Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 2 (1984) 481--486
481
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands
LOW INPUT LOW O U T P U T A N I M A L H E A L T H PROGRAMMES: I M P R O V E M E N T IN A P A S T O R A L SYSTEM
GENERATING
DATA FOR THEIR
S. C H E M A M i n i s t r y of L i v e s t o c k P.O. Kabete (Kenya)
Development,
Veterinary
Research
Laboratory,
ABSTRACT Chema, S., 1984. L o w input low o u t p u t a n i m a l h e a l t h programmes: g e n e r a t i n g data for their i m p r o v e m e n t in a p a s t o r a l system. Prey. Vet. Med., 2: 481-486. The well exlst
strategies
and goals
known and successful in m a n y parts
of the world.
areas has b e e n difficult. by the v e t e r i n a r i a n ,
areas
teams.
These
of the strategies environment. teams will
in the e x t e n s i v e
In d e v i s i n g
employs
comprehensive
with minimal
input low l i v e s t o c k
livestock
raising
management
Systems
of u n d e r s t a n d i n g
in order to survive packages,
in a h a r s h the r e s e a r c h
rich r e p e r t o i r e
keep his carefully
veterinary
aspect
to be part of P a s t o r a l
seek to b u i l d upon the p a s t o r a l i s t s
that e n a b l e d h i m to s u c c e s s f u l l y livestock
the h e a l t h
teams will h a v e the aim of p r o v i d i n g
the p a s t o r a l i s t
in p a s t o r a l
lack of u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
system of which
veterinarians
are r e l a t i v e l y
health p r o g r a m s
similar p r o g r a m s
of the low v e t e r i n a r y
is p r e v a l e n t
in A f r i c a will require
Research
owners
animal
A basic p r o b l e m has b e e n
Conversion
mode w h i c h
livestock
Devising
of the p a s t o r a l
is but one component. productivity
of intensive
high input high output
selected
of skills
breeds
of
inputs.
INTRODUCTION
To the extent Africa,
these
that animal
are often
such as R i n d e r p e s t
health programmes
limited
to the c o n t r o l
and Contagious
Bovine
unrealistic
m a y be necessary.
0167-5877/84/$03.00
veterinary
The usual v e t e r i n a r y
of well d e f i n e d
Pleuropneumonia.
are used for trade and are to be e x p o r t e d and often quite
exist in p a s t o r a l
Where
out of the country,
interventions
dictated
interventions
© 1984 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
areas of
epizootics animals
additional by the importer,
h a v e until v e r y
482 recently
been p l a n n e d
traditions
and e x e c u t e d
largely without
L a t e l y new v e t e r i n a r y described
a~ an
(Shwabe,
recourse
has been
and economic
effects
new h o r i z o n s
for the p r o f e s s i o n ,
the v e t e r i n a r i a n
through
in the intensive sociological agents
systems
deficiences
at p r o m o t i n g largely
Higher
livestock
outputs
That these
elaborate
benefit-costs
recently where
Systems
(Gilbert,
cropping
systems
where
by a number
There desert,
Research
livestock
They generally
entirely basis,
Currently
such there
limiting focussed.
animal There
1983).
from the p a s t o r a l
that the p a s t o r a l i s t of the w e s t e r n at g r e a t e r
rate d e s p i t e
is
world. meat
the usual
have been so w e l l d e s c r i b e d
et al.
1982)
Modifications
in which
levels
pastoralist
refer
to systems
to suit e x t e n s i v e being a t e m p t e d
approach
productivity
of w h i c h
referred
subsisting
pastoral
and C o n t a g i o u s campaign
which would
of factors
relate
consisting
would
to here
entirely
is the control
output
or,
Bovine
as pastoral.
which
directly
In them
on a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g livestock
Pleuropneumonia.
being planned
areas
of
be a
almost
of the m a j o r
concentrate
in the p a s t o r a l
are a number
Africa,
cultivation
b e l o w 600 m m per annum.
In o p t i m i z i n g activity,
J.s an A f r i c a - w i d e
a large p r o p o r t i o n
which
are the areas
as R i n d e r p e s t
The other v e t e r i n a r y
outputs
sq. km of s u b - s a h a r a n
and savanna These
on livestock.
(Davies,
OUTPUT
have r a i n f a l l
20 m i l l i o n
related
to the need for n e w approaches.
and S h a n n e r
activity.
based are
researchers.
