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Life Cycle Inventory Tools: Supporting the Development of Sustainable Solid Waste Management Systems
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Life Cycle Tools
Life Cycle Inventory Tools: Supporting the Development of Sustainable Solid Waste Management Systems Forbes R. McDougall
Integrated Waste Management ŽIWM. is an approach that can be used to develop more sustainable waste management systems. Sustainable waste management means waste management systems that are environmentally effective, economically affordable and socially acceptable for a particular region and its individual circumstances. Based on an integrated approach to waste management, a community or region can continuously improve and monitor their solid waste management system. The tool of Life Cycle Inventory ŽLCI. can support the implementation of IWM. This tool can assess the use of resources Žincluding energy., the release of emissions to air, water and land, and the generation of useful products from waste. LCI is a decision support tool and can help planners and waste managers design more sustainable waste management systems for the future. In this article the concept of Integrated Waste Management is described and the application of Life Cycle inventory tools to waste management is discussed. A number of current Life Cycle models for waste management systems are introduced. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Dr. McDougall joined Procter & Gamble in 1997 as a member of the Global Integrated Solid Waste Management Team after completing 2 years postdoctoral work in the field of waste management in the UK, Holland and Malaysia. He obtained his Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, in 1994. He has developed a user friendly and transparent Life Cycle Inventory computer model for Integrated Waste Management systems. He is author of the 2nd Edition of ‘‘Integrated Waste Management: A Life Cycle Inventory’’. Corresponding author: Global Technical Policy Department, Procter & Gamble, Whitley Road, Longbenton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK; Tel.: q44-191-279-2013; fax: q44-191-279-2871.
142
Past decisions on waste management strategy and the structure of waste management systems have relied either explicitly, or implicitly, on the ‘‘waste management hierarchy’’. This has varied in its exact form, but usually gives the following order of preference: waste reduction; re-use; materials recycling; composting; incineration with energy recovery; incineration without energy recovery; land filling. Such use of a priority list for the various waste management options has three serious limitations: 1. The hierarchy has little scientific or technical basis. There is no scientific reason, for example, why materials recycling
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Life Cycle Tools
Figure 1 Elements of an Integrated Waste Management system.
should always be preferred to energy recovery. 2. The hierarchy is of little use when a combination of options is used, as in an IWM system. In an IWM system, the hierarchy cannot predict, for example, whether composting combined with incineration of the residues would be preferable to materials recycling plus landfilling of residues. What is needed is an overall assessment of the whole system, which the hierarchy cannot provide. 3. The hierarchy does not address costs. Therefore, it cannot help assess the economic affordability of waste management systems. The first step in the hierarchy, waste reduction, remains the first objective. However, which of the subsequent treatment options is preferable depends on a range of specific conditions such as the tonnage of waste to be managed, its composition and the existing waste management infrastructure.
Integrated Waste Management Integrated Waste Management ŽIWM. takes an overall approach to waste management, it combines a range of collection and treatment methods to handle all materials in the waste stream in an environmentally effective,
economically affordable and socially acceptable way. Such an approach is advocated in the current UK Waste Strategy1 which states ‘‘The Government and National Assembly look to Waste Planning Authorities to take full account of the policies described in this strategy, in particular the importance of taking an integrated approach to waste management’’. An integrated system includes a suitable waste collection and sorting system, followed by one or more of the following options: recovery of secondary materials Žrecycling.; biological treatment of organic materials; thermal treatment and landfill. Together these form an Integrated Waste Management ŽIWM. system Žsee Figure 1.. To manage all wastes in an environmentally and economically sustainable way requires a range of these options. Effective schemes need the flexibility to design, adapt and operate systems in ways which best meet current social, economic and environmental conditions. These are likely to change over time and vary by geography. The need for consistency in quality and quantity of recycled materials, compost or energy, the need to support a range of disposal options and the benefit of economies
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
143
Life Cycle Tools
Figure 2 The evolution of waste management.3
of scale, all suggest that IWM systems should be organized on a large-scale, regional basis. Any scheme incorporating recycling, composting or energy from waste technologies must be market-orientated.
The evolution of waste management systems A wide range of waste management systems currently operate in Europe. An evolutionary trend has been observed2 that begins with waste management primarily addressing the issue of public health and safety. Then through an organized system of waste management optimization, this initial approach is superseded by an integrated approach to waste management where economic and environmental concerns are added to the system. Eventually an integrated waste management system can itself become part of a resource management system, where all resources such as water, power, CO2 balance and waste are managed within a single optimized system. This is demonstrated schematically in Figure 2. This evolution of waste management systems should be encouraged, as this process will lead to more sustainable urban environments.
