Magnesium based coordination polymers: Syntheses, structures, properties and applications

Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

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Coordination Chemistry Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ccr

Review

Magnesium based coordination polymers: Syntheses, structures, properties and applications Zhao-Feng Wu a,b, Bin Tan a, William P. Lustig b, Ever Velasco b, Hao Wang b, Xiao-Ying Huang a,⇑, Jing Li b,⇑ a b

State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, PR China Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers University, 123 Bevier Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 11 July 2019 Accepted 9 August 2019 Available online 29 August 2019 Keywords: Magnesium Coordination polymer Synthesis Crystal structure Functionality Application

a b s t r a c t Coordination polymers (CPs) and/or metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have been a hot research topic over the past two decades. Many CPs structures based on p-, d-, f- and some s-block metal ions, including magnesium (Mg), have been reported. While not as common in the literature as some other metals, magnesium-based CPs have unique potential applications, largely because of the specific properties of the Mg metal. Mg-CPs can possess high gravimetric gas storage capacities due to the metal’s low density, can facilitate base-catalyzed reactions as a result of its strong Lewis acidity, and have shown high performance as electrode materials due to its high-density energy storage capacity. This review intends to provide an overview on the research related to Mg-CPs in the past twenty years. We will briefly describe various structural features, important properties, and potential applications of the Mg-CPs reported during this time period. A number of representative examples will be discussed for each type of important application. Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents 1.

2.

3.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1. The history and chemistry of magnesium metal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2. The advantages of using Mg2+ ion to construct functional CPs with unique features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Synthesis and structures of Mg-CPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.1. Synthetic methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.2. Types of secondary building units (SBUs) in Mg-CPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.3. The organic ligand types for constructing Mg-CPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Important properties and potential applications of Mg-CPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.1. Guests capture and separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.1.1. CO2 adsorption and separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.1.2. H2, hydrocarbons and other gases adsorption and separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.1.3. Other guest adsorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.2. Fluorescence and fluorescent sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3.2.1. Photoluminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3.2.2. Dual FL emitting related properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2.3. Luminescent detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.3. Energy related applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.3.1. Proton conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.3.2. Optical and electrical related applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.4. Catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.4.1. Aldol condensation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.4.2. Hydrogenation of alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

⇑ Corresponding authors. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (X.-Y. Huang), [email protected] (J. Li). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2019.213025 0010-8545/Ó 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Abbreviations Solvents: DMF DMA TEPA ED DEA DEF EtOH EG DMSO Mmen THF TNP NMP dmi Bmim Bmmim

N,N-Dimethylformamide N,N-dimethylacetamide tetraethylenepentamine ethylenediamine N,N-Diethylacetamide N,N0 -diethylformamide ethanol ethylene glycol dimethyl sulfoxide N,N0 -dimethylethylenediamine tetrahydrofuran 2,4,6-trinitrophenol N-methylpyrrolidone 1,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone 1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium ion 1-butyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium.

Ligands: H3idc or H3IMDC imidazole-4,5-dicarboylic acid 2,6-H2NDC naphthalene-2,6-dicarboxylic acid H3tctpo 4,40 ,400 -phosphanetriyltribenzoic acid H4BTEC 1,2,4,5-benzenetetracarboxylic acid H2DOT H2DOBDC, H2dmacp, H4dobdc, H2DHT, H2DHTA or H2DHBDC, 2,5-dioxidoterephthalate 3,5-pzdcH 4H-pyrazole-3,5-dicarboxylic acid Hbidc 1H-benzimidazole 5,6-dicarboxylate H3MIDC 2-methyl-1H-imidazole-4,5-dicarboxylic acid H3DMPhIDC 2-(3,4-dimethylphenyl)-1H-imidazole-4,5-dicar boxylic acid H3ptc pyridine-2,4,6-tricarboxylic acid H2pdda 4,40 -(pyrazine-2,6-diyl)) dibenzoic acid H2cmpc 1-carboxymethylpyridinium-4-carboxylate Hino 4-carboxypyridine 1-oxide H2int isonicotinic acid H2nt nicotinic acid 2,5-H2pdc 2,5-pyridinedicarboxylic acid BPNO or bpdo 4,40 -dipyridyl-N,N0 -dioxide 3,5-PDCH2 pyridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid 2,4-H2pdc 2,4-pyridinedicarboxylic acid H2tza 1H-tetrazolate-5-acetic acid Hpytza 5-(2-pyridyl)tetrazole-2-acetic acid Hpymtza 5-(2-pyrimidyl)tetrazole-2-acetic acid H2FDC or H2FDA 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid 5,50 -H2dcbpy 5,50 -dicarboxy-2,20 -bipyridine 4,40 -H2dcbpy 4,40 -dicarboxy-2,20 -bipyridine H3PyIDC 2-(pyridine-3-yl)-1H-4,5-imidazoledicarboxylic acid H2Thz thiazolo[5,4-d]thiazole-2,5-dicarboxylic acid dpe 1,2-di(pyridin-4-yl)ethane bpy 4,40 -bipyridine 1,10-phen 1,10-phenanthroline dppe 1,3-di(pyridin-4-yl)propane H4TTFTB tetrathiafulvalene tetrabenzoate Hqlbc quinoline-2-carboxylic acid H2TDC 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid H2TTF 40 ,50 -bis(methylthio)-[2,20 -bi(1,3-dithiolylidene)]-4,5-di carboxylic acid H3PCD 9H-carbazole-3,6-dicarboxylic acid or 9-(2-(ethoxy(hy droxy)phosphoryl)ethyl)-9H-carbazole-3,6-dicarboxylic acid H3LBr 1,3-bis(3-carboxyphenyl)-2H-imidazole-1,3-diium H2SBA 4,40 -sulfonyldibenzoic acid 2,2-H2bpdc [3,30 -biquinoline]-4,40 -dicarboxylic acid 3,4-pybH 3-(pyridin-4-yl)benzoate Olsalazine (E)-5,50 -(diazene-1,2-diyl)bis(2-hydroxybenzoic acid)

