it may be changed by the same principles, an essential area of knowledge for professionals in behavior change.

Producing Verbal-Reinforcer Repertoires in Language Behavior Therapy In an earlier section, it was indicated that a stimulus that elicited an emotional response would also serve as a reinforcing stimulus when presented contingent upon an instrumental behavior. Words as stimuli function similarly. Thus, in language behavior therapy as word stimuli are changed in their emotional value, the functional value of the word stimuli as reinforcers will also change. This has been shown very clearly in an experiment by Hall (1967). He presented emotion eliciting words to subjects repeatedly in a procedure expected to extinguish the emotional response. He then found that the words would not serve as reinforcing stimuli as they do prior to such extinction. Extrapolating, extinction of negative emotional responses to anxiety producing words in language

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behavior therapy would be expected to remove the negative reinforcing value of escape fi'om those words (or from the actual events). The message is clear. Changing the individual's emotional response to words, and thus to the actual people and events, will change his behavior toward them, for reinforcing value helps determine behavior. Thus, the male for whom other males elicit positive emotional responses of a sexual nature will be reinforced for homosexual behaviors and mannerisms if these behaviors result in social-sexual contact with males. The male for whom such stimuli are aversive will learn to avoid such behaviors. Changing the emotional value of members of the same sex through language would change their reinforcing value and hence the behaviors that result (Staats, 1970a). THE OVERLAP OF VERBAL-EMOTIONAL,VERBAL-REINFORCER, AND VERBAL-MOTOR REPERTOIRES The overlap between the emotional (attitudinal) and reinforcing properties of stimuli has already been indicated. A third aspect of emotional stimuli must also be included in an analysis of human behavior. That is, it has been widely recognized in clinical and personality theories that emotional stimuli (which are referred to by many labels) have more than one function. Social and clinically derived theories, however, have not stated all the functions, or distinguished them clearly. One function that learning theories also neglect, is that emotional-reinforcing stinmli direct one's behavior concerning the stimuli. Freud, for example, posited that an instinct has both an aim and a particular behavior for attaining the object that satisfies the aim and reduces the tension of the instinct involved. The reason the "instinct object" attracts behavior can be explained in learning terms. It has been suggested (Staats, 1968b, 1970a) that the individual learns to strive for (or approach), with a large class of various instrumental behaviors, stimuli that elicit a positive emotional response in him and thus have reinforcing properties. He also learns a large class of instrumental behaviors of striving away from (avoidance) behaviors, under the control of stimuli that elicit a negative emotional response in him and thus serve as negative reinforcers. Thus, words that elicited emotional responses in the individual would be expected to elicit the appropriate class of either "striving for" or "striving away from" behaviors. This effect, in addition to the clinical and naturalistic evidence, has been shown, specifically with words, in the laboratory. Solarz (1960) presented words to subjects whose task was to move a lever towards or away from themselves. When the word was one that elicited a positive emotional response, the latency for

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moving the lever towards themselves was less than when the word elicited a negative emotional response. Staats and Guay (1970) have shown that a word that elicits a more positive interest (emotional response) in a group of subjects will more strongly elicit significant approach behaviors than in subjects with less intense interests--as measured on an interest inventory. Thus, generally stated, a stimulus that (1) elicits a positive emotional response in the individual (2) will serve as a positive reinforcer for him, and (3) also as a discriminative stimulus eliciting a class of "striving for" behaviors. For negative emotional stimuli the converse functions pertain. The importance of these principles is that, as the emotional value of words is charged for the person in language behavior therapy, he would be expected to strive for or away from those words. If the husband is told effectively that his behavior is irresponsible or selfish, for example, he will strive away from those words to the extent they elicit a negative emotional response. Moreover, the individual will strive away from the actual behaviors involved. (The qualification word effectively requires further behavioral specification involving other determinants of the individual's behavior and of what labels the individual will accept.) Changing the emotional value of words in language behavior therapy will modify behavior towards the actual events the words label. It is central to indicate that the emotional value of what one says to an individual, or what the individual says to himself, will help determine whether he performs or avoids the action involved. The same to-be-performed action described in positive emotion eliciting words will elicit the action. The converse will occur with the use of negative emotional words. More will be said of how the therapist can modify the patient's behavior through what he says to the patient, and what he educates the patient to say to himself. THE LABELING AND REASONING REPERTOIRES A N D L A N G U A G E B E H A V I O R THERAPY

