Lime effects in a no-tillage system on Inceptisols in Southern Brazil

Geoderma Regional 15 (2019) e00206

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Lime effects in a no-tillage system on Inceptisols in Southern Brazil André C. Auler a,b,⁎, Eduardo F. Caires a, Luiz F. Pires b, Shivelly L. Galetto a, Jucimare Romaniw a, Aghata C. Charnobay a a b

Laboratory of Soil Fertility, Department of Soil Science and Rural Engineering, State University of Ponta Grossa (UEPG), 84.030-900, Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil Laboratory of Physics Applied to Soils and Environmental Sciences, Department of Physics, State University of Ponta Grossa (UEPG), 84.030-900, Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 20 November 2018 Received in revised form 2 January 2019 Accepted 4 February 2019

Keywords: Inceptisols Soil acidity Aluminum toxicity Crop production

a b s t r a c t The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of three methods of lime application (on the surface, via plowing and harrowing and via subsoiling and harrowing) in NT establishment from degraded pasture on the soil acidity dynamics and the availability of nutrients in soil with high acidity. For this, a field experiment was installed in a family farming property located in the Southeast region of Paraná State (Brazil), in a Dystrudepts. The treatments were three application methods, without and with 15 Mg ha−1 of lime, in order to raise the base saturation to 70%, for the establishment of NT. The crop rotation was black-oat + hairy vetch (2012), maize (2013/14), black-oat (2014 and 2015), maize (2014/15) and common bean (2015/16). Eighteen months after application, disturbed soil samples were collected from the 0–0.10 and 0.10–0.20 m layers to evaluate the soil organic carbon content (SOC), active acidity (PH), potential acidity (H + Al), exchangeable acidity (Al3+), exchangeable calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and potassium (K+), available phosphorus (P) and soil micronutrients [iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn)]. Accumulated crop dry mass and grain yield and agronomic efficiencies (AE) were also evaluated. Liming increased SOC at 0–0.10 m layer compared to the conditions prior the installation of the experiment. However, there were no differences between the liming methods of application. Liming also increased soil PH, Ca2+, and Mg2+ contents and reduced H + Al and Al3+ in all methods of application. The accumulated crop dry mass was influenced by the treatments with results following the order: lime incorporated via subsoiling and harrowing higher than incorporated via plowing and harrowing higher than on the surface. On the other hand, in relation to the accumulated maize grain yield lime incorporated via subsoiling and harrowing lower than on the surface lower than incorporated via plowing and harrowing. © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Tropical and subtropical soils can have high acidity due to their weathering processes, which reduces root growth, water and nutrient uptake, and crop yield (von Uexküll and Mutert, 1995). The degradation caused by soil acidity is commonly ameliorated through lime application, although, soil acidity correction dynamics depend, to a large extent, on the method of lime application (Caires et al., 2008a, b, 2011; Rheinheimer et al., 2018a, b). In Brazil, most pasture areas are in an advanced state of degradation (Merten and Minella, 2013), being the soil acidity one of the main factors that degrade pastures (Volpe et al., 2008). Faced with these limitations, these pasture areas commonly converted to agriculture require high doses of lime. In addition, it is recommended to incorporate the corrective in the soil, mainly in the case of adoption of no-tillage ⁎ Corresponding author at: Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Campus de Uvaranas, Bloco F, Sala 28, Av. Carlos Cavalcanti, 4748, CEP 84.030-900, Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.C. Auler).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2019.e00206 2352-0094/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

systems (NT), and in this case, to split the liming dose in two or more years (Rheinheimer et al., 2000; Kaminski et al., 2005; Caires et al., 2006). Although positive results from surface application of total lime doses up to 5 Mg ha−1 during the conversion of pasture areas to notillage systems have been obtained in some studies (Caires et al., 2006; Joris et al., 2016), the problem of applying high lime doses in soil (N5 Mg ha−1) would be the overliming, which can result in micronutrients deficiency and the dispersion of soil clays (Silva et al., 2015). With the emergence of NT systems, lime application on soil surface became widespread. However, as lime has low water solubility and the products of its reaction with the soil have limited mobility, the action of surface liming is slow in reducing sub-surface acidity in soils with variable charge predominance (Caires et al., 1998, 2011). In contrast, under conventional tillage, the acidity oh the tilled layer is neutralized through the mechanical incorporation of lime, and the reaction is favored by mixing the amendment with the soil. Disc plowing to mix lime with soil, followed by harrowing to level the soil surface is the common incorporation method (Caires et al., 2006). Many farmers however, prefer methods that do not demand high energy use or