H2tabdc 5-(4H-1,2,4-triazol-4-yl)benzene-1,3-dicarboxylic acid dpb 1,4-bis(pyrid-4-yl)benzene Im-Bz 4-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)benzoic acid Tz-Bz 4-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)benzoic acid TPP 2,4,6-tri(4-pyridyl)pyridine H4gal 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid H2EBTC 5-methylisophthalic acid HIPA isophthalic acid 5-H2aip 5-aminoisophthalic acid NH2BDC 2-aminoterephthalic acid H2BDC or H2PBDC terephthalic acid 1,4-H2BDOA 2,20 -(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))diacetic acid Hnap (S)-2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid 2-HNDC 2-naphthoic acid 1,4-NDC or H2NDA 1,4-naphthalenedicarboxylate 9,10-H2ADC anthracene-9,10-dicarboxylic acid H2bpda [1,10 -biphenyl]-2,20 -dicarboxylic acid or 2,20 -([1,10 -bi phenyl]-4,40 -diyl)diacetic acid H2OBB or H2oba 4,40 -oxybis(benzoic acid) 4,40 -H2bpdc 4,40 -biphenyldicarboxylate H2abdc 4,40 -azodibenzoic acid H2hfpbc 4,40 -(hexafluoroisopropylidene)bis(benzoic acid) H4diol 2,20 -dihydroxybiphenyl-4,40 -dicarboxylic acid H2eddc (E)-4,40 -(ethene-1,2-diyl)dibenzoic acid Hobpbc r-oxo-(1,10-biphenyl)-4-butanoic acid H4TTTP 20 ,30 ,50 ,60 -tetramethyl-[1,10 :40 ,100 -terphenyl]-4,400 -dicar boxylic acid H4DH3PhDC 20 ,50 -dimethyl-3,300 -dihydroxy-[1,10 :40 ,100 -terphe nyl]-4,400 -dicarboxylic acid H2DCPP 5,15-di(4-carboxyphenyl)porphyrin 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid H3BTC H3BPT [1,10 -biphenyl]-3,40 ,5-tricarboxylic acid H3BTTB 4,40 ,400 -[benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(oxy)]tribenzoic acid or 4,40 ,400 ,4000 -benzene-1,2,4,5-tetrayltetrabenzoic acid 40 ,400 ,4000 -benzene-1,3,5-tribenzoic acid H3BTB H3tcpda Tris[(4-carboxyl)-phenylduryl]amine H4bptc biphenyl-3,30 ,5,50 -tetracarboxylic acid or 4,40 carbonyldiphthalic acid H4MDIP methylenediisophthalic acid H4PTCA pyrene-1,3,6,8-tetracarboxylic acid H4EBTC 1,10 -ethynebenzene-3,30 ,5,50 -tetracarboxylic acid H4TPTC ([1:10 :40 ,100 -terphengl]-3,300 ,5,500 -tetracarboxylic) H4BINDI N,N0 -bis(5-isophthalic acid)naphthalenediimide TMQPTC 20 ,300 ,500 ,60 -tetramethyl-[1,10 :40 ,100 :400 ,1000 -quaterphenyl]3,3000 ,5,5000 -tetracarboxylic acid H3TCMTB 2,4,6-tris[(40 -carboxyphenoxy)methyl]-1,3,5-trime thylbenzene H4dpttc 4,40 ,400 ,4000 -(1,8-dihydropyrene-1,3,6,8-tetrayl)tetraben zoic acid H4mtotc 4,40 ,400 ,4000 -(methanetetrayltetrakis(oxy))tetrabenzoic acid H6hcbc benzene-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexacarboxylic acid H6L0 hexakis (4-carboxylatephenoxy)cyclotriphosphazene H4DBIP 5-((3,5-dicarboxybenzyl)oxy)isophthalic acid H3BCPBA 4,40 -((5-carboxy-1,3-phenylene)bis(oxy))dibenzoic acid H6dbdp 2,5-dicarboxy-1,4-benzene-tcbpdadiphosphonic acid H2TCPBDA N,N,N0 ,N0 -tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl)-biphenyl-4,40 -di amine H4olz olsalazine H4dobpdc 4,40 -dioxido-3,30 -biphenyldicarboxylate H3tci tris(2-carboxyethyl) isocyanurate H6CPB 10 ,20 ,30 ,40 ,50 ,60 -hexakis(4-carboxyphenyl)benzene H2adbc 4,40 -(diazene-1,2-diyl)dibenzoic acid H2PBPC pyridine-3,5-bis(phenyl-4-carboxylic acid)

Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

H2pda H2oda H2dab Ox H3TPTCA H2ATDC H8dpttb

pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylic acid oxydiacetic acid 1,4-diammoniumbutane oxalate [1,10 :30 ,100 -terphenyl]-4,400 ,50 -tricarboxylic acid 20 -amino-1,10 :40 ,100 -terphenyl-4,400 -dicarboxylate 4,40 ,400 ,4000 -(1,8-dihydropyrene-1,3,6,8-tetrayl)tetraben zoic acid TABD-COOH 4,40 -((Z,Z)-1,4-diphenylbuta-1,3-diene-1,4-diyl)di benzoic acid

bspl N-benzenesulphonyl-L-leucine HL-MA (L)-malic acid H2cca 4-carboxycinnamic acid H2dsd 4,40 -diamino-2,20 -stilbenedisulfonic acid H2mip 5-methyl isophthalic acid H8ODTMP octamethylenediamine-N,N,N0 ,N0 -tetrakis(methylene phosphonic acid H2dpmdc diphenylmethane-4,40 -dicarboxylic acid Hadipate adipic acid

3.4.3. Dehydrogenation of ammonia borane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precursors for porous nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1. Templates for MgO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2. Precursors for porous carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions and outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.

4.

1. Introduction 1.1. The history and chemistry of magnesium metal As one of the most abundant and lowest density metals (seventh most abundant element in the earth’s crust; 1.738 g/cm3), magnesium (Mg) is an intriguing metal with many useful applications. Mg2+ is one essential element for physiological functions in the human body, with recommended consumption being 250– 500 mg/day [1,2]. Owing to their excellent biological compatibility, Mg and its alloys have been investigated for use in biomaterials since 1878. Alloys based on Mg have been widely used in manufacturing, the automobile industry, and electronic devices and packaging, among many other fields [3,4]. Mg is also considered one promising material for H2 storage application, due to its low density, low toxicity, and high gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen capacity. A number of Mg-containing alloys have been investigated for reversible hydrogen storage, and the performance has met requirements set by US Department of Energy [5–9]. Mg-based batteries have also been a hot research topic due to the material’s capability for high-density energy storage [10,11]. As a result of these many important and diverse applications, the development of functional Mg-based materials is a significant field of research. 1.2. The advantages of using Mg2+ ion to construct functional CPs with unique features Since the birth of the field nearly two decades ago, research into CPs has grown quickly into a major subfield of materials chemistry. Significant advances have been made in their applications related to catalysis, electronics, gas storage and separation, and fluorescence, among others [12–22]. CPs of d- or f-block metals are widely reported, while CPs based on Mg2+ have been relatively less explored despite their potential advantages over the d- or f-block CPs. For example, if functional CPs are developed into industrially applied materials, the economic and environmental advantages of using Mg become extremely important. Additionally, CP materials that possess low density resulting from the use of the relatively lightweight Mg2+ ion may exhibit increased gravimetric uptake capacity for energy-related gas molecules, while the metal’s good biocompatibility supports biological or medicinal chemistry