144
System optimization using the tool of Life Cycle Inventory IWM systems can be optimized using the tool of Life Cycle Inventory ŽLCI.. The LCI of solid waste starts the moment a material becomes waste Ži.e. loses value. and ends when it ceases to be waste by becoming a useful product, residual landfill material or an emission to either air or water. The inputs for an IWM system are solid waste, energy and other raw materials. The outputs from the system are both useful products in the form of reclaimed materials, energy and compost, and emissions to air and water and residual landfill material. Once the waste management system has been described, the inputs and outputs of each chosen treatment process must be calculated, using fixed data for each process. The lack of quality data with respect to waste management practices is a recognized problem in this part of an LCI methodology in all countries.
Results of LCI Models The results of LCI models for MSW are expressed as: net energy consumption, air emissions, water emissions, landfill volume Žresidual., recovered materials and compost.
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Life Cycle Tools
The usefulness of LCI in waste management is in assessing environmental efficiency. Given that all the individual operations, such as composting, incineration, landfilling, etc., are safe, LCI will help determine the optimal integrated combination of these options that minimizes energy and raw material consumption, and the generation of air and water emissions and final residual solid wastes.
LCI tools are already being used «.. in Europe, North America and Latin America. w1x Using the technique of LCI to support an integrated approach to the management of MSW requires using the results of several LCI’s to compare different waste management strategies. The existing waste management strategy can be used as a ‘‘Baseline’’, against which all other strategy modifications are measured. This allows the overall performance of different IWM strategies to be compared. For example; a strategy based on recycling compared with one based on incineration with energy recovery. The optimum IWM strategy should be chosen based on the needs of the local environment, economy and population. The LCI tool does not select the ‘‘best’’ waste management strategy but it provides detailed data that can support the decision making process.
Current Applications LCI tools are already being used to optimize integrated waste management systems in Europe, North America and Latin America, where they have been successfully applied to a wide range of waste management issues in widely differing waste management systems. A number of LCI tools for waste management are currently available. 1. The UK Environment Agency’s Life Cycle Research program began in 1994. The software tool WISARD ŽWaste Integrated
Systems Assessment for Recovery and Disposal. has been fully peer reviewed and has been available from the UK Environment Agency since December 1999. 2. The US Environmental Protection Agency is currently working to apply LCI methods to develop tools for evaluating integrated waste management. The research began in 1994 and was completed in 1999. A Decision-Support Tool for applying LCA tools on a site-specific basis to evaluate different integrated waste management strategies will soon be available. 3. Two Canadian industry groups, Corporations Supporting Recycling ŽCSR. and the Environment and Plastics Industry Council ŽEPIC. have co-sponsored the development of a LCI model for waste management systems. 4 The model has been designed with input from the City of London, Ontario. The City of London’s participation has provided an excellent case study in which data inputs, analyses, interpretation and results have been conducted by and communicated to stakeholders. The peer review process was completed in April 1999. The release of the model began soon after, and municipal training workshops are currently being carried out across Canada. 4. IWM-2. This updated version of IWM-1 Ža LCI tool for waste management systems released in 1995. is a stand-alone Windows program that contains updated global data. User friendliness and modeling flexibility have been improved. The transparency of both data and calculations has been maintained. The model has also been peer reviewed by a group of international experts and the recommendations of the reviewers have been included in the final development of the model. The IWM-2 model is an entry level LCI tool and is ideal for familiarizing users with the approach taken, the data requirements of Life Cycle work and the interpretation of results from such models.5 In the future it is possible that LCI data from integrated waste management systems will
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
145
Life Cycle Tools
be combined with LCI data Žand data from other environmental management tools. from other municipal systems such as transport, power generation and waste waster treatment to allow the development of fully optimized integrated resource management systems.
Sustainable solid waste management — an achievable goal Historically, public health and safety have been the major concerns associated with waste management. These concerns still apply, but now society demands more than this-as well as being safe, waste management must also be sustainable. The UK Government has defined sustainability as ‘‘Ensuring a better quality of life now and for generations to come’’.6 Sustainability can be thought of as a triangle, with one of the three elements; environmental effectiveness, economic affordability and social acceptability, placed at each of the angles. Sustainability is about balancing these three elements, and a stable balance requires all three elements to be considered equally. Therefore, for solid waste management to be ‘‘sustainable’’ it needs to be environmentally effective, economically affordable and socially acceptable. Environmental benefits cannot be engineered into the development of a waste management system unless that system is both economically viable and socially acceptable, hence all three areas must be addressed simultaneously. The environmental burdens associated with waste management systems can be calculated using the tool of Life Cycle Inventory ŽLCI.. The benefit of using a tool like LCI is that it provides flexibility by allowing assessment of the optimal waste management strategy for a given region, on a case-by-case basis rather than to try to identify a single solution for a whole country or continent. The role of policy should be to set the desired objectives of waste management strategies, such as reduction of gases with Global Warming Potential or energy conservation. LCI can then provide an overall
146
accounting tool to help reach these objectives. Hierarchies, in contrast, try to specify the means, rather than the desired end results. This can result in an overall increase in environmental pollution rather than a decrease which can be achieved by a waste management system optimized using the tool of LCI.