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increase the time required to incorporate lime, such as scarification or subsoiling before harrowing (Auler et al., 2017a, b). The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of three methods of lime application (on the surface, via plowing and harrowing and via subsoiling and harrowing) in NT establishment from degraded pasture on soil acidity dynamics and the availability of nutrients in soil with high acidity. 2. Material and methods 2.1. Study location and characterization The experiment was installed in May 2012, in the city of Irati (25°28′ S, 50°54′W, 821 m a.s.l), Paraná State, Brazil (Fig. 1). The rainfall data registered during the study period and the historical precipitation average are presented in Fig. 2. The climate is classified as Cfa according to Köppen (humid subtropical climate) (Alvares et al., 2013). The soil under study is classified as a Dystrudepts silt-clay (Soil Survey Staff, 2013), or “Cambissolo Háplico Alumínico” according to Brazilian System of Soil Classification (Santos et al., 2013). Neither liming or fertilizer were applied in the area since the conversion of the natural vegetation into pasture (from 1960s). The forage implemented in the experimental area was the giant missionary grass (Axanopus catharinensis), managed in continuous grazing and low stocking rate. The soil attributes evaluated before the experiment installation are presented in Table 1. 2.2. Experiment characterization and development The experiment was carried out in bands with a factorial design (3 × 2) (Fig. 1). In the bands (300 m2), the different methods of lime application were distributed: i) on the surface; ii) incorporated via plowing and harrowing (PH); and iii) incorporated via subsoiling and harrowing (SH); while in plots (150 m2) the control (no lime) and lime (15 Mg ha−1) application treatments were established. Thus, the

treatments consisted of: Control – no lime and no tillage; LS – lime on the surface and no tillage; PH – no lime but tillage with plowing and harrowing; LIPH – lime incorporated via plowing and harrowing; SH – no lime but tillage with subsoiling and harrowing; LISH – lime incorporated with subsoiling and harrowing. The lime rate was calculated to raise the base saturation in the topsoil (0–0.20 m) to approximately 70%, according to the results obtained by Caires et al. (2005). The lime used presented 285 and 200 g kg−1 of CaO and MgO and 101, 75 and 75% neutralizing power, reactivity and effective calcium carbonate equivalent, respectively. In the treatments that involved tillage for incorporation, the application was carried out in two phases: 50% of the lime rate before the first management operation (plowing or subsoiling) and the remaining 50% after this operation; however, before the leveling harrowing (for both incorporation methods). In the LS treatment, the amendment material was applied in a single rate on the soil surface (Caires et al., 2006; Joris et al., 2016). According to detailed by Auler et al. (2017a,b), a 28″ three-disc reverse plow was employed for plowing and subsoiling was carried out with five parabolic stems spaced at 0.40 m. Both operations were carried out at 0.25 m soil depth. After these initial operations, harrowing was carried out with a leveling harrow of 32 discs of 20″, spaced at 0.175 m and 0.10 m depth. After liming treatments application, NT system was established, with the crop rotation consisted of black oat + hairy vetch (2012 autumn-winter season), maize (2012/13 spring-summer season), black oat (2013 autumn-winter season) and maize (2013/14 springsummer season). There was no soil preparation at this stage, and for maize, a five-line sowing-fertilizing machine equipped with plane discs was used to open furrows, a double disc to deposit fertilizer and seed, and a cover seeding was carried out for cover crops. All phytosanitary treatments (according to the crop needs) and phytomass management were carried out with a backpack sprayer, to avoid machinery traffic on the area. The specifications for each crop are presented in Table 2.

Fig. 1. Localization and representation of the experimental area, with the distribution of the treatments. Points in the plots represent the sample collection sites (pseudo-replications).

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Fig. 2. Weekly rainfall and monthtly average rainfall in region of study. For monthtly average rainfall was considered the periodo between 1963 and 2014. Adapted from Auler et al. (2017a).

(Mn)] were extracted with Melich-1 solution and determined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (van Raij et al., 2001).

2.3. Sampling and analyses Eighteen months after liming, around 30 days after maize sowing in 2013, four disturbed soil samples were collected (considered as replications) per plot in the intrarows of the crop, in each soil layer (0–0.10 and 0.10–0.20 m). Disturbed soil samples were dried in a forced air circulation oven (40 °C/48 h) and sieved in a 2 mm mesh sieve. Later on, the sand, silt and clay contents were determined by the densimeter method, with previous sample treatment (H2O2 30 v v−1) and the use of chemical dispersion (NaOH 1.0 mol L−1) (Dane et al., 2002). Soil fertility attributes were also evaluated as follow: (i) the organic carbon content (OC) was determined by the Walkley-Black method; (ii) active acidity (PH) by potentiometry in CaCl2 0.01 mol L−1 solution; (iii) potential acidity (H + Al) by potentiometry in SMP buffer solution; (iv) exchangeable acidity (Al3+) and exchangeable cations [calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+)] were extracted with KCl 1.0 mol L−1, and Al3+ was determined with NaOH 0.025 mol L−1 titration and Ca2+ and Mg2+ through EDTA 0.025 mol L−1 titration; (v) available phosphorus (P) and exchangeable potassium (K+) were extracted with Mehlich-1 solution, and P was determined by colorimetry and K+ by flame photometry; (vi) soil micronutrients [iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and manganese