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23 23 23 23 24 25 25

related applications. Mg2+ is also an excellent candidate to build fluorescent (FL) CPs with ligand-centered emission because of its 3d0 electron configuration. Despite these many advantages, however, reports of Mg-CPs are still comparatively scarce. A systematic investigation into designing Mg-CPs and an exploration of their potential applications is therefore highly significant and will be of use to the broader field of MOF and CP chemistry. 2. Synthesis and structures of Mg-CPs 2.1. Synthetic methods A number of techniques including hydro/solvothermal synthesis, ionothermal synthesis, and electro-, mechano- and sonochemical methods have been used in the synthesis of CPs [23]. Hydro/solvothermal synthesis is the most straightforward and widely used way to generate Mg-CPs. The typical synthesis of Mg-CPs follows a general procedure whereby Mg-based salts, multitopic organic linkers, and solvents (i.e DMF, DMA, methanol, H2O, etc.) are mixed in reaction vessels and heated for some amount of time. Common techniques to produce crystalline materials involve the alteration of reaction parameters like pH, solvent, reaction temperature, reactant molar ratio, etc. Tuning these reaction conditions can greatly affect the phase, crystal size, morphology and phase purity of the resulting CPs. Gurunatha’s work demonstrates this precisely by synthesizing three distinct structures with 1D, 2D and 3D dimensionality, while using the same ligand H3idc simply by tuning the reaction temperature and the ratio of starting materials, Fig. 1 [24]. Ionothermal synthesis, a relatively new alternately synthetic route, has also been used to successfully obtain Mg-CPs with novel structures [25–27]. Due to the low volatility of ionic liquids (ILs), ionothermal synthesis can be carried out across a wider temperature range than is possible with traditional hydro/solvothermal reactions. In addition, ILs also play a structure directing agent role in the preparation of CPs. Thus, Mg-CPs with novel structural features that may not be easily generated in conventional solvothermal conditions can be obtained under ionothermal conditions. However, the final Mg-CPs are usually anionic frameworks that are charge balanced by the cations of ILs, which limits the structural porosity and therefore also limits their applications.

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Fig. 1. The scheme for Mg-CPs based on H3idc ligand obtained through tuning the synthetic conditions. Adapted from Ref. [24] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

2.2. Types of secondary building units (SBUs) in Mg-CPs The secondary building unit (SBU) greatly affects the final CP structure [28–30]. Mg2+ ions exhibit similar coordination binding

Fig. 2. The typical SBUs in Mg-CPs.

modes as those of d-block metal ions, forming a number of symmetrical SBUs, including paddle-wheel dimers and linear or trigonal prismatic trimers (Fig. 2), with linear trimers being the most commonly reported [31–35]. The first porous Mg-CP, Mg3(2,6NDC)3, is one typical reference (Fig. 3), in which the linear Mg3(O2CR)6 SBUs are bridged by naphthalene dicarboxylates to generate a 3D porous structure [31]. Some synthetic conditions can force the Mg2+ ion to form SBUs with high nuclearity, such as tetranuclear, hexanuclear, and even decanuclear clusters [27,34,36–43]. Although Mg-SBUs with high nuclearity are relatively rare, some were reported in recent years. In almost all of these reported Mg-CPs, the –OH functional group always take part in the formation of high-nuclearity SBUs. For example, S. M. Humphrey et al. synthesized a 3D Mg-CP formulated as [Mg4(l3-OH)2(tctpo)2(OH2)4]. In this compound, the –OH group adopts a l3-coordination mode to tether four Mg2+ ions together and generate a Mg4(l3-OH)2(OH2)4]6+ inorganic cluster. Then a 3D porous frameworks with the largest openings in all three crystallographic directions are formed by bridging the cluster SBUs by tctpo ligands (Fig. 4a) [37]. In 2014, X. Y. Huang et al. reported a 3D Mg-CP Mg5(OH)2(BTEC)2(H2O)411H2O [42]. The –OH functional group acts as an important coordination site to connect three Mg ions and form a trinuclear Mg cluster, which is then further shared

Fig. 3. Single structure of Mg3(NDC)3 with 1D channels in [1 0 1] direction [31].

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to Mg-MOF-74 have been successfully generated, and their pore size can be finely controlled [46].

2.3. The organic ligand types for constructing Mg-CPs Scheme 1 summarizes most of the carboxylate-based or Ncontaining organic linkers that have been reported to generate Mg-CPs, which could be divided into three types:

Fig. 4. The 3D Mg-CP crystal structures showing the Mg4 (a) [37] and Mg5 (b) [42] units and upon removing the guest molecules.

by one Mg2+ ion in an inversion center to form a pentanuclear cluster SBUs (Fig. 4b). The most frequent SBU type reported in Mg-CPs is a rod-type 1D inorganic chain, first reported by O. M. Yaghi [44]. The typical example is Mg-MOF-74 comprised of a 1D chain of [Mg2O2(CO2)2]1 acting as the SBU, which is bridged together through the 2,5-dioxidoterephthalate (DOT) ligand (Fig. 5) [45]. Through size expansion of DOT analogs, a series Mg-CPs that are isoreticular

i) The simplest mono-/dicarboxylates such as formate, tartaric acid, L-tartarate, and so on. The typical examples are different polymorphs of magnesium formates. The assemblies of Mg2+ with the same simple linker formate led to different 3D Mg-CP polymorphs, including the nonporous aMg3(HCOO)6DMF and b-[Mg(HCO2)2] and porous 3D c[Mg3(HCOO)6] with 1D a-directional channels [34]. ii) Aromatic polycarboxylates. These were the most common organic ligands to synthesize Mg-CPs. The Mg2+ ion commonly adopts octahedral coordination and tends to exhibit more consistent SBUs than other alkaline earth (AE) metals (Section 2.2). Thus, utilization of aromatic polycarboxylate ligands with unique coordination sites and specific configurations could generate designable structures. The typical examples are MOF-74-type frameworks. In these compounds, the same 1D chain-like SBU Mg3[(-O)3(–CO2)3] was present, and by systematically lengthening the DOT derivatives, isoreticular Mg-CPs with tunable pore apertures could be designed [46]. iii) Heterocyclic carboxylic linkers. These ligands include but are not limited to derivatives of pyridine or imidazole that were also used for the construction of Mg-CPs. Due to the cooperative coordination effects between the substituted heteroatoms and the carboxylate groups within the ligands, Mg-CPs with varied topologies were generated. iv) vi) The sulfonate, phosphonate, pyridine or imidazole ligands. Generally speaking, Mg-CPs containing these ligands typically also contain secondary aromatic polycarboxyloate ligands, thus increasing the stability or structural diversities of the resultant Mg-CPs.

Fig. 5. 3D structure of Mg-MOF-74, assembled from 1D inorganic Mg-O chains and DOT ligands. Taken from Ref. [45], reproduction with permission of the copyright holder.

6

Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

Scheme 1. The typical organic linkers reported in Mg-CPs.

Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

Scheme 1 (continued)

7

8

Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

Scheme 1 (continued)

9

Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025 Table 1 Guest capture and separation properties of selected Mg-CPs. Compounds

D

Capacity

Conditions

Ref.