To this point, the language repertoires that have been outlined have involved what is traditionally called passive or receptive language rather than active or generative language. While not all of the aspects of active language can be dealt with here, it may be indicated that the child also receives experience, beginning very early (Staats, 1971), that begins to provide him with speech. Although the experience varies widely on a number of dimensions, the learning principle involved is simple--that of instrumental conditioning. A vocal response reinforced in the presence of a stimulus later will tend to be elicited upon presentation of that stimulus.

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Through this quite varied conditioning, customarily the child will begin saying single words to familiar objects and events. He will be reinforced for labeling his parents, familiar culinary utensils, toys, objects of apparel, and so on, and begin to acquire a large labeling repertoire. The learning commences with single words--usually nouns first and then simple verbs. Further experience will condition the child to respond appropriately with other labels, adjectives and adverbs, that are under the control of a part aspect of stimuli (red, beauti[ul, big, and slowly, elumaily, wildly). The stimulus objects and events may occur in relationship to one another, including relationships in whieh one is causal. The ehild will through his labeling and other language repertoires learn to say, for example, "He pulled her hair and it made her angry and she hit him," under the veridical control of the stimulus objects and events. This complex labeling involves the child having learned sequences of verbal responses, the function words, that help determine the order (syntax) of his speech generation. It should be noted that the quality, extensity, and type of labeling repertoires the child learns will figure prominently in determining the type of behavior the child will display. For these language sequences will come to be important parts of what we term the individual's reasoning, thinking, planning, and deciding. The child, who because of his experience and language repertoires, says (reasons) to himself "If I don't clean up my room Mother won't let me go out to play," will have instrumental behaviors elicited that are adjustive for him in obtaining future reinforeers. The individual who labels events incorrectly, or whose sequenee of language responses (reasoning) do not parallel the relationships of the events involved, is likely not to have adjustive instrumental behaviors elieited. The paranoid person may label another shy person's demure behavior as dislike for himself and reason that he will respond with equally aversive behavior. The psychopathic person may not label chancy events veridically, or lie may not have an appropriate emotional response to words of caution, and thereby perform instrumental behaviors that are nonadjustive. The husband and wife in a troubled marriage may because of their history of experience have labeling and reasoning repertoires that do not effeetively mediate their behavior to one another. The retarded or autistic child suffers egregious deficits in his labeling and, hence, reasoning. It is eentral to indieate that, although the first learning of the child is through direct conditioning, later he learns his labeling through imitation (Staats, 1963, 1971). As adults we customarily learn new labeling responses through verbal interaetions we eall eommunieation, including

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psychotherapy situations. The therapist who describes the patient's behavior as aggressive by comparing his behavior to that of other's, and who describes how people will respond to this behavior, in so doing can provide his patient with new labels for his reasoning. The learning of new, adjustive labeling and reasoning sequences is traditionally called insight and can be considered within language behavior therapy principles. The importance of the individual's language repertoires in his thinking, reasoning, planning, and decision making, and hence in his actions, cannot be overemphasized. The important point in the present context, however, is that these language repertoires have been learned in large part on the basis of language experience, and can be changed similarly. This change can occur systematically in therapy situations--it occurs also in reading, in watching TV and movies, in education, in advertising, and so on. The important thing is to begin to understand and research this powerful means of behavor change in terms of the basic principles and personality repertoires involved. While the present paper was in press a study has been published that supports the present analysis and demonstrates the possibility of treating problems of behavior employing language behavior therapy. Meichenbaum and Goodman (1971) have given "impulsive" children training in talking to themselves, first overtly and then covertly. The children's performance on the Porteus Maze test, the Performance IQ of the WISC, and on Kagan's measure of cognitive impulsivity significantly improved as a result, and was maintained on a follow-up one month later. The opportunity to observe a model who verbalized was not sufficient. It was necessary for the children to be trained to the type of self-speech that has been described herein. It may be added that the various language repertoires necessary to the child's cognitive and behavioral adjustment have been described (Staats, 1971), as well as methods for treating children's problems of cognitive development (for example, mental retardation and autism).