Table 1 Chemical and physical attributes in the 0–0.10 and 0.10–0.20 m layers (n = 4) of the Dystrudept before the experiment installation. Layer

m

PHa

OCb

Al3+

Ca2

Mg2

+

+

K+

CECc

g kg−1 cmolc dm−3

0–0.10 3.7 27.46 0.10–0.20 3.6 19.46 Sand Silt −1 g kg 0–0.10 46 474 0.10–0.20 54 469 a

H+ Al

16.33 19.63 Clay 480 477

6.8 1.0 1.3 9.0 0.4 0.5 f g WDC PD BDh −3 Mg m 238 2.50 1.04 248 2.53 1.07

Vd

me

c

In the flowering of cover crops [black oat + vetch (2012) and black oat (2013)], four squares of 0.25 m2 were randomly collected in each experimental plot. The collection of the aerial part of the plants present in each square was done close to the soil. After collection, the samples were oven dried at 60 °C for a period of 72 h and the cover crop dry mass per area (kg ha−1) was estimated. In both growing years (2012–13 and 2013–14), on the occasion of the maize flowering (stage R1), the aerial part of the plants was collected in a continuous line of 1 m, at three random points of each band. Afterwards, the samples were dried in an oven, similar to the one performed for the cover plants, to determine the maize dry mass production per area (kg ha−1). After maize physiological maturation (stage R6), the ears of 8 lines with 4 m in length were collected by hand in the center of each band, totaling a total harvested area of 28.8 m2. After trailing of the ears in a stationary threshing machine, the harvested grain mass had the water content corrected to 130 g kg−1 for estimating grain yield (kg ha−1). The accumulated crop dry mass (kg ha−1) was determined by the sum of the dry mass yields of the cover crops each year. Similarly, using the sum of the maize yield data in each year, the accumulated grain yield (kg ha−1) was determined. These sums were used to determine the agronomic efficiency (AE, kg kg−1) of limestone application in the NT establishment, representing the increment of production (kg) in relation to the dose of limestone applied (kg), as proposed by Fageria et al. (2003).

% 0.61 19.24 0.41 20.94 TPi Maj m3 m−3 0.59 0.14 0.58 0.13

15 4 Mik

70 87 ACl

0.45 0.14 0.45 0.14

PH in CaCl2 (1,2.5). Organic carbon (Walkley-Black method). Cations Exchange capacity. d Base Saturation. e Aluminum Saturation. f Water-dispersed clay (densimeter method). g Particle density (helium gas pycnometer method). h Bulk density. i Total porosity. j Macroporosity. k Microporosity (determined at −6 kPa). l Aeration capacity (considering water content at −10 kPa). Adapted from Auler et al. (2017a,b). b

2.4. Accumulated crop dry mass and grain yield and agronomic efficiencies

2.5. Statistical analysis The statistical analysis of variance was applied for both soil layers (0–0.10 and 0.10–0.20 m) data employing the completely randomized design in factorial arrangement (2 × 3), with four replications (Fisher, 1966). Presuppositions of residue normality and homoscedasticity were verified by the Shapiro-Wilk and Bartlett tests, respectively (Bartlett, 1937; Shapiro and Wilk, 1965). When necessary, Box-Cox optimum potency was used to data transformation (Box and Cox, 1964). After presuppositions had been verified, the F test was employed. In the case of significant interactions, decomposition analyses were carried out and whenever necessary the Tukey test was applied to multiple comparisons (Tukey, 1959). All data were analyzed using the software R, version 3.3.4 (R Core Team, 2018). For crop accumulated dry matter and grain yield data, the comparisons between treatments were performed according to the AE.

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Table 2 Detail of the crops cultivated in the experiment. Crop

Cultivar

Sowing date

Black oat + Hairy vetch Maize

IAPAR 61 + IAPAR 83 IPR 164

28/05/12 14/11/12

Black oat Maize

IAPAR 61 IPR 164

13/05/13 22/10/13

a b c d

ISpa

Popb

Fertilizationc

m

plants m−2

kg ha−1

– 0.90

30 + 30 8

– 0.90

50 8

– 24 + 90 of N 84 of P2O5 48 of K2O – 24 + 90 of N 84 of P2O5 48 of K2O

Harvest dated

15/09/12 22/04/13

19/08/13 19/04/14

Interrow spacing, in case of cover crops were made cover seedings. Maize final plant population or seed quantity of cover crops used. Including base and N cover fertilization. Maize harvest or cover crops desiccation using glyphosate (2 L ha−1).