CO2 adsorption MOF-74-Mg2(dobpdc)(diamine)2 MOF-74-Mg/DOBDC

3D 3D 3D

MOF-74-Mg/DOT MOF-74-Mg2(dobdc) MOF-74-Mg/dobdc MOF-74-Mg/DOBDC MOF-74-Mg/DOT MOF-74-Mg/DOBDC MOF-74-mmen-Mg2(dobpdc)

3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D

303 K to 393 K, 1 atm 296 K, 0.1 atm 296 K, 1 atm 278 K, 3600 kPa 298 K, 3300 kPa 343 K, 4500 kPa 393 K, 3440 kPa 473 K, 3980 kPa 273 K, 1 atm 313 K, 1 atm 298 K, 1 atm

[52] [53]

MOF-74-Mg(dhtp)(H2O)28H2O

CPO-27(Ni)@CPO-27(Mg) (10 mol% Ni-modified CPO-27(Mg)) IRMOF-74-III-R-Mg2(DH3PhDC)

3D 3D

MOF-74-[Mg2(dobdc)(N2H4)1.8] Mg/DOBDC-Gr-X (X = 2, 5 and 10 wt% of graphene (Gr)) TEPA-Mg/DOBDC Mg(HCOO)22H2O c-[Mg3(O2CH)6] a-[Mg3(O2CH)6] [Mg3(BDC)3(DEA)2(EtOH)] [Mg3(TDC)3(DEA)3] [(CH3)2NH2][Mg3(OH)(FDC)3(H2O)3] [Mg5(OH)2(OBB)4(H2O)6] [Mg5(OH)2(NDC)4(DMA)3(H2O)] Mg2(H2O)2(bptc)

3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D

[Mg4(bdc)4(DEF)4] MIL-101(Cr, Mg) [Mg16(PTCA)8(l2H2O)8(H2O)16(dioxane)8](H2O)13(DMF)26

3D 3D 3D

[Mg3[O2CH)6](DMF)

3D

[Mg(TCPBDA)(H2O)2]6DMF6H2O

3D

[Mg6(1,4-NDC)5(HCO2)4(DMF)(H2O)]2[H2N(CH3)2]2(DMF) Mg(DHT)(DMF)2 [Mg4(l3-OH)2(tctpo)2(OH2)4] [Mg2(HCO2)2(NH2-BDC)(DMF)2] [Mg3(tci)2(DMAC)4]2DMF [Mg2(H2CPB)(DEF)0.5(EtOH)0.5]3H2O [Mg2(NH2BDC)2(HNO3)]9H2O

3D 3D 3D 2D 2D 3D 3D

Mg3O2(H2L00 )2(CH3COO)2(DMF)2(H2O)2 [Mg(H2BTTB)(C2H5OH)2](DEF)4 Mg-TTTP [Mg2(DOBDC)(DMF)2]@polystyrene Mg3(adbc)3(DMF)2(C2H5OH)2 (DMF)2

2D 3D 3D 3D 3D

Mg(Tz-Bz)(CH3COO)solvent Mg(Im-Bz)(CH3COO)solvent

3D 3D

3.5–4.0 mmol/g 23.6 wt% 35.2 wt% 68.9 wt% 62.9 wt% 52.3 wt% 41.8 wt% 29.5 wt% 8.9 wt% 8.0 mmol g1 197 mmol g1 23.6 wt% 37.8 wt% (8.61 mmol/g) 17.6 wt% 8.1 wt% (2.0 mmol/g) 12.1 wt% (3.14 mmol/g) 5.5 mmol g1 R = –CH3, 66.1 cm3 g1 R = –NH2, 71.0 cm3 g1 R = -CH2NHBoc, 46.7 cm3 g1 R = –CH2NH2, 73.2 cm3 g1 R = -CH2NMeBoc, 42.7 cm3 g1 R = -CH2NHMe, 63.9 cm3 g1 5.51 mmol g1 (6.49 mmol cm3) 30–37 wt% 26.9 wt% 1.32 wt% 2.01 mmol g1 1.69 mmol g1 40.7 cm3 g1 40.9 cm3 g1 53.1 cm3 g1 23.6 cm3 g1 22.0 cm3 g1 1.84 cm3 g1 31.4 cm3 g1 22.6 cm3 g1 3.28 mmol/g 44.2 cm3 g1 23.6 cm3 g1 3.8 mmol g1 3.1 mmol g1 2.9 mmol g1 26.3 wt% (134.05 cm3 g1/5.99 mmol g1) 9.1 wt% (46.38 cm3 g1/2.07 mmol g1) 6.5 wt% (33.43 cm3 g1/1.49 mmol g1) 80 cm3 g1 60 cm3 g1 47.5 wt% 3.99 mmolg1 19.3 cm3 g1 55 cm3 g1 1.7 mmol g1 1.4 mmol g1 42.0 cm3 g1 0.5 mol/kg 5.9 wt% (30 cm3 g1) 21.9 wt% 36.2 cm3 g1 27.7 cm3g1 3.02 mmol g1 2.98 mmol g1

H2 adsorption MOF-74-Mg2(dhtp)(H2O)28H2O MOF-74-Mg2(dobdc) Mg-MOF-74-Mg2(dobdc)

3D 3D 3D

Mg/DOBDC-Gr-X (X = 2, 5 and 10 wt% of graphene (Gr)) Mg(HCOO)22H2O Mg-formate

3D 3D 3D

2.5 wt% 1.8 wt% 2.2 wt% 1.7 wt% 3.2 wt% 4.9 wt% 0.8 wt% 1.7–1.9 wt% 0.070 wt% (0.347 mmol/g) 1.1 wt% 0.05 wt%

77 K, 100 kPa 298 K, 100 atm 77 K, 1 atm 87 K, 1 atm 77 K, 15 atm 77 K, 100 atm 298 K, 100 atm 298 K, 1 atm 77 K, 700 torr 77 K, 1 atm 298 K, 1 atm

473 K, 298 K, 313 K, 298 K, 298 K,

1 atm 0.39 mbar 0.15 atm 0.1 atm 1 atm

[54]

[55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63]

298 K, 1 atm

[64] [65] [66] [67] [34]

273 K, 1 atm

[43]

298 K, 1 atm

[68]

293 K, 298 K, 273 K, 298 K, 273 K, 293 K, 303 K, 195 K, 273 K, 298 K, 195 K, 195 K, 303 K, 273 K, 273 K, 298 K, 263 K, 273 K, 273 K, 298 K, 273 K, 298 K, 273 K, 293 K, 293 K,

[69] [70] [71]

1 atm 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm 35 atm 35 atm 32.5 atm 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm 0.14–0.9 atm 1 atm 11.6 atm 1 atm 1 atm 800 Torr 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm 1.0 atm 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm

[72]

[73]

[74] [33] [37] [40] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83]

[84] [85] [86]

[65] [67] [87] (continued on next page)

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Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

Table 1 (continued) Compounds

D

Capacity

Conditions

Ref.