...now society demands more « as well as being safe, waste management must also be sustainable. w2x The evolution of waste management systems across Europe is resulting in the old hierarchical approach to waste management being superseded by an integrated approach to waste management. This evolution is being supported by the development of LCI tools. The next step is the development of integrated resource management systems. This will require the continued development of LCI tools and other environmental management tools that can integrate large amounts of data and allow decision makers to accurately predict the outcome of their actions with respect to the whole urban environment. Such decision support tools will allow decision makers to develop more sustainable urban environments by ensuring the optimum allocation of all available resources.
Endnotes 1. Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions, Ž2000., ‘‘Waste Strategy 2000 England and Wales’’. ISBN 0 10 146933 0. 2. ERRA, Ž1998., Towards Integrated Management of Municipal Solid Waste, Volume 1. Report for the European Recovery and Recycling Association, 83 Ave E. Mounier, Box 14, Brussels 1200, Belgium. 3. Forbes McDougall and Jacques Fonteyne Ž1999., Towards an integrated approach to
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Life Cycle Tools
waste management — the lessons learned from case studies of European waste management systems. International Directory of Solid Waste Management 1999/2000. The ISWA Yearbook. pp. 16–26. Pub. James & James Ltd. London. 4. CSR/Corporations Supporting Recycling, 26 Wellington Street East, Suite 601, Toronto, Ontario, M5E 1S2, Canada. 5. Forbes McDougall, Peter White, Marina Franke and Peter Hindle Ž2001. Integrated Waste Management: A Life Cycle Inventory Ž2nd Edition., Pub. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK. ISBN 0 632 05889 7. 6. Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions, Ž1999., A better quality of life — A strategy for sustainable development for the UK. ISBN 0 10 143452 9.
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
147
Life Cycle Tools
Life Cycle Inventory Tools: Supporting the Development of Sustainable Solid Waste Management Systems Forbes R. McDougall
Integrated Waste Management ŽIWM. is an approach that can be used to develop more sustainable waste management systems. Sustainable waste management means waste management systems that are environmentally effective, economically affordable and socially acceptable for a particular region and its individual circumstances. Based on an integrated approach to waste management, a community or region can continuously improve and monitor their solid waste management system. The tool of Life Cycle Inventory ŽLCI. can support the implementation of IWM. This tool can assess the use of resources Žincluding energy., the release of emissions to air, water and land, and the generation of useful products from waste. LCI is a decision support tool and can help planners and waste managers design more sustainable waste management systems for the future. In this article the concept of Integrated Waste Management is described and the application of Life Cycle inventory tools to waste management is discussed. A number of current Life Cycle models for waste management systems are introduced. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Dr. McDougall joined Procter & Gamble in 1997 as a member of the Global Integrated Solid Waste Management Team after completing 2 years postdoctoral work in the field of waste management in the UK, Holland and Malaysia. He obtained his Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, in 1994. He has developed a user friendly and transparent Life Cycle Inventory computer model for Integrated Waste Management systems. He is author of the 2nd Edition of ‘‘Integrated Waste Management: A Life Cycle Inventory’’. Corresponding author: Global Technical Policy Department, Procter & Gamble, Whitley Road, Longbenton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK; Tel.: q44-191-279-2013; fax: q44-191-279-2871.
142
Past decisions on waste management strategy and the structure of waste management systems have relied either explicitly, or implicitly, on the ‘‘waste management hierarchy’’. This has varied in its exact form, but usually gives the following order of preference: waste reduction; re-use; materials recycling; composting; incineration with energy recovery; incineration without energy recovery; land filling. Such use of a priority list for the various waste management options has three serious limitations: 1. The hierarchy has little scientific or technical basis. There is no scientific reason, for example, why materials recycling
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Life Cycle Tools
Figure 1 Elements of an Integrated Waste Management system.
should always be preferred to energy recovery. 2. The hierarchy is of little use when a combination of options is used, as in an IWM system. In an IWM system, the hierarchy cannot predict, for example, whether composting combined with incineration of the residues would be preferable to materials recycling plus landfilling of residues. What is needed is an overall assessment of the whole system, which the hierarchy cannot provide. 3. The hierarchy does not address costs. Therefore, it cannot help assess the economic affordability of waste management systems. The first step in the hierarchy, waste reduction, remains the first objective. However, which of the subsequent treatment options is preferable depends on a range of specific conditions such as the tonnage of waste to be managed, its composition and the existing waste management infrastructure.