3. Results

3.2. Soil acidity

3.1. Soil organic carbon

There was an isolated influence of liming on the components of soil acidity, mainly in the 0–0.10 m soil layer. In this soil layer, the active acidity (PH in CaCl2) and potential acidity (H + Al) did not differ between the methods of application, both in the treatments without liming (control, PH and SH) and in those with application of 15 Mg ha−1 limestone (LS, LIPH and LISH). However, liming reduced the active acidity and potential acidity in all methods of application (Fig. 4a and c). Similar results for liming in all methods of application were observed for exchangeable acidity (Al3+) and for aluminum saturation, with no found differences. However, without liming application, there was distinction between control, PH and SH treatments in the 0–0.10 m layer on these components of soil acidity. In this case, tillage in the PH treatment reduced soil exchangeable acidity and aluminum saturation in relation to the control treatment, whereas SH treatment did not differ from the others (Fig. 4e and g). In the 0.10–0.20 m soil layer, only treatments with tillage were effective in mitigating the effects of soil acidity, considering that for all the acidity components evaluated, LS and control treatments did not differ between them. In this case, the LIPH and LISH treatments presented lower active, potential and exchangeable acidity and aluminum saturation than the PH and SH treatments, respectively (Fig. 4b, d, f and h). Among the methods of application, there was no difference for neither components of the acidity in the treatments without liming. However, with liming, the methods with soil tillage were more effective in reducing soil acidity. In this case, the LIPH treatment presented lower active, potential and exchangeable acidity and lower aluminum saturation in the 0.10–0.20 m soil layer than the LS treatment. On the other hand, the LISH treatment presented similar results to the LIPH treatment, except for the active and exchangeable acidity, when LISH was also similar to the LS treatment (Fig. 4b, d, f and h).

At 0–0.10 m soil layer, independently of the method of application, liming increased SOC content in relation to the conditions prior the establishment of the experiment (Table 1). Without soil correction, the control treatment showed SOC content similar to PH and SH, however PH SOC content was smaller than SH SOC content. The concentration of SOC in LS, LIPH and LISH treatments did not differ from each other (Fig. 3a). At 0.10–0.20 m soil layer, PH had higher SOC content in relation to the control treatment, and SH was similar to those treatments. With liming, the methods of application did not differ from each other (Fig. 3b). However, in both soil layers, there were differences from liming between the methods of application only in PH treatment. In this way, LIPH showed higher SOC content in relation to PH (Fig. 3).

3.3. Exchangeable cations

Fig. 3. Soil organic carbon contents in the 0–0.10 (a) and 0.10–0.20 m (b) soil layers of a Brazilian Dystrudepts due to liming [without (○) and with (●)] and methods of application [on the soil surface (S), incorporated via plowing and harrowing (PH) and incorporated via subsoiling and harrowing (SH)]. Averages (n = 4) followed by the same capital letter for liming and small letter for methods of application did not differ from each other by Tukey test (p b 0.05).

In relation to the exchangeable cations, calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) presented similar behavior among treatments in both soil layers (Figs. 5a to 5d). There were no differences between Ca2+ and Mg2 + contents in both soil layers in the treatments without limestone application (control, PH and SH). The same result was observed on the Ca2+ content at 0–0.10 m layer for the treatments with the application of 15 Mg ha−1 of the limestone (LS, LIPH and LISH) (Fig. 5a). However, with liming the Mg2+ content of the 0–0.10 m soil layer between the methods of application followed the order: LISH N LIPH N LS (Fig. 5c). While both the 0–0.10 m soil layer and the 0.10–0.20 m layer, the Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents of the LIPH and LISH treatments were similar to each other and higher than the LS treatment (Fig. 5b and d).

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Fig. 4. Active (a, b), potential (c, d) and exchangeable (e, f) acidity and aluminum saturation (g, h) in the 0–0.10 and 0.10–0.20 m soil layers of a Brazilian Dystrudepts due to liming [without (○) and with (●)] and methods of application [on the soil surface (S), incorporated via plowing and harrowing (PH) and incorporated via subsoiling and harrowing (SH)]. Averages (n = 4) followed by the same capital letter for liming and small letter for methods of application did not differ from each other by Tukey test (p b 0.05).