H[Mg(HCOO)3]  NHMe2 c-[Mg3(O2CH)6] a-[Mg3(O2CH)6] a-[Mg3(O2CH)6] [Mg3(BDC)3(DEA)2(EtOH)]solvent Mg2(H2O)2(bptc) [Mg4(bdc)4(DEF)4] [(CH3)2NH2][Mg3(l3-OH)(PBPC)3]solvent [Mg15(BTEC)6(HBTEC)2(H2O)12]4H2O [La2(oda)6Mg2][Mg(H2O)6]6H2O

3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D

77 K, 30 atm 77 K, 1 atm

[88] [34]

[La2(pda)6Mg3(H2O)6]11H2O

3D

[Mg(3,5-PDC)(H2O)] Mg(DHT)(DMF)2 [Mg3(2,6-NDC)3(DMF)2(CH3OH)(H2O)](DMF) [Mg3(2,6-NDC)3(DMF)4] Mg3(BPT)2(H2O)4

3D 3D 3D 3D 3D

Mg3(NDC)3(DEF)4 [Mg4(l3-OH)2(tctpo)2(H2O)4] [Mg2(3,5-pzdcH)2(H2O)4]H2O Mg3O2(H2L00 )2(CH3COO)2(DMF)2(H2O)2 Mg2(dhtp)

3D 3D 2D 2D 3D

8.8 mg/g (13.5 mg/cm3) 1.0 wt% 0.8 wt% 0.96 wt% 0.72 wt% (80.8 cm3 g1) 1.29 wt% 0.78 wt% 1.37 wt% (153 cm3 g1) 63.9 cm3 g1 0.05 wt% 0.27 wt% 0.20 wt% 0.73 wt% at 0.8 wt% 0.3 wt% 1.23 wt% 0.78 wt% 1.3 wt% 0.23 wt% 0.46 wt %2 (3 mmol/g, 1.7 mol/mol) 196 mL g1 0.56 wt% (63 cm3 g1) at 77 K, 1 atm. 104.9 cm3 g1, 77 K and 1 atm. No data was given

Hydrocarbons adsorption CPO-27-Mg(dhtp)(H2O)28H2O

3D

MOF-74-Mg/DOT CPM-201

3D 3D

MOF-74-Mg2(dobdc) MOF-74-Mg2(dobdc) Mg (HCOO)2 Mg-formate [Mg3[O2CH)6](DMF)

3D 3D 3D 3D 3D

MOF-74-Mg2(dhtp) [Mg(TCPBDA)(H2O)2]6DMF6H2O

3D 3D

Mg3O2(H2L00 )2(CH3COO)2(DMF)2(H2O)2 MgMOF-74

2D 3D

Other guests uptake MOF-74-Mg/DHTA

3D

MOF-74-Mg/dobdc [Mg3[O2CH)6](DMF)

3D 3D

[Mg(TCPBDA)(H2O)2]6DMF6H2O

3D

Mg3(2,6-NDC)3(DEF)4 [Mg4(l3-OH)2(tctpo)2(H2O)4]

3D 3D

IRMOF-74-X Mg2(olz) [Mg2(BTEC)(H2O)10]H2O [Mg(Hidc)(H2O)2]1.5H2O [Mg3(idc)2(H2O)5]2H2O [Mg3(H2O)4(5-aip)2(5-Haip)2]4DMA

3D 3D 0D 1D 3D 3D

a-[Mg3(O2CH)6]

3D

Mg2(DOBDC) [Mg2(BDC)2(BPNO)]2DMF (H2dab)[Mg2(ox)3] [Mg(HDCPP)2(DMF)2](H2O)7 Mg3O2(H2L00 )2(CH3COO)2(DMF)2(H2O)2 Mg-2,4-pdc

3D 3D 2D 2D 2D 3D

305 K, 5000 mbar 77 K, 5000 mbar 305 K, 5000 mbar 77 K, 5000 mbar 77 K, 1 atm

308 K, 5 atm 77 K, 880 Torr 77 K, 1 atm

77, 100, and 150 K, 1 atm

[89] [43] [68] [69] [90] [91] [92]

[93] [33] [94] [95] [32] [31] [37] [96] [78] [97]

CH4, 22.2 wt% 179 K, 1690 kPa CH4, 14.6 wt% 283 K, 5060 kPa CH4, 13.7 wt% 298 K, 5830 kPa CH4, 12.9 wt% 313 K, 5890 kPa CH4, 11 wt% 343 K, 7040 kPa 1 CH4, 1.7 wt% (1.05 mmol g ) 298 K,1 atm 3 1 C2H2, 38.8 cm g 273 K, 1 atm 3 1 CH4, 4.0 cm g 273 K and 1 atm Propylene, 7.5 mmol g1 313 K, 1 atm CH4, 9.78 mmol g1 313 K, 48 atm Acetylene, 50–75 cm3g1 196, 275 and 298 K, 1.0 atm Acetylene, 65.7 cm3g1 298 K, 1 atm 3 1 1 CH4, 36.4 cm g (1.6 mmol g ) 263 K, 1 atm 3 1 1 CH4, 30.1 cm g (1.3 mmol g ) 273 K, 1 atm CH4, 17.5 cm3 g1 (0.8 mmol g1) 298 K, 1 atm CH4, 149 cm3/ cm3 298 K, 35 atm CH4, 4.87 wt% (68.09 cm3 g1 , 3.04 mmol g1) 195 K, 1 atm CH4, 1.07 wt% (15.09 cm3 g1, 0.67 mmol g1) 273 K, 1 atm CH4, 0.73 wt% (10.22 cm3 g1, 0.45 mmol g1) 298 K, 1 atm 3 1 CH4, 13.4 cm g 298 K, 1 atm Capture each of the pure constituents from an equimolar CH4/C2H2/C2H4/C2H6/ C3H6/C3H8 6-component mixture.

[54]

H2O, 0.25, 0.31, 0.39 g/g 298 K, 15, 50, 80% RH NH3, 7.6 mol/kg dry conditions CO, 4.58 mmol/g at 298 K, 1.2 atm NH3, 141.7 cm3 g1 (6.33 mmol g1) 273 K, 1 atm 3 1 1 NH3, 120.2 cm g (5.37 mmol g ) 298 K, 1 atm O2, 33.3 wt% (233.3 cm3 g1, 10.41 mmol g1) 77 K, 0.19 atm O2, 33.4 wt% (234.3 cm3 g1, 10.45 mmol g1) 87 K, 0.69 atm O2, 2.25 mmol/g 77 K, 880 Torr O2, 439 mL g1 77 K, 1 atm Ar, 390 mL g1 Vitamin B12, MOP-18, Myoglobin and GFP 51 wt% encapsulation of phenethylamine (PEA) 90 wt% of water H2O, 289 mL/g P/P0 = 0.95 H2O, 142 mL/g 83.8% of the loaded 5-FU (5-FU = 5-Fluorouracil) 87.77% of the loaded IBU (IBU = Ibuprofen) Uptake varies small molecules, including THF, Et2O, Me2CO, C6H6, EtOH and MeOH Ammonia borane, 26 wt% Selective adsorption of liquid nitro-containing molecules. Selective adsorb ethanol over MeCHO and MeCN. Methylene blue (MB) adsorption, 862 mg/g. Rhodamine B (RhB) and methylene blue (MB). Separation of DVB isomers with 1.18 mmol g1 capacity.