Integrated Waste Management Integrated Waste Management ŽIWM. takes an overall approach to waste management, it combines a range of collection and treatment methods to handle all materials in the waste stream in an environmentally effective,
economically affordable and socially acceptable way. Such an approach is advocated in the current UK Waste Strategy1 which states ‘‘The Government and National Assembly look to Waste Planning Authorities to take full account of the policies described in this strategy, in particular the importance of taking an integrated approach to waste management’’. An integrated system includes a suitable waste collection and sorting system, followed by one or more of the following options: recovery of secondary materials Žrecycling.; biological treatment of organic materials; thermal treatment and landfill. Together these form an Integrated Waste Management ŽIWM. system Žsee Figure 1.. To manage all wastes in an environmentally and economically sustainable way requires a range of these options. Effective schemes need the flexibility to design, adapt and operate systems in ways which best meet current social, economic and environmental conditions. These are likely to change over time and vary by geography. The need for consistency in quality and quantity of recycled materials, compost or energy, the need to support a range of disposal options and the benefit of economies
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
143
Life Cycle Tools
Figure 2 The evolution of waste management.3
of scale, all suggest that IWM systems should be organized on a large-scale, regional basis. Any scheme incorporating recycling, composting or energy from waste technologies must be market-orientated.
The evolution of waste management systems A wide range of waste management systems currently operate in Europe. An evolutionary trend has been observed2 that begins with waste management primarily addressing the issue of public health and safety. Then through an organized system of waste management optimization, this initial approach is superseded by an integrated approach to waste management where economic and environmental concerns are added to the system. Eventually an integrated waste management system can itself become part of a resource management system, where all resources such as water, power, CO2 balance and waste are managed within a single optimized system. This is demonstrated schematically in Figure 2. This evolution of waste management systems should be encouraged, as this process will lead to more sustainable urban environments.
144
System optimization using the tool of Life Cycle Inventory IWM systems can be optimized using the tool of Life Cycle Inventory ŽLCI.. The LCI of solid waste starts the moment a material becomes waste Ži.e. loses value. and ends when it ceases to be waste by becoming a useful product, residual landfill material or an emission to either air or water. The inputs for an IWM system are solid waste, energy and other raw materials. The outputs from the system are both useful products in the form of reclaimed materials, energy and compost, and emissions to air and water and residual landfill material. Once the waste management system has been described, the inputs and outputs of each chosen treatment process must be calculated, using fixed data for each process. The lack of quality data with respect to waste management practices is a recognized problem in this part of an LCI methodology in all countries.
Results of LCI Models The results of LCI models for MSW are expressed as: net energy consumption, air emissions, water emissions, landfill volume Žresidual., recovered materials and compost.
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Life Cycle Tools
The usefulness of LCI in waste management is in assessing environmental efficiency. Given that all the individual operations, such as composting, incineration, landfilling, etc., are safe, LCI will help determine the optimal integrated combination of these options that minimizes energy and raw material consumption, and the generation of air and water emissions and final residual solid wastes.
LCI tools are already being used «.. in Europe, North America and Latin America. w1x Using the technique of LCI to support an integrated approach to the management of MSW requires using the results of several LCI’s to compare different waste management strategies. The existing waste management strategy can be used as a ‘‘Baseline’’, against which all other strategy modifications are measured. This allows the overall performance of different IWM strategies to be compared. For example; a strategy based on recycling compared with one based on incineration with energy recovery. The optimum IWM strategy should be chosen based on the needs of the local environment, economy and population. The LCI tool does not select the ‘‘best’’ waste management strategy but it provides detailed data that can support the decision making process.