Liming increased Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents in the 0–0.10 m soil layer in all methods of application (Fig. 5a and c). However, in the 0.10–0.20 m soil layer only treatments with tillage increased Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents (Fig. 5b and d). The exchangeable potassium content (K+) presented a different behavior in relation to the exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents. In both soil layers, the K+ contents of the PH treatment were higher than the control, while the SH treatment was similar to both PH and control (Fig. 5e and f). However, no differences were observed between the K+ contents of the LS, LIPH and LISH treatments in the 0–0.10 m layer (Fig. 5e). In the 0.10–0.20 m soil layer, the LS treatment had higher K+ than the LISH treatment, but the LIPH was similar to the other methods of application (Fig. 5f). Liming increased K+ content in the LS treatment in relation to the control in both soil layers, and in the LIPH treatment in relation to the PH only in the 0.10–0.20 m soil layer. For the LISH treatment in relation

to SH, no differences were observed between K+ contents in both soil layers (Fig. 5e and f). Changes in the potential acidity and in the contents of Mg2+, + K and mainly Ca2+ had repercussions on soil base saturation. There were no differences between base saturation in both soil layers in the control treatments, PH and SH (Fig. 5g and h) and for the LS, LIPH and LISH treatments in the 0–0.10 m layer for (Fig. 5g). In the 0.10–0.20 m layer, the LIPH and LISH treatments showed similar base saturation, but higher than the LS treatment (Fig. 5h). In the same way as observed for Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents, liming increased base saturation at 0–0.10 m soil layer close to 70% in all methods of application. However, at 0.10–0.20 m soil layer only the treatments with soil tillage increased base saturation near to 50%, even though in values below of the 70% estimated (Fig. 5g and h).

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Fig. 5. Exchangeable calcium (a, b), magnesium (c, d) and potassium, (e, f) and base saturation (g, h) in the 0–0.10 and 0.10–0.20 m soil layers of a Brazilian Dystrudepts due to liming [without (○) and with (●)] and methods of application [on the soil surface (S), incorporated via plowing and harrowing (PH) and incorporated via subsoiling and harrowing (SH)]. Averages (n = 4) followed by the same capital letter for liming and small letter for methods of application did not differ from each other by Tukey test (p b 0.05).

3.4. Available phosphorus

3.5. Cationic micronutrients

Without liming, the control, PH and SH treatments presented similar levels of available phosphorus (P) in both soil layers. However, at 0–0.10 m soil layer, with liming LIPH presented lower P levels than the LS and LISH treatments, which did not differ between them (Fig. 6a). At 0.10–0.20 m soil layer, the results of the LIPH and LISH treatments were similar to those observed at 0–0.10 m. However, in this layer LS treatment had P levels similar to the other methods of application (Fig. 6b). Among the methods of application, liming influenced P content only in the 0–0.10 m soil layer and only when the limestone was applied to soil surface. In this case, LS presented higher P than the control treatment (Fig. 6).

The availability of copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) was influenced by treatments in both soil layers (Fig. 7). At 0–0.10 m soil layer, there were no differences in the Cu, Mn and Fe contents between the LS, LIPH and LISH treatments (Fig. 7a, c, e). However, the Zn content of the LIPH treatment was lower than the LS, whereas LISH did not differ from the other treatments (Fig. 7g). Without liming, PH reduced Cu, Fe and Zn contents in the 0–0.10 m soil layer in relation to the control treatment (Fig. 7a, d and g). On the other hand, the Mn content did not differ between treatments in this soil layer (Fig. 7c). Regarding SH treatment, it was observed that: (i) Cu content was similar to control treatment and higher than PH; (ii) Fe content was similar to PH and lower than control treatment;

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(0.13 kg kg−1) and LIPH (0.16 kg kg−1). The lower AE of the LISH was related to the low increase in grain yield, approximately 35%, in relation to SH treatment. However, the increases in LIPH and LS on grain yield in relation to PH and control treatments, respectively, were similar in approximately 97%. 4. Discussion 4.1. Soil organic carbon dynamics

Fig. 6. Available phosphorus (Melich-1) in the 0–0.10 (a) and 0.10–0.20 m (b) soil layers of a Brazilian Dystrudepts due to liming [without (○) and with (●)] and methods of application [on the soil surface (S), incorporated via plowing and harrowing (PH) and incorporated via subsoiling and harrowing (SH)]. Averages (n = 4) followed by the same capital letter for liming and small letter for methods of application did not differ from each other by Tukey test (p b 0.05).