[45]

[59] [43] [98] [56] [99] [100] [72]

[101] [73]

[78] [102]

[103] [72] [73] [31] [37] [46] [104] [105] [24] [35] [36] [106] [107] [108] [109] [78] [110]

Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

3. Important properties and potential applications of Mg-CPs 3.1. Guests capture and separation The most promising industrial applications of CPs in the past decades are in gas storage and separation, especially for energyrelated molecules exemplified by H2, CH4, C2/C3 molecules, CO2, etc. Many advances have been made and several reviews have summarized the research efforts in this area [14,47–51]. Uptake targets set by the US DOE are gravimetric uptake with mass/mass units, so framework density is an important consideration in real applications. CPs based on lightweight elements (e.g. Li, Be, B, Mg, and Al) are therefore highly desirable due to the relative high gravimetric storage capacity. Mg2+ could be a nice choice to construct lightweight frameworks, and due to its close coordinated behaviors to 3d metals such as Zn2+and Cd2+, Mg2+ is well-suited for constructing pre-designed porous structures. This section will discuss Mg-CPs for gas adsorption and separation, and Table 1 summarizes the results reported so far. 3.1.1. CO2 adsorption and separation Mg-MOF-74 (also called Mg-CPO-27) is a typical representative of porous Mg-CPs for CO2 capture, and it is therefore thoroughly studied [111]. In Mg-MOF-74, the Mg2+ ion forms a distorted octahedron that is bridged by 2,5-dioxido-1,4-benzenedicarboxylate ligands (DOBDC, DHTA, DHTP, or DOT) to form a 3D porous structure. Notably, in the 1D hexagonal channels of Mg-MOF-74, guest molecules that coordinated to Mg2+ as terminal ligands could be removed under heating in vacuum. After activation, the surfaces of 1D hexagonal pore are decorated by abundant unsaturated

11

(open) Mg metal sites, facilitating CO2 binding through acid-base interaction. Many advancements in CO2 adsorption have been made with this compound in the past decades (Table 1), and the related results could be summarized as the following: i) Table 1 summarizes the adsorption and separation abilities of Mg-MOF-74 towards various gas molecules (CO2, H2, CH4, C2H2, etc.). In order to determine how the identity of the metal group affected performance, related analogues of Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn based MOF-74 were comparatively investigated [55,112–114]. In the research of Adam J. Matzger and coworkers, Co2+ and Ni2+ based MOF-74 could capture 7 molecules of CO2 per unit cell (UC) at 0.1 atm, while ZnMOF-74 only took up 4 molecules/UC. Mg-MOF-74 gave the best performance, capturing 12 molecules/UC under the same conditions [53]. In O. M. Yaghi and coworker’s work, Mg-MOF-74 exhibited 8.9 wt% CO2 dynamic capture capacity, much higher than 0.35 wt% in Zn-MOF-74 [55]. Breakthrough experiments demonstrated that CO2 could be completely sequestrated from the CH4 stream, and 87% intrinsic capture capacity (7.8 wt%) for CO2 was maintained after 5 measurement cycles (Fig. 6). ii) Many large organic linkers with multiple benzene rings, amine-functionalization, and extended lengths have been used to synthesize Mg-MOF-74 analogues exhibiting drastic property enhancements and extra-large surface areas and pore volumes. The typical examples are IRMOF-74-I to -XI that were reported by O. M. Yaghi et al. [46]. Through extension of the DOT or DOBDC analogues (in increments of nearly 6 Å for each phenylene unit), the pore diameter of

Fig. 6. Upper: 3D porous Mg-MOF-74 with unsaturated Mg metal sites. Lower: The ‘‘breakthrough” separation experiments for CO2 and CH4 (20% CO2 in CH4). Adapted from Ref. [55]

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Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

these isoreticular compounds (IRMOF-74-I through XI) increased from 19 Å to 98 Å, while the void volume could be tuned from 49% to 85% (Fig. 7). Postsynthetic functionalization of the DOT analogues with amine groups was another way to improve the CO2 adsorption performance, as it provides additional binding sites for CO2 molecules. Thus far, the –NH2, –N2H4, -CH2NHBoc, -CH2NMeBoc (Boc = tertbutyloxycarbonyl), –CH2NH2, -CH2NHMe, TEPA, ED, and several other modified DOT analogues have been investigated [63], and the resultant Mg-MOF-74 analogues indeed achieved enhanced CO2 capture ability. Notably, the measurements were carried out in a humid environment, indicating that these Mg-MOF-74 analogues have potential in the real-world conditions required for CO2 capture. iii) Mg-MOF-74 has also been used as a base ingredient to prepare composite materials or devices. C. N. R. Rao and coworkers mixed different proportions of graphene (Gr) into Mg-MOF-74 to get composites of MgCGr-X (X = 2, 5, and 10 wt % of Gr) [65]. After introducing Gr, the chemical and mechanical stability of Mg-MOF-74 was enhanced while the porous structure was maintained after densely packing the composites into an adsorbent bed. Compared with the pure Mg-MOF-74, the BET, elastic modulus, hardness of the composites have been significantly improved. The CO2 gas capture capability was also enhanced; the composites took up 30–37 wt% CO2 at 1 atm and 298 K, higher than  27 wt% for Mg-MOF-74. Mg-MOF-74 can also be formed into a membrane to further improve its practical applications, as demonstrated by J. Caro et al. [115]. Their device showed enhanced adsorption of CO2 molecules, improving the device’s performance in the separation of H2 over CO2 relative to the parent material by 28 fold.

3.1.2. H2, hydrocarbons and other gases adsorption and separation Porous Mg-CPs for H2 and hydrocarbon adsorption/separation are still rare compared with CO2 adsorption, despite Mg’s built-in advantages in gravimetric storage capacity. Systematic research for these applications was mostly carried out in Mg-MOF-74 and its analogues. In 2008, T. Yildirim and coworker investigated the H2 adsorption capacities of Mn2+, Mg2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Zn2+ based MOF-74 analogues [97]. In this research, both experimental data and theoretical calculations suggested the unsaturated metal sites were main force in H2 storage, and H2 binding effectiveness followed the trend of ‘‘Zn2+ < Mn2+ < Mg2+ < Co2+ < Ni2+”. In 2011, J. R. Long investigated the H2 uptake ability of Mg-MOF-74 under