Self-Labeling artd Social Reasoning It has been said, as one example of traditional personality constructs, that the individual's behavior is determined by how he perceives the situations he confronts. A central aspect of the individual's perceptions, it is said, are his self-perceptions, his self-concept. It may be suggested here that there are personality repertoires involved in the "self-concept" that are important to adjustment and which require a behavior analysis. 'The labeling and reasoning repertoires described above are relevant (see also Staats, 1963, 1968a, 1971 ). That is, the individual's physical

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features (tall, husky, deformed, beautiful, and so on), his behavioral features (strong, agile, talkative, sociable, clumsy, and so on), his emotional sensations (impatience, happy, content, fearful, hurt, amusement, and so on), his social feedback on his behavior (entertaining, selfish, kind, aloof, warm), his products of achievement (scholastic honors, athletic notice, monetary abundance, and so on), as well as other objects and events arising in or closely associated with the individual are stimuli. As such these stimuli may, and are, labeled extensively by the person and constitute important aspects of his self-concept. Several corollaries are important here. First, it should be noted that the individual's labeling of self-stimuli is learned. Thus, there is room for large variations irrespective of the actual stimuli involved. Two individuals of equal behavioral qualities may label themselves differently, because of the type of training they have received in their home experiences. Moreover, the emotional quality of the words in one's self-concept is very important. One's "happiness" with himself (the extent to which he receives positive emotional experience) will in part depend upon this aspect of the self-concept. Also the extent to which self-reinforcement is provided through one's self-concept language repertoires will be important in the way many of one's adjustive behaviors will be maintained. Behaviors described with positive reinforcing words (intelligent, amusing, kind, skillful, courageous, successful, hardworking, and so on) will be increased in strength, for example. In addition, in the same way that other labeling and reasoning sequences help determ'ne the individual's behavior, so also does the selfconcept repertoire. The self-concept is important in self-relevant decisions and actions; whom the adolescent will date, what jobs the individual will accept and aspire to, the position of social dominance the person takes in various interactions, and many more. The individual who describes his social and intellectual skills in negative emotional terms is unlikely in his reasoning to accept or strive for a position that demands high levels of skill. What the ind!vidual experiences and learns is thus affected. Hence, this aspect of personality, as the others, is an independent variable as well as a dependent variable. It is thus crucial that the individual's labeling and reasoning sequences are veridical so they can mediate behaviors adjustive to reality. The self-concept repertoire is causal for the individual in another way. That is, the individual will overtly describe himself to others in his everyday interactions. This will help determine how other people will respond to him, and thus what types of social experiences he will

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have. The individual who describes himself in negative terms, other things being equal, will be responded to differently than the individual who describes himself somewhat (but not unrealistically) positively, or the individual who does not talk about himself at all. (See Staats, 1968a, 1971, for a more complete analysis.) The present learning analysis of the "self-concept" is thus not in opposition to the observations of self theorists (Rogers, 1951 )--another reason for labeling the approach a humanistic behaviorism. A learning analysis, however, can incorporate the empirical bases of such personality constructs and also indicate the behavioral constituents of such personality constructs. In so doing a theoretical framework is provided for objectively changing the personality repertoires. The central consideration here is that the self-concept repertoire is learned, partly on the basis of language experience, and it can be changed through learning, again at least in part through language interactions in a psychotherapy situation. While not derived from this analysis, and not systematic in the way desired by behavior therapy standards, there is evidence of such self-concept change in psychotherapy (see Rogers & Dymond, 1954). The language behavior therapy analysis should provide a basis for affecting and studying such changes more systematically. Finally, in this context, it may be suggested that it is in the realm of changing the individual's labeling repertoires--especially concerning his social or personal experience--and thus the individual's reasoning, planning, decision making, emotional, responding, and overt actions, that the term "insight" has its origin. 2 The present behavioral analysis provides a basis for expecting that changing the individual's labeling and reasoning sequences through verbal means, to be veridical with reality, can have therapeutic value. 2A caveat should be mentioned here, appropo of an astute question from one of the editors reading this paper. One reason for a distrust of language methods of treatment is that the language behavior of the patient may not reflect his actual behavior. This discrepancy underlies the concept of intellectual, versus actual, insight. He may say, but not do, for example. His words, also, may not reflect his emotional responses. Moreover, his language expressions may be instrumental for him in allaying the necessity for doing certain things or feeling certain ways. The psychoanalytic defense mechanisms have been considered in terms of these functions of language (Staats, 1963, pp. 389--,394). Much further elucidation of these "defending" aspects of language must be made, however. These topics, as with other clinically relevant aspects of language, cannot be discussed here because of space limitations. However, it should be stressed that any lack of predictability of behavior from language interactions should not suggest a basic capriciousness. Rather, it indicates the need for a more complete understanding.