and (iii) Zn content were similar to control and PH treatments (Fig. 7a, d and g). Liming reduced the availability of micronutrients at 0–0.10 m soil layer in all methods of limestone application, except for the Cu content between LIPH and PH treatments (Fig. 7a, c, e, g). Similar results were observed at 0.10–0.20 m soil layer, but less pronounced than those found in the most superficial layer. In this case, distinctions were observed: (i) between the Cu content of the LS in relation to the control treatment (Fig. 7b); (ii) the Mn and Zn contents of the LIPH in relation to PH (Fig. 7d, h) and the Fe content of LS in relation to the control, LIPH in relation to PH and LISH in relation to SH (Fig. 7f). At 0.10–0.20 m soil layer, both without and with liming there was no distinction between treatments on Cu contents (Fig. 7b). In relation to the Mn and Fe contents, it was verified that the PH and SH presented similar behavior and both were superior to the control treatment (Fig. 7d and f). However, for the Zn content the PH was higher than SH, whereas the control treatment did not differ from PH and SH (Fig. 7h). With liming, Mn content of the LISH was higher than the LS and LIPH treatments, which did not differ from each other (Fig. 7d). However, in relation to Fe content, LIPH was superior to LISH, whereas LS treatment was similar to both LIPH and LISH (Fig. 7f). As for the Zn content, the LS treatment was superior to the LIPH, but LISH did not differ from the other methods of application (Fig. 7h). 3.6. Crop dry mass and grain yield and agronomic efficiencies The accumulated dry mass of black oat+vetch (2012), maize (2012–13 and 2013–14) and black oat (2013) was influenced by treatments. With the acidity correction, there were increases in crop dry mass accumulated to approximately 40% in the LS compared to the control treatment, 48% in the LIPH compared to the PH, and 52% in the LISH compared to the SH. Considering the agronomic efficiency (AE), that is, the increase in the crop dry mass accumulated (kg) in relation to the amount of limestone applied (kg), the following order was obtained: LISH (0.49 kg kg−1) N LIPH (0.44 kg kg−1) N LS (0.33 kg kg−1). On the other hand, in relation to the accumulated corn grain yield, LISH presented the lowest AE (0.08 kg kg−1), followed by LS

The increase of SOC contents due to liming can be attributed: (i) to higher C contributions, due to both aerial and root residues, and the increase in crop yields (Inagaki et al., 2016, 2017), (ii) the physical protection of SOC within soil aggregates and (iii) to the chemical protection of SOC by the formation of cationic bridges in organo-mineral complexes (Briedis et al., 2012a,b). On the other hand, the lower SOC contents in PH treatment in the more superficial layer can be attributed to the inversion of soil layers that the tillage practice causes. In this case, the organic residues accumulated on the soil surface are incorporated into the soil, increasing SOC levels in depth (Alcântara et al., 2016; Chenu et al., 2018). However, in the LIPH treatment, higher SOC levels were verified, thus demonstrating the importance of correcting soil acidity in the chemical protection of SOC, even in soil disaggregated conditions (Paradelo et al., 2015). It is important to emphasize that although in SH soil tillage is also present, the soil disturbance is less disruptive when compared to PH (Auler et al., 2017b). Thus, the oxidation of SOC in SH management systems tends to be smaller when compared to PH (Acar et al., 2018). 4.2. Soil acidity and exchangeable cations dynamics The mechanism of soil acidity correction by the application of limestone (Sparks, 2003; Sposito, 2008) is the same, regardless the method of application of the amendment. However, the dynamics of the correction are completely dependent on the method of application (Kaminiski et al., 2005; Caires et al., 2008b; Joris et al., 2016). The best mixture of limestone particles with soil occurs within the tillage treatments, where the contact between the particles and the soil is increased, accelerating the dissolution of the amendment agent (Mello et al., 2003; Joris et al., 2016). It is verified that the greater the disruption of soil, the more intense is the reaction of the amendment to mitigate the effects of acidity (Rosa et al., 2015). This condition also explains the similarity of the PH treatment in relation to the others for the exchangeable acidity and aluminum saturation (Fig. 4e and g). As observed for the LIPH and LISH treatments in relation to the LS treatment, it is evident that the effects of soil tillage in relation to the superficial limestone application are even more significant when analyzing the soil acidity correction in layers below 0.10 m (Mello et al., 2003; Kaminski et al., 2005; Rosa et al., 2015; Joris et al., 2016), thus demonstrating the need of incorporating the amendment used in NT adoption in soils with high acidity. Joris et al. (2016) concluded that after incorporating lime, there was faster soil acidity alleviation in the 0–0.20 m soil depth. However, after four years, surface liming showed similar effects to those of lime incorporation. Thus, it is important to note that although the incorporation of limestone to soil, either via PH or via SH, favors the reaction time of the corrective, surface liming has longer residual effects, especially in soils with high buffering power and when high lime doses are applied (Caires et al., 2006; Rheinheimer et al., 2018a, b). This behavior is due to the fact that the higher the soil acidity, the faster the reaction and the limestone movement in the profile due to the alkalinization front, because low PH values are required for the solubilization of the limestone (Joris et al., 2016). In the long term, surface liming is a viable alternative to lessen the negative effects of soil acidity on NT adoption, since the reacidification of soils with high buffering power is slow (Rheinheimer et al., 2018b).