14 m i l l i o n
the v e t e r i n a r y
epizootics
methodologies
in c o m p u t e r
h e r d i n g may be the only a c t i v i t y
OF P A S T O R A L
high risk enterprise.
known
failure
point
"re-toolong"
are few livestock
been targeted
have a high
have o p e n e d
The techniques
of the r a n c h e r
therefore
1980,
is p r e d o m i n a n t
are about
livestock
calculations,
et al.
arid g r a s s l a n d
live about
have
schemes
of l i v e s t o c k
0PTI~IZATION
version
which
in terms of infectious
are a l r e a d y
higher
veterinary
largely by
training
r e s t e d on the a s s u m p t i o n
a less s o p h i s t i c a t e d
offtakes.
there
causes
medicine
the study of p r o d u c t i o n
economics.
where
or advice.
industry,
new a p p r o a c h e s
him additional
veterinary
in what has been
have been d e v e l o p e d
and where d i s e a s e
merely
The F a r m i n g
drawn towards These
increasingly,
livestock
or b i o - c h e m i c a l
have been
giving
and,
puzzles
Past attempts areas
increasingly
age-old
in v e t e r i n a r y
from the livestock
of disease.
skills
opinions
have been added
revolution"
Under p r e s s u r e
epidemiology
data h a n d l i n g
to outside
approaches
"epidemiological
1982).
along well e s t a b l i s h e d
against
Rinderpest.
on health p r o b l e m s
is less sharply
limit animal
productivity,
to the d e l i b e r a t e
strategies
483 of the pastoralist.
Both of these approaches have a p a r t to play.
Because of their a b i l i t y to cause w i d e - s p r e a d devastation, important to keep e p i z o o t i c disease in check.
it is o b v i o u s l y
For some, such as R i n d e r p e s t
new m a n i f e s t a t i o n s and an a p p a r e n t altered v i r u l e n c e need some research. In some countries of East A f r i c a where routine annual v a c c i n a t i o n s have been in p r o g r e s s for m a n y y e a r s R i n d e r p e s t antibody is appearing in small ruminants and high m o r t a l i t y has been r e p o r t e d in w i l d l i f e (Rossiter et al.
1983).
Following a R i n d e r p e s t o u t b r e a k among buffalo
in the Serengeti
(Tanzania)
in April 1982, an extensive sampling of
w i l d e b e e s t arriving from the Serengeti on their annual m i g r a t i o n to K e n y a failed to y i e l d virus and over 200 w i l d e b e e s t sampled were also negative for R i n d e r p e s t antibody.
There has been no R i n d e r p e s t in K e n y a
despite the d i s t u r b i n g p r e s e n c e of a n t i b o d y for extensive vaccinations, a purely v e t e r i n a r y research activity aimed at u n d e r s t a n d i n g the factors c o n t r i b u t i n g to the a p p a r e n t benign R i n d e r p e s t virus in K e n y a as o p p o s e d to the v i r u l e n c e elsewhere in the region and in W e s t Africa. In order to m a x i m i l e the value of his inputs in p a s t o r a l situations when immediate epizootic m o r t a l i t y is less of an issue, the v e t e r i n a r i a n will need to start by u n d e r s t a n d i n g the total system in w h i c h he w o u l d operate.
This will n e c e s s i t a t e his w o r k i n g as p a r t of a Pastoral S ~ s t e m
R e s e a r c h team including a v a r i e t y of other researcher whose expertise w o u l d contribute d i r e c t l y to his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the place of disease in the whole galaxy of p r o d u c t i o n constraints e x i s t i n g in the pastoral areas. In so doing t r a d i t i o n a l isolationism will have to be overcome.
The long
e s t a b l i s h e d tendency of the v e t e r i n a r i a n to work by himself is largely m a t c h e d by an equally strong tendency even among scientists who term themselves
"Systems" r e s e a r c h e r s to exclude him from their teams or to
invite h i m for r e t r o s p e c t i v e studies to explain unusual d i s e a s e or m o r t a l i t y patterns.
At other times v e t e r i n a r y inputs are only u s e d by
n o n - v e t e r i n a r i a n s as an i n d u c e m e n t to the p a s t o r a l i s t to gain c o o p e r a t i o n for other studies whose benefits are less obvious to the livestock owner. What is needed is for the v e t e r i n a r i a n to p e r c e i v e h i m s e l f and to be r e g a r d e d by other p a s t o r a l systems workers as an integral and useful t e a m of scientists.