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THE VERBAL-IMAGE AND IMAGE-VERBAL REPERTOIRES The author (1959) proposed a behavioral theory of images--thai sensory responses elicited by sensory stimuli can be conditioned--citing several experiments (Ellson, 1941; Leuba, 1940; Phillips, 1958). The term conditioned sensory response was introduced and likened to what are commonly called images. Words were considered an important type of stimulus that could come to elicit conditioned images. Mowrer (1960) and Sheffield (1961) a/so employed this analysis in basic learning theories. Staats, Staats, and Heard (1960) showed that the sensory responses elicited by words could be conditioned to other words, and Paivio (1969) showed the image value of words to be important in verbal learning. In addition, the 1959 analysis suggested that the individual learns labeling responses to his own images (his conditioned sensory responses). Thus, on the one hand, word stimuli may elicit images in the individual. On the other hand, images also tend to elicit the types of labeling responses the individual has learned to the direct sensory objects or events themselves. The author elaborated this conception (Staats, 1968a) to indicate that the individual learns a large repertoire of words that elicit conditioned sensory responses. Partial aspects, or general attributes, of stimuli, like color, shape, and so on, are also conditioned to words, and serve as general concepts. For example, the individual learns appropriate conditioned sensory responses to the words white, furry, barking, small, soft, sharp, and so on. Furthermore, when combinations of such words are presented to the individual, complex combinations of images may be elicited. The individual who has learned the appropriate imaginal word repertoire may be told about a dog that is small, white, furry, soft, and barks sharply--and experience a composite image. These word "concepts" can be infinitely combined, giving infinite possibilities for sensory experience solely on the basis of language--without requiring primary experience. Bandura has recently adopted part of the conditioned image theory, giving it the new name of symbolic mediation (1969). Also, the clinical relevance of the S-R concept is becoming recognized. It should be noted, however, that the potentialities of the verbal-image and the imageverbal repertoires for understanding and dealing with human behavior and its modification have not begun to be realized. A great deal of human learning takes place on the basis of those repertoires. For example, the literary writer in part achieves his great effect by his ability to elicit new composite conditioned sensory responses in the reader through various word combinations. In this way, the reader may have experiences

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quickly, easily, and without effort that he would not have access to through direct experience. The writer's own primary and language experiences condition him to the sensory experiences that elicit his verbal descriptions. Verbally induced image experience plays a prominent role in many everyday human interactions. More recent behavior therapy procedures have begun to utilize verbally elicited images (Cautela, 1967, 1970; Davison, 1968) and the principles involved must be understood. As an example, Davison (1968) had the subject image sexual stimuli while masturbating. The masturbation is the self-produced unconditioned stimulus eliciting sexual emotional responses with intense reinforcement value. This treatment would be expected to condition the emotional value, and reinforcement value, to the imagined stimulus. The individual should then respond similarly to the actual sexual stimulus as he does now to the imagined stimulus. It may be suggested generally that this paradigm could be a very potent source of behavioral change in sexual and other areas of adjustment. It is also worthwhile indicating that the composite sensory response a group of words elicits may have reinforcing properties that each of the words by itself does not have. Thus, path, grass, stream, and trees may have as individual words relatively little reinforcement for a person. However, when put into a passage that elicits a composite sensory image of a country scene, the words may have much greater reinforcement properties. The reinforcement properties are elicited by the composite sensory image--not the words themselves" ( Staats, 1968a, p. 504). Cautela's (1970) covert reinforcement procedures may be considered to involve these principles and the subject's previously acquired verbalimage language repertoire. The previously described language conditioning would be relevant here, both theoretically and clinically. It may thus be hypothesized that the same types of behavioral changes shown in Davison's use of a UCS such as masturbation should be possible strictly on a verbal level, without the use of primary stimuli. Pornography elicits conditioned images and hence physiological sexual responses. The use of verbal material for changing emotional responses to imagined and real sexual stimuli should be modifiable through prescribed reading, for example, as well as in psychotherapeutic verbal interactions. Changes in the emotional responses to sexual stimuli would change their reinforcing and controlling value and thus change the individual's sexual behavior. Moreover, it should be possible to test the emotional changes made by language through physiological measures or through rating scales. The correlation of the two types of responses in measuring emotional arousal has been shown (Maltzman et al., 1965; Staats et al.,