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Fig. 7. Available copper (a, b), manganese (c, d), iron (e, f) and zinc (g, h) in the 0–0.10 and 0.10–0.20 m soil layers of a Brazilian Dystrudepts due to liming [without (○) and with (●)] and methods of application [on the soil surface (S), incorporated via plowing and harrowing (PH) and incorporated via subsoiling and harrowing (SH)]. Averages (n = 4) followed by the same capital letter for liming and small letter for methods of application did not differ from each other by Tukey test (p b 0.05).

With the solubilization of limestone, in addition to the release of OH−, the release of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions occurs, to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the chemical and mineralogical composition of the amendment (Sparks, 2003; Sposito, 2008). The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are in solution, however, they can be adsorbed to the clays surfaces due to the electrochemical alteration that liming conditions (Fontes et al., 2001). As soil PH increases, Al3 + undergoes hydrolysis leaving vacant cation exchange sites, or it can causes dissociation of hydrogen generating variable negative electric charges (Camargo et al., 1997). Consequently, in variable charge soils, as a consequence of the increase in negative surface charges, there is an increase in the effective cation exchange capacity (CEC) (Bolan et al., 2003). Thus, the higher the soil limestone reaction, condition observed in soil tilled treatments (LIPH and LISH), the higher the Ca2 + and Mg2+ levels, and the effective CEC in a short period of time. However, in the same way as observed for soil acidity, in the long term, the surface liming in the NT adoption can favor the

availability of Ca2+ and Mg2 +, thus increasing the base saturation of the soil, both on the surface and in layers below (Caires et al., 2006; Joris et al., 2016; Rheinheimer et al., 2018a, b). The availability of K+ differed from the other cations (Figs. 5e and 4f). The increase in the availability of Ca2+ and Mg2+ by liming causes the exchange of K+ in the soil exchange complex, so that this ion can move in the profile with the soil solution or be absorbed more intensely by plants (Bolan et al., 2003; Zörb et al., 2014). High contents of K+ in soil solution may explain the differences in the availability of this ion among the studied treatments (Figs. 5e and 4f). 4.3. Phosphorus availability The increase in soil PH promoted by liming increases soil P availability, mainly due to the lower adsorption of P to iron and aluminum oxides (Bolan et al., 2003; Antoniadis et al., 2015). In this way, the lowest active acidity reported in the 0–0.10 m layer in all limestone

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application methods (Fig. 4a) could be the explanation for the increased P availability in this layer (Fig. 6a). On the other hand, in both soil layers it was observed that the application of limestone in the treatment involving PH reduced the availability of P, a condition not observed for surface application or SH method (Fig. 6). Similarly, the effect of inversion of soil layers on the PH treatment for SOC contente was observed (Fig. 3). Thus, the reduction of P availability in the 0–0.10 m layer (Fig. 6a) is attributed to the inversion of the soil layers during the plowing operation, which tends to condition lower P contents in the more superficial layers of soil (Tiecher et al., 2012). As a result, inversion of soil layers could result in higher P content available in the 0.10–0.20 m layer in the PH treatments. Although, this result was not observed in our findings (Fig. 6b). It should be considered that the intense soil tillage in the treatments with plowing and harrowing (PH) should have increased P adsorption to iron and aluminum oxides, compromising the P content also available in the 0.10–0.20 m layer.