different temperatures and H2 pressures [86]. At 77 K, 1 bar, it showed 2.2 wt% H2 storage capacity, while at 87 K the capacity was reduced to 1.7 wt%. Under 15 bar and 100 bar at 77 K, Mg-MOF-74 gave 3.2 wt% and 4.9 wt% H2 adsorption, respectively. However, under 100 bar, the H2 storage capacity dropped to only 0.8 wt% at room temperature. In addition, Mg2(dhtp) also exhibited an 149 cm3/cm3 adsorption capacities of CH4 at 298 K, 35 bar [101]. R. Blom et al. investigated the CH4 excess adsorption in Mg-MOF-74 across a wide range of CH4 pressures and temperatures, demonstrating that 11 wt% to 22.2 wt% storage capacity could be achieved when the pressure and temperature were increased from 1690 kPa at 179 K to 7040 kPa at 343 K [54]. In R. Krishna and B. Chen’s work, Mg-MOF-74 was explored to separate a mixture of CH4/C2H2/ C2H4/C2H6/C3H6/C3H8 gases (Fig. 8) [102]. In this work, systematic measurements indicate that the abundant unsaturated Mg2+ sites are main driving force for the separation, and a nearly pure form of each component from these mixtures could be generated. In the work of J. R. Long’s group [98], Mg-MOF-74 exhibited a higher gravimetric capacity for propylene (7.5 mmol g1, 1 bar, 318 K), than other transition metals based M2(dobdc) compounds, and it also showed better adsorption selectivities for C2H4 and C3H6 over C2H6 and C3H8 compared with Zn-MOF-74. Comparatively few Mg-formate frameworks in which Mg2+ centers were coordinated only with formate anions were systematically investigated for adsorption of H2 and hydrocarbons. The aMg-formate Mg3(O2CH)6 showed 0.96 wt% H2 uptake at 77 K, 1.0 atm, and 1.1 wt% and 0.05 wt% excess H2 uptake at 77 K and 298 K under 2 MPa, respectively [87]. For the microporous c-Mg (HCOO)2(HCOOH)(CH3)2NH, it exhibited an excess H2 sorption value of 8.8 mg/g (13.5 mg/cm3) under intermediate pressures (pH2  30 bar) at 77 K. In addition, it also exhibited 65.7 cm3g1 C2H4 adsorption capacity (298 K, 1 bar) [100]. In the work of K. Kim et al., Mg(HCOO)2 showed 50–75 cm3g1 uptake for C2H2 at 196, 275 and 298 K under 1.0 atm, respectively [99]. Although the examples were rare, adsorption of other gasses such as O2, NH3, CO, etc. using porous Mg-CPs were also reported (Table 1). The first example was the 3D neutral microporous Mg3(2,6-NDC)3(DEF)4 that showed selective O2 and H2 adsorption over N2 (2.25 and 2.30 mmol/g at 77 K, 1 atm respectively) due to the molecular sieving effect, Fig. 9 [31]. J. R. Long group explored Mg-MOF-74 for CO adsorption, and the adsorption isotherm at 298 K, 1.2 bar indicated 4.58 mmol/g sorption ability [103]

3.1.3. Other guest adsorption The biocompatible crystalline Mg-CPs have also been explored in bio or medical chemistry related applications. Thus far, it has

Fig. 7. The DOBDC analogues for constructing IRMOFs and the corresponding 3D MOF-74 structure. Adapted from Ref. [46], reproduction with permission of the copyright holder.

Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

13

Fig. 8. Mg-MOF-74 structure with unsaturated metal sites and breakthrough simulation results for equimolar 6-component mixture at 120 kPa. Taken from Ref. [102] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 9. The 3D Mg3(2,6-NDC)3 structure, and N2, CO, H2 and O2 adsorption isotherms at 77 K. Adapted from Ref. [31], reproduction with permission from American Chemical Society.

been shown that Mg-CPs could encapsulate drug molecules such as 5-fluorouracil, ibuprofen, vitamin B12 and so on, globular proteins, and even ammonia borane (Table 1). A typical example is the 3D porous Mg2(olz) reported by J. R. Long and coworkers, which is isoreticular to MOF-74. [104] In that work, 41 wt% phenethylamine (PEA) could be encapsulated into the 1D channels of Mg2(olz); under simulated physiological conditions of 37 °C in PBS solution at pH 7.4, the PEA could be easily released from the framework. In O. M. Yaghi and coworker’s work, the biological molecule of vitamin B12 could be loaded into the pores IRMOF-74-IV, which could be identified by the crystal structure. Although the examples are still rare, biocompatible porous Mg-CPs with biological or medicinal applications have tremendous potential [46]. 3.2. Fluorescence and fluorescent sensing Fluorescent CPs have become a major subfield of CP research. Many reviews have been focused on fluorescent CPs (FL CPs), evoking the interests of researchers to design new FL CPs and extend their use into new applications [116–122]. Metal-based emission (MC), ligand-centered (LC) emission, ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT), metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT), and host-guest interactions are main sources of luminescence in CPs [16,123– 126]. AE metal ions have closed shell electron configurations and do not disturb the luminescence of the fluorescent or phosphorescent ligand; thus luminescent AE-CPs usually emit pure LC emission. As a typical AE metal, magnesium could be a good candidate for assembling FL CPs. Nevertheless, compared with the commonly reported FL CPs based on d or f-block metal ions,

FL Mg-CPs are still rare. Thus far, hundreds of Mg-CPs have been reported but most of the research focused on the structural investigations. Although the FL spectra of Mg-CPs was provided in some reports (Table 2), systematic studies are still lacking, without the investigation of luminescence lifetime, quantum yield, and extended applications. Various luminescent organic ligands have been employed to construct Mg-CPs (Scheme 1), and the linkers mentioned explicitly in this section are shown in Table 2 alongside their common name and abbreviation used in this text. 3.2.1. Photoluminescence Guest-dependent luminescence is commonly reported in CPs based on 3d metals, e.g. Cd2+ and Zn2+, involving interactions between linker lumophores and solvents guests [116,121,189]. However, a few cases of guest-dependent FL Mg-CPs were also reported. In Tapas Kumar Maji and coworker’s work, the porous FL Mg-CP Mg(DHT)(DMF)2 exhibited unique guest-dependent luminescence (Fig. 10), with blue emission when dispersed in ethanol (maximized at 404 and 429 nm) and green emission in DMSO (maximized at 508 nm) or water (maximized at 532 nm). Fluorescence was arisen from the ligand, and the solvent-dependent emission tuning was based on an excited state proton transfer mechanism. This research suggests the possibility of using both excimer formation and the emission of the compound as an internal probe for adsorbed guests. Mixing Mg(NO3)26H2O and H4BINDI in DMF, Rahul Banerjee and coworkers designed a new porous MgCP namely Mg-NDI [136]. This Mg-CP also showed a solventdependent FL which permitted emission tuning through a reversible solvent exchange process. When dispersed in the polar ethanol,

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Table 2 A list of selected FL-Mg-CPs. Compounds

D*

Emission (kmax)

Extended FL property

Ref

Mg(H2TPTC)22H2O {(NH4)2[Zn(H2O)6][Mg(TPTCA)(H2O)2]4(Q[6])6}66H2O [Mg3(1,4-ndc)2.5(HCO2)2(H2O)][NH2Me2]2H2ODMF Mg(pdda)(DMF) Mg(ATDC)(H2O)2 Mg3O2(H2L00 )2(CH3COO)2(DMF)2(H2O)2 Mg-PCD Mg4(dpttb)(DMF)4(H2O)4(DMF)0.5 Mg(H2DHBDC) [Mg(H2dhtp)(H2O)2]DMA Mg(DHT)(DMF)2 Mg-NDI [Mg(DHT)]2DMSO Mg[Pt(CN)2(5,50 -dcbpy)]4H2O [Mg(H2O)5][Pt(CN)2(4,40 -dcbpy)]4H2O [Mg2(BDC)2(BPNO)]2DMF Mg2(TABD)3(DMF)4 Mg5(OH)2(BTEC)2(H2O)411H2O [NH2(CH3)2][Mg3(NDC)2.5(HCO2)2(DMF)0.75(H2O)0.25] 1.25DMF0.75H2O [Mg2(1,4-NDC)2(H2O)2](bpy)(H2O)4 [Mg2Zn2(OH)2(1,4-NDC)3(H2O)2]6H2O [CH3-dpb]2[Mg3(1,4-NDC)4(l-H2O)2(CH3OH)(H2O)]1.5H2O [Mg2(H2O)(1,4-NDC)2(1,10-phen)] [Mg2(H2O)2(2-NDC)4(1,10-phen)2] [Mg3(OH)2(1,4-NDC)2(bpy)(H2O)]0.5H2O [Mg3(OH)2(1,4-NDC)2(dpe)(CH3OH)2]H2O [Mg3(OH)2(1,4-NDC)2(dppe)(H2O)] [MgZn(1,4-NDC)2(DMF)2