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1958; Zanna et al., 1970). The use of the rating scale to index reinforcement value has also been suggested and demonstrated (Finley & Staats, 1967; Golightly & Byrne, 1965; Reitz & MacDougall, 1969; Staats, 1963, 1964, 1968a, 1968b; Staats, Carlson & Reid, 1970). The extent to which sensory stimulus objects and eveuts elicit emotional responses in the individual is of importance in other areas than sexual aberration. Geer (1908) has shown how pictures of human wounds may be employed as the UCS to elicit negative emotional responses that are conditioned to another stimulus. Word pictures could be used just as effectively. As another therapy example, pairing smoking with actual pictures of the results of smoking pathology or verbal descriptions should produce negative conditioning. If not sufficient to prevent the behavior in all habitual smokers, the language behavior therapy would be an adjunct. With children, prior to development of smoking habits, the repeated use of language conditioning would be sufficient. These are suggestions for actual language behavior therapy procedures among the many existing possibilities. LANGUAGE AND SELF-CONTROL There has been an interest in the development of self-control techniques within an operant framework (for example, Cautela, 1969; Ferster, Nurnberger & Levitt, 1962; Goldiamond, 1965). It should be noted that the individual's language system is intensely involved in what would be called self-direction, self-control, and self-reinforcement (see Staats, 1963, 1968a, 1971). Each of the language repertoires that has been briefly described herein is an agent of self-control. Although the individual learns his repertoires, once established they function in helping determine his other behaviors. (This is why personality constructs have been seen to have an explanatory nature--and it is important for behavioral approaches to recognize the causative quality of "personality" repertoires. ) The language behavior therapist can change these causative repertoires in verbal interaction with the subject or patient. This can be clone with varying degrees of intensity and extensity, to modify behavior in varying degrees. It is suggested by way of analogy that the parent has a very profound effect upon the behavior of the child in having a profound affect upon acquisition of various repertoires of the child's language. (See Staats, 1971, for a complete account.) The behavior therapist may also have a very large and extensive effect in reconstituting the several language repertoires of his subjects and patients and thereby their general behavior. It is suggested that the present principles, procedures, and the general

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conception provide a framework for self-modification. The patient who is instructed in the language behavior therapy procedures, and helped to isolate his problems, can utilize the procedures to modify his own behavior. For example, the person with a "flying" phobia, when informed, can avoid reading newspaper articles on airplane crashes, and thereby avoid some of the negative emotional conditioning that maintains his phobia. Other language procedures can also be self-employed. BEHAVIOR PATHOLOGY AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS

The emphasis in this paper has been on the language repertoires the individual acquires that can be employed to affect general behavior change. As has been suggested, however, the seat of the problem of the individual may reside in his language (personality) repertoires. Many times the individual's general problems of adjustment involve deficits or deviations in his language repertoires, with ramifications into other repertoires. The author has given examples, dealing with schizophrenia (1957), paranoid delusions, the defense mechanisms, psychopathic behavior, (Staats, 1963), and other examples of neurotic and psychotic behavior (Staats, 1970a). A new book (Staats, 1971) shows more generally the central place of the development of language repertoires in various aspects of adjustment and personality (such as mental retardation and autism). Further development of this topic is planned. It should be noted here, however, that significant deficits or inappropriate aspects of the patients" language repertoires may make language behavior therapy inappropriate. Reconstructing or constructing these repertoires may be required first. DISCUSSION