4.4. Cationic micronutrients availability Surface liming may reduce the availability of cationic micronutrients as a consequence of PH increase in the most superficial layer of soil (Fonseca et al., 2010). The increase in PH of the soil may lead to the complexation or chelation of Cu and Fe by organic matter (Moreira et al., 2017), the complexation of Mn with humic acids (Moreira et al., 2016) and the transformation of available Zn (Zn2+) in non-soluble forms of the nutrient [Zn(OH)2 e ZnCO3], especially during the initial phase of NT adoption (Moreira et al., 2017). These statements corroborate the results obtained for the Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn contents in both soil layers, for all methodes of lime application. Soil tillage may also alter the availability of cationic micronutrients (López-Fand and Pardo, 2009; Moreira et al., 2016), regardless of liming. Without soil till, the SOC content was higher in the 0–0.10 m layer (Fig. 3a), which may naturally favor the greater availability of micronutrients in the control treatment compared to PH and SH. Lopes-Fand and Pardo (2009) and Moreira et al. (2016) observed that the availability of cationic micronutrients is higher in NT compared to the conventional system. Likewise, the reduced tillage system, similar to SH treatment, also provides greater availability of micronutrients. In this case, both authors attributed the highest levels of Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn to the greatest accumulation of organic matter in conservation systems. This hypothesis reinforces the results obtained for the lowest Cu, Fe and Zn contents of the PH and SH treatments in relation to the control treatment in the 0–0.10 layer and the lowest Mn and Fe contents of the control treatment in relation to PH and SH in the 0.10–0.20 m layer, due to the incorporation of the SOC into the soil (Fig. 7). Although liming generally tends to reduce the availability of micronutrients in the soil, especially at high doses (Fonseca et al., 2010), soil tillage can maximize this effect. Therefore, application of surface liming even at high doses (15 Mg ha-1) in the NT adoption is a viable alternative for the management of micronutrients availability in soil, mainly because it favors the accumulation of SOC (Briedis et al. al., 2012a, b). Another hypothesis that may be related to the reduction of the availability of cationic micronutrients is the alteration of the redox potential of the soil. With soil revolvement in PH and SH treatments, there was an increase in soil aeration in relation to the control treatment (Auler et al., 2017a), which interferes with its redox potential (Husson, 2013). Thus, the availability of cationic micronutrients is reduced because the degree of soil oxidation increases and micronutrients can be oxidized to less soluble forms that plants are not able to absorb, such as Mn4+, and Fe2 + to Fe3+ (Fonseca et al., 2010), which are not adequately extracted by the Mehlich−1 solution used in the present study for the micronutrients extraction (Fonseca et al., 2010).

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4.5. Crop residues for NT maintenance and maize grain yield The accumulation of crop residues is an important factor for the proper establishment of NT systems. An adequate amount of residues at this stage has repercussions on the accumulation of SOC and on the improvement of soil fertility (Ferreira et al., 2018). Considering the period of 2 years, the rate of crop residue addition in liming treatments was above 3200 kg ha−1 year−1 compared to the treatments without acidity correction. Thus, in all methods of lime application, the environmental importance of liming in the continuous supply of residues and, consequently, C to soil (Briedis et al., 2012c) was observed even under conditions where water restrinctions occur to crop development (Fig. 2). It is important to emphasize that not all the residue added to the soil will help increasing SOC contents, because depending on the rates of mineralization conditioned by the soil management, part of the C can be re-emitted into the atmosphere (Sá et al., 2015; Chenu et al., 2018). This assumption is supported by the lower SOC content found in the PH treatment in the 0–0.10 m layer (Fig. 3), although such treatment presented a high rate of crop residue addition (6816 kg ha−1 year −1). All methods of lime application increased maize grain yield, which should be directly related to the reduction in Al3+ phytotoxicity (Fig. 4g and h) and with increases in exchangeable basic cations (Fig. 5) and availability of P (Fig. 6). These results are widely reported in literature (Caires et al., 1998, 2005, 2006, 2008a, 2008b, 2011, Joris et al., 2016, Inagaki et al., 2016). However, in relation to the economic aspect, important aspects of management can be observed from the accumulated yield data of maize grains. Considering that the relative increase in productivity and AE between LIPH and LS treatments were similar, the economics of surface liming stands out, as the application costs in this method are lower than any incorporation method. Thus, the financial return with the surface liming by agricultural production is higher, which makes this alternative interesting mainly in the NT adoption phase, when crop yields tend to be lower (Joris et al., 2016). Also, comparing the LIPH treatment in relation to the LISH treatment, it was observed that the LIPH treatment had a relative increase in grain yield of only 10.4% in relation to the LISH. Considering that the cost of the subsoiling operation is lower and the efficiency of agricultural machinery higher compared to plowing (Chamen et al., 2015), subsoiling remains a more viable alternative than plowing for the incorporation of limestone, even if its AE is smaller. Also, considering the benefits of soil physical improvement (Auler et al., 2017a, b), chemical attributes and accumulation of plant residues, subsoiling becomes a more sustainable alternative than plowing for incorporating lime in soil during establishment of NT systems.

5. Conclusion Although lime incorporation, both by plowing and harrowing as well as subsoiling and harrowing, has a faster reaction in soil, the surface liming is an alternative that should be considered in the NT adoption, even if high doses of lime are required to raise the soil base saturation. With soil liming, soil carbon accumulation, availability of cationic macro and micronutrients, base saturation, and phosphorus availability were favored, just as the reduction of soil acidity components (active, potential and exchangeable acidities). Surface liming was also efficient in grain production of maize and in crop residues accumulation of black-oat and maize, similarly to the methods of application with incorporation. However, if the option is the incorporation of lime in the conversion of pasture areas to NT, the incorporation with subsoiling and harrowing is a more viable alternative than with plowing and harrowing.

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