The effect of his interventions on the entire p a s t o r a l eco-
system can be judged along those of the other systems scientists.
The
common interest w o u l d be to create conditions in w h i c h the p a s t o r a l i s t will attain a sustainable and improving q u a l i t y of life w h i l e at the same time s a f e g u a r d i n g his fragile environment.
484 VETERINARY
EPIDEMIOLOGY
In r e c e n t years, economic emerged
AND E C O N O M I C S
as m u c h
necessity, as a serious
with computer
approaches
will
in both e p i d e m i o l o g y
he uses
to achieve
this is done a n a l y s i s
mortem
diagnosis
in o r d e r
round mating b o r n during
a n d accept
either
between
with
vaccination
results.
from p a s t o r a l
the number of female tribes,
of a l t e r n a t i v e these
strategies
or c h e m o t h e r a p e u t i c
viability
of m a n y
rested
to o p t i m i z e
male
surplus
m a y be no m a r k e t a b l e predicated
pastoralist
on milk,
the p a s t o r a l i s t ,
offtake.
males
An alternative
fail.
in m a l e
strategies,
As a p a p e r
projects
may
and the a v a i l a b i l i t y epidemiologist
not
"calf-saving"
exercise,
such
Under
Where,
in the r a n g e l a n d s
presumption actual
animals
may be w i l l i n g
of
and have
conditions
sought
there
or other d e v e l o p m e n t
on the other h a n d
food h a b i t s
of m o r e m a l e
at a fair price,
w o u l d be to p r o m o t e
with
as the p a s t o r a l i s t
misdirected
and v e t e r i n a r y
alternative
survival
a m e a t based e c o n o m y
the
and there
is t h e r e f o r e
is likely
to o c c u r
less
and
to sell and t h e r e b y
sustain
strategy.
strategy
for m e a t based p r o j e c t s
the areas m o s t e f f i c i e n t
scant a t t e n t i o n
development
livestock
animal
in animals
sense.
on this w o u l d
has a d o p t e d
These
on a m e a t p r o d u c t i o n
surplus
will occur
A veterinary
campaigns.
the
mortality
of the h a b i t a t
may recommend
likely
unsuccessfully
slaughter
animals.
aridity
post-
supply m a y a l l o w year-
mortality
food habits.
m a y even make e c o n o m i c
Economic
arid areas,
compete
deliberate
and
requirements.
of death are
high n e o n a t a l
Differential or through
A f r i c a have u s u a l l y
Amazingly
and the e c o n o m i c
or d e t a i l e d
causes
In the m o r e
as the n e o n a t e s
for milk.
pastoral
and a c c e p t a n c e
or survival
patterns
the immediate
the r e s u l t i n g
naturally
seek to m a x i m i z e
reliance
usually
of the p a s t o r a l i s t
to e n s u r e year r o u n d m i l k
the dry m o n t h s
the p a s t o r a l i s t
project
has
Special
are to be drawn
his basic
of m o r t a l i t y
to d e t e r m i n e
to y i e l d quite m i s l e a d i n g pastoralist,
campaigns
inferences
need w i l l be a good u n d e r s t a n d i n g
the strategies
familiar
tools
need to be e m p l o y e d
Unless
differ
analytical
are being developed.
if m e a n i n g f u l
as for sheer
to economics
studies.
A fundamental
animals
Elegant
enquiry
linked
facilities
of disease
veterinary
scholarly
epidemiology
discipline.
associated
aspects
for genuine
veterinary
planners.
has b e e n p a i d
Optimization
in the arid zones
milk producer
to this animal
of camel p r o d u c t i o n
- the camel.
by arid r a n g e l a n d s with their
superlor
485 milk production would permit
and their
less
the p a s t o r a l i s t
severe d e g r a d a t i v e
effects
to be less d e p e n d a n t
stock and pave the way for their a v a i l a b i l i t y
on the e c o s y s t e m
on cattle
and small
to the meat market.