There are presently a number of activities within behavior therapy that involve the use of language behavior repertoires. (See also cognitive therapy, Beck, 1970.) However, the theoretical framework within which to interpret these activities, or from which to suggest various potentialities for clinical theory and practice, has not been elaborated sufficiently in the context of clinical theory and practice. It is the purpose of this paper to begin this elaboration and to refer the cF_nical theorist and practitioner to the more complete principles of the approach (Staats, 1963, 1968a, 1970a, 1970c, 1971). Behavior therapy, including its operant branch, has tended to utilize only the simple principles of reinforcement and class'cal conditioning and to be restricted to procedures that have the superficial appearance of the laboratory. As a consequence, many clinicians employ behavior therapy as a restricted technique, using psychodynamic theory for more

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general problems and understanding. Behavior therapy, however, must be based upon a general learning conception of human behavior, removing restriction to specific problems and specific techniques. It has been suggested (1) that principles and concepts in addition to the laboratory established learning principles must be added to the theoretical framework. For example, the principles of long term, cumulative-hierarchical learning must be understood--in contrast to the antihistorical approach that has become traditional. "All treatment of neurotic disorders is concerned with habits existing at present; their historical development is largely irrelevant" (Eysenck, 1960, p. 11). (See also Lovaas [1966, pp. 111-112].) The cumulative-hierarchical learning conception in contrast emphasizes the effects of the individual's historyibut involves behavioral analysis of the development of personality repertoires in place of psychoanalytic psychosexual personality development. (2) In addition, the principles of how personality repertoires function in determining how the individual will generally behave in many situations must also be a part of the general theory (Staats, 1971). These principles constitute the basis for a humanistic behaviorism. (3) Moreover, the ways of changing the personality repertoires--in contrast to the present focus upon changing simple behaviors--must be dealt with in theoretical analyses, such as the present one, and in behavior therapy procedures to provide the empirical arm of the approach. (4) This must include understanding and use of the complex personality repertoires of language, since they are so generally pervasive and such powerful mechanisms for effeeting behavior change for clinical purposes. Finally, the present approach may be seen as part of an integrational theory (which the author has called social behaviorism). It is suggested that a comprehensive human behavior theory will have to utilize the empirically based principles and concepts of clinical practice and personality and social theory, in conjunction with the learning theory foundation and its related behavior therapy principles and practice (see Staats, 1968b, 1970b, 1971).~ This approach is in contrast to the many forms of separatism in psychology that have prevented the field's development 3It should be noted that the present approach is not like the original social learning approach, which attempted to combine learning theory and psychoanalytic theory (Dollard & Miller, 1950; Mowrer, 1950) with the former serving largely as a handmaiden to a psychodynamic personality theory. The present suggestion plaees the learning theory as basic, with the personality elaborations consisting of straightforward behavioral analysis, entirely congruent with and derivable from the basic learning principles. Not every concept from personality or psychotherapy theory has value, of course. Each concept included in a behavioral approach requires theoretical-empirical justification.

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to full strength as a science and profession. It is suggested that the more general conception that results will serve better in dealing with h u m a n problems of general scope. The principles and procedures suggested by the language behavior therapy aspects of the conception must now b e developed further in the specified empirical manner that has characterized the field of behavior therapy. REFERENCES