Current Applications LCI tools are already being used to optimize integrated waste management systems in Europe, North America and Latin America, where they have been successfully applied to a wide range of waste management issues in widely differing waste management systems. A number of LCI tools for waste management are currently available. 1. The UK Environment Agency’s Life Cycle Research program began in 1994. The software tool WISARD ŽWaste Integrated
Systems Assessment for Recovery and Disposal. has been fully peer reviewed and has been available from the UK Environment Agency since December 1999. 2. The US Environmental Protection Agency is currently working to apply LCI methods to develop tools for evaluating integrated waste management. The research began in 1994 and was completed in 1999. A Decision-Support Tool for applying LCA tools on a site-specific basis to evaluate different integrated waste management strategies will soon be available. 3. Two Canadian industry groups, Corporations Supporting Recycling ŽCSR. and the Environment and Plastics Industry Council ŽEPIC. have co-sponsored the development of a LCI model for waste management systems. 4 The model has been designed with input from the City of London, Ontario. The City of London’s participation has provided an excellent case study in which data inputs, analyses, interpretation and results have been conducted by and communicated to stakeholders. The peer review process was completed in April 1999. The release of the model began soon after, and municipal training workshops are currently being carried out across Canada. 4. IWM-2. This updated version of IWM-1 Ža LCI tool for waste management systems released in 1995. is a stand-alone Windows program that contains updated global data. User friendliness and modeling flexibility have been improved. The transparency of both data and calculations has been maintained. The model has also been peer reviewed by a group of international experts and the recommendations of the reviewers have been included in the final development of the model. The IWM-2 model is an entry level LCI tool and is ideal for familiarizing users with the approach taken, the data requirements of Life Cycle work and the interpretation of results from such models.5 In the future it is possible that LCI data from integrated waste management systems will
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
145
Life Cycle Tools
be combined with LCI data Žand data from other environmental management tools. from other municipal systems such as transport, power generation and waste waster treatment to allow the development of fully optimized integrated resource management systems.
Sustainable solid waste management — an achievable goal Historically, public health and safety have been the major concerns associated with waste management. These concerns still apply, but now society demands more than this-as well as being safe, waste management must also be sustainable. The UK Government has defined sustainability as ‘‘Ensuring a better quality of life now and for generations to come’’.6 Sustainability can be thought of as a triangle, with one of the three elements; environmental effectiveness, economic affordability and social acceptability, placed at each of the angles. Sustainability is about balancing these three elements, and a stable balance requires all three elements to be considered equally. Therefore, for solid waste management to be ‘‘sustainable’’ it needs to be environmentally effective, economically affordable and socially acceptable. Environmental benefits cannot be engineered into the development of a waste management system unless that system is both economically viable and socially acceptable, hence all three areas must be addressed simultaneously. The environmental burdens associated with waste management systems can be calculated using the tool of Life Cycle Inventory ŽLCI.. The benefit of using a tool like LCI is that it provides flexibility by allowing assessment of the optimal waste management strategy for a given region, on a case-by-case basis rather than to try to identify a single solution for a whole country or continent. The role of policy should be to set the desired objectives of waste management strategies, such as reduction of gases with Global Warming Potential or energy conservation. LCI can then provide an overall
146
accounting tool to help reach these objectives. Hierarchies, in contrast, try to specify the means, rather than the desired end results. This can result in an overall increase in environmental pollution rather than a decrease which can be achieved by a waste management system optimized using the tool of LCI.
...now society demands more « as well as being safe, waste management must also be sustainable. w2x The evolution of waste management systems across Europe is resulting in the old hierarchical approach to waste management being superseded by an integrated approach to waste management. This evolution is being supported by the development of LCI tools. The next step is the development of integrated resource management systems. This will require the continued development of LCI tools and other environmental management tools that can integrate large amounts of data and allow decision makers to accurately predict the outcome of their actions with respect to the whole urban environment. Such decision support tools will allow decision makers to develop more sustainable urban environments by ensuring the optimum allocation of all available resources.
Endnotes 1. Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions, Ž2000., ‘‘Waste Strategy 2000 England and Wales’’. ISBN 0 10 146933 0. 2. ERRA, Ž1998., Towards Integrated Management of Municipal Solid Waste, Volume 1. Report for the European Recovery and Recycling Association, 83 Ave E. Mounier, Box 14, Brussels 1200, Belgium. 3. Forbes McDougall and Jacques Fonteyne Ž1999., Towards an integrated approach to
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Life Cycle Tools
waste management — the lessons learned from case studies of European waste management systems. International Directory of Solid Waste Management 1999/2000. The ISWA Yearbook. pp. 16–26. Pub. James & James Ltd. London. 4. CSR/Corporations Supporting Recycling, 26 Wellington Street East, Suite 601, Toronto, Ontario, M5E 1S2, Canada. 5. Forbes McDougall, Peter White, Marina Franke and Peter Hindle Ž2001. Integrated Waste Management: A Life Cycle Inventory Ž2nd Edition., Pub. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK. ISBN 0 632 05889 7. 6. Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions, Ž1999., A better quality of life — A strategy for sustainable development for the UK. ISBN 0 10 143452 9.
F. R. McDougall, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001) 1066-7938/01/$ - see front matter. 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
147