DISCUSSION
Due to a m u l t i t u d e until r e c e n t l y pastoralist areas have meat
of factors
received
remains largely
outstanding
to manage
concentrated
successes.
and there
inputs,
reluctance
the cost of these low p o p u l a t i o n
movement
of the p a s t o r a l i s t
Recent
awareness
studies
and a p p r a i s i n g making
in i n t e n s i v e strategies
farming
and goals
well known.
hy p a s t o r a l i s m or economic goals
livestock
raising
inferences.
inputs
Devising understanding
husbandry
findings
of the p a s t o r a l i s t decisions
for centuries.
programmes
Here
- are c o m p a r a t i v e l y characterized
Epidemiological
unrelated
projects
veterinary
studies
to the p a s t o r a l i s t ' s
from such studies
of h i g h outputs,
and the basis
is
especially
farming
and lead to u n s o u n d
recommendations
comprehensive
epidemiological
programmes
systems,
programmes
the list of livestock
of successful
complex management conditions
Where
in the e x p e c t a t i o n
l e n g t h e n y e t further
rough
with constant
careful
populations.
are not well understood.
of v e t e r i n a r y
are sure to y i e l d m i s l e a d i n g
and faulty
associated
to v e t e r i n a r y
among s e d e n t a r y
and n o m a d i s m
assessment
low
developmental
of the u s u a l l y
of u n d e r t a k i n g
- w h i c h are largely m o n e t a r y
The e x t e n s i v e
commodity
The r e l a t i v e l y
impact of v e t e r i n a r y
contributions
areas
of milk Male animals
and his animals.
the e c o n o m i c
important
stock.
has not e n c o u r a g e d
and d i f f i c u l t i e s
of the importance
already
has e m p l o y e d
they are a m a r k e t a b l e
to sell female therefore
densities
has been lack of
arid areas.
tend to be h i g h b e c a u s e
terrain,
the
in the m a i n not b e e n
Maximization
in the more
in life before
from the areas
of
and outside
for failure
and his livestock.
in the arid
as a source
that the p a s t o r a l i s t
strategy
early
is extreme output
reason
have
and the
programs
inside
These p r o g r a m m e s
survival
is a fundamental
inputs
Livestock
populations
The p r i m a r y
of the basic
tend to be e l i m i n a t e d
in A f r i c a have not,
at their e x p l o i t a t i o n
sedentary
both the rangelands
production
economic
disadvantaged.
home countries.
understanding
areas
a great deal of d e v e l o p m e n t a l
severly
for u r b a n and other
pastoralists
the p a s t o r a l
conclusions are aimed at
the likely o u t c o m e
is to
w h i c h have failed.
projects
will n e e d greater
for his routine
which have e n a b l e d h i m to survive
but often under h a r s h
486 For this other
understanding,
scientists
with
the v e t e r i n a r i a n a common
as a w h o l e
including
vegetation
and animals,
as rainfall, be p o s s i b l e and economic
the p a s t o r a l i s t ,
the e f f e c t
standpoint,
need
to work with
the p r o d u c t i o n
as well as the c o n t r i b u t i n g
water d i s t r i b u t i o n to v i e w
will
aim of u n d e r s t a n d i n g
and d r o u g h t of disease,
system
limits of range abiot£c
probability. from both
teams of
the pastoral
factors
It will
such
then
the e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l
in proper p e r s p e c t i v e .
REFERENCES
Davies, G,, 1983. D e v e l o p m e n t of V e t e r i n a r y V e t e r i n a r y Record, 112:5~-53
Epidemiology.
Gilbert, E.H. Norman, D.W. and Wich, F.E., 1980. Research: A Critical Appraisal. M.S.U. Rural Paper No. 6 East lansing, Michigan, U.S.A.
F a r m i n g Systems Development
R o s s i t e r , P.B. , Jesset, D.M. , [;afula, J.S. , Karstad, L. , C h e m a , S. , Taylor, W.P., Rowe, L.W., Nyange, J.C., Otaru, M., M[~mbala, M., and Scott, G.R., 1983. The R e - e m e r g e n c e of R i n d e r p e s t as a Threat in East Africa, 1979-1982 (In Press). Schwabe, C.W., 1982. The C u r r e n t V e t e r i n a r y Medicine. Part I.
Epidemiological Revolution Prev. Vet. Med., 1:5-15.
in
Shanner, W.W., Phillip, P.F., and Schmell, W.R., 1982. Farming Systems R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t g u i d e l i n e s for D e v e l o p i n g Countries. W e s t v i e w Press, Colorado, U.S.A.