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PHILLIPS, L. W. Mediated verbal similarity as a determinant of the generalization of a conditioned GSR. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1958, 55, 56-62. POLLIO, H. R. Word association as a function of conditioned meaning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1963, 66, 454-460. REITZ, W. E., & McDouGALL, L. Interest items as positive and negative reinforcements: Effects of social desirability and extremity of endorsement. Psychonomic Science, 1969, 17, 97-98. ROGERS, C. R. Client-centered therapy. New York: Houghton-Miflqin Co., 1951. ROGERS, C. R., & DYMOND, R. Psychotherapy and personality change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954. SALZlNCER, K. Experimental manipulation of verbal behavior: A review. Journal o[ General Psychology, 1959, 61, 65-94. SALZlNGER,K. The place of operant conditioning of verbal behavior in psychotherapy. In C. M. Franks (Ed.), Behavior Therapy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969. Pp. 375-395. SrmFFIELD, F. D. Theoretical considerations in the learning of complex sequential tasks from demonstration and practice. In A. A. Lumsdaine (Ed.), Student response in programmed instruction. Washington, D. C. National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council, 1961, Publication 943, 13-132. pp. 13---32. SKINNER, B. F. Beyond freedom and dignity. Psychology Today, 1971, 5, 37-80. SOLARZ, A. K. Latency of instrumental responses as a function of compatibility with the meaning of eliciting verbal signs. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1960, 59, 239-245. STOATS, A. W. Learning theory and "opposite speech." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1957, 55, 268-269. STAATS, A. W. Verbal habit families, concepts, and the operant conditioning of word classes. Technical Report No. 10 under Office of Naval Research Contract Nonr 2794(02) with Arizona State University, August 1959. STAATS, A. W. (with contributions by Staats, C. K.) Complex human behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963. STAATS, A. W. Conditioned stimuli, conditioned reinforcers, and word meaning. In A. W. Staats (Ed.), Human learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964. STAATS, A. W. Learning, language, and cognition. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968a. STAATS, A. W. Social behaviorism and human motivation: Principles of the A-R-D system. In A. G. Greenwald, T. C. Brock, and T. M. Ostrom (Eds.), Psychological Foundations of attitudes. New York: Academic Press, 1968b. pp. 33-66. STAATS, A. W. Social behaviorism, human motivation, and the conditioning therapies. In B. A. Maher (Ed.), Progress in experimental personality research. New York: Academic Press, 1970a. pp. 111-168. STAATS, A. W. A learning-behavior theory: A basis for unity in social-behavioral science. In A. R. Gilgen (Ed.), Contemporary scientific psychology. New York: Academic Press, 1970b. pp. 183-239. STAATS, A. W. Reinforcer systems in the solution of human problems. In G. A. Fargo, C. Behrns, and P. Nolen (Eds.), Behavior Modification in the classroom. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1970c. pp. 6-31. 8TAATS, A. W. Child learning, intelligence, and personality. New York: Harper & Row, 1971.

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STAATS, A. W., CARLSON, C. C., & REID, I. E. Interest inventory items as reinforcing stimuli: A test of the A-R-D theory. Technical Report No. 7 under Office of Naval Contract N00014-67-A-0387-007 with the University of Hawaii, June, 1970. STAATS, A. W., • GUAY, P. F. Interests as behavior controlling (discriminative) attitudes: A test of the A-R-D theory of interest measure. Technical Report No. 8 under Office of Naval Research Contract N00014-~7-C--0387-0007 with the University of Hawaii, October, 1970. STAATS, A. W., & STAATS,C. K. Attitudes established by classical conditioning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1958, 57, 37-40. STAATS, A. W., & STAATS, C. K. Effect of number of trials on the language conditioning of meaning. Journal of General Psychology, 1959, 61, 211-223. STAATS, A. W., STa-~TS, C. K., & CRAWF0m), H. L. First-order conditioning of meaning and the parallel conditioning of a GSR. Technical Report No. 6 under Office of Naval Research Contract Nonr 2305 (00) with Arizona State University, September, 1958. STAATS, A. W., STAATS, C. K., & HEARD, W. G. Denotative meaning established by classical conditioning. Technical Report No. 13 under Office of Naval Research Contract Nonr 2794 (02) with Arizona State University, 1959. STAATS,C. K., & STAATS,A. W. Meaning established by classical conditioning. Journal of experimental psychology, 1957, 54, 74-80. TANAKA, Y., OYAMA, T., & OSGOOD, C. E. Cross-culture, cross-concept, and crosssubject generality of semantic spaces. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1963, 2, 392-405. THOaNE, F. C. Principles of Personality Counseling. Brandon, Vermont: Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1950. Tnuax, C. B. Some implications of behavior therapy for psychotherapy. The Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1966, 13, 160-170. WOLPE, J. The Practice of behavior therapy. New York: Pergamon Press, 1969. ZANNA, M. P., KmSLER, C. A., & PILKONIS, P. A. Positive and negative attitudinal affect established by classical conditioning. Journal o/Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 14, 321-328.