1D 2D 3D 3D 3D 2D 2D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 1D 1D 3D 2D 3D 3D

440 nm 383 nm 410 nm 421 and 458 nm 460 nm 469 nm 415 nm 490 nm 500 nm 493 nm 404 and 429 nm 570 nm 508 nm 639 nm 498 nm 421 nm 441 nm 425 nm 419 nm

Nitroaromatics detection. TNP detection. Cu2+ and Eu3+ detection. Eu3+ detection. Cr3+ and TNP detection. Ba2+ detection. Fe3+ detection. Nitrobenzene detection. Ammonia detection. H2O detection. Solvents dependable FL. Organic amine detection. Cu2+ detection. Solvatochromic behavior. Mechanochromic behavior. Nitroaromatics detection. Nitroaromatics detection. CS2 and nitroaromatics detection. CS2 and nitroaromatics detection.

[127] [128] [129] [130] [131] [78] [132] [133] [134] [135] [33] [136] [137] [138] [139] [107] [140] [42] [141]

3D 3D 3D 3D 0D 3D 3D 3D 3D

415 nm 400 nm 490 nm 380 and 360 and 525 and 475 and 410 and 490 nm

White emission and photochromic property. Fe3+, CS2, nitroaromatics detection. Turn off Fe3+, Cr3+, nitroaromatics detection. Yellow phosphor for white LED N Tunable FL and direct white-light emission

[142] [143] [144] [145]

[147]

[(CH3)NH3]4[Mg3(BTB)8/3(Ac)2(H2O)] [(CH3)2NH2][Mg2(FDA)2(Ac)] [(CH3)2NH2][Mg3(OH)(DHBDC)3(TPP)] [Mg2(1,4-NDC)2(H2O)2](bpy)(H2O)4 Mg(4,40 -dcbpy)(H2O)2 Mg(H2EBTC)(DMF)2 Mg2(H2dhtp)2(l-H2O)(NMP)4] [Mg2(H2dhtp)1.5(DMAc)4]ClDMAc [Bmim]2[Mg6(NDC)5]HNDC)2(HCOO)2] [Mg3(BTB)2(DMA)4]4DMA2H2O [Mg3(BTB)(CH3COO)3(H2O)3]3.5DMA1.5H2O [Mg2(NDA)2(H2O)3]0.25H2O [Mg2(NH2BDC)2(HNO3)]9H2O Mg(3,4-pyb)2 Mg4(TCMTB)2(OAc)2(DMA)2(H2O)3 Mg(TDC)(DEF)2(H2O)1/2 Mg(H2EBTC)(DMF)2(H2O)2 Mg3(HEBTC)2(H2O)4](DMF)3(H2O)5 Mg2(EBTC)(H2O)5](DMF)(H2O) Mg2(TDC)2(EG)2.50.5EG Mg(TDC)(DMSO) (Me2NH2)[Mg2(TDC)2(Ac)]1.5DMA0.5H2O [Mg(bspl)2(phen)(H2O)2](phen)(H2O)2 Mg(ndc)(dmi) Mg(ndc)(dma) [Mg4(HL-MA)2(HCO2)2(OH)2]∙(EtOH)∙2(H2O) [Mg(HL-MA)(H2O)] [Bmmim][Mg3(oba)3(Hoba) [Mg2(HCO2)2(NH2-BDC)(DMF)2

3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 2D 3D 2D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 2D 1D 2D 3D 3D 3D 3D 0D 2D 3D 3D 3D 3D 2D 3D 1D 3D 2D 1D 3D 3D 3D 3D 2D 2D 3D 1D 2D 2D

370 nm 443 nm 505 nm 420 and 535 nm 373 nm 376 and 555 nm 490 nm

Mechanoresponsive FL; Fe3+/Cu2+/CrO2 4 ions, CS2, nitroaromatics detection. Nitroaromatics detection.

Mg(H2MDIP)(H2O)4]3H2O Mg2(BTEC)(H2O)4]2H2O Mg2(BTEC)(H2O)6 Mg2(BTEC)(H2O)8 [Mg1.5(l5-btec)(H2O)2][H2N(CH3)2]H2O [Mg(H2diol)(DMF)2]DMF Mg(int)2H2O Mg(nt)2 [Mg2(3,5-pzdcH)2(H2O)4]H2O [Mg(l2-HDMPhIDC)(H2O)2] Mg(cca)2H2O Mg(bpda)(H2O)4 [Mg3(tci)2(DMAC)4]2DMF Zn2Mg(PBDC)3(DMA)2

540 nm 460 nm 600 nm 560 nm 580 nm

440 nm 374 nm 370 nm 355 nm 430 nm 394 nm 380 nm 435 nm 427 nm 423 nm 431 nm 480 nm 455 nm 475 nm 457 nm 380 nm 410 nm 386 nm 420 nm 387 nm 415 nm 420 nm 390 and 420 nm 390 nm

570 nm 380 nm 392 nm 396 nm 480 nm 425 nm 484 nm 427 nm 383 nm 446 nm

[146]

[148]

Liquid NH3H2O detection. Thiols detection. Nitrobenzene detection. Phosphorescence. N N N N

[27] [154]

N N N N N N

[155] [77] [156] [157] [158] [159]

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

[160]

[149] [150] [151] [152] [153]

[161] [162] [163] [26] [40] [164] [91]

[165] [166] [167] [96] [168] [169] [170] [75] [171]

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Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025 Table 2 (continued) Compounds

D*

Emission (kmax)

Extended FL property

Ref

[Cd2.07Mg0.93(BTC)2(H2O)4]2H2O Mg(HBTC)(DMF)2[(CH3)2NH] Mg3(BTC)(HCOO)3(DMF)3 Mg3(BTC)2(DMF)4 [Mg3(TDC)3(DMF)3] [Mg(TDC)(H2O)2] [Mg(H2O)6](cmpc)22H2O Mg(dsd)(H2O)4 [Mg(H2O)6]2pymtzaH2O [Mg(pytza)2(H2O)2] ZnMg(H2O)2(mip)23H2O Mg4(IPA)3(HCOO)2(DMF)2 Mg(IPA)(EtOH) [Mg(HMIDC)(H2O)2]H2O [Mg3(HPyIDC)2(H2O)10]Cl2 [Mg(HPyIDC)(H2O)]CH3OH [Mg(tza)(H2O)2] [La2(pda)6Mg3(H2O)6]11H2O [La2(oda)6Mg2][Mg(H2O)6]6H2O {Mg(H2O)6[MgEu(oda)3]2}6H2O

3D 2D 2D 3D 3D 3D 3D 1D 0D 1D 3D 3D 3D 1D 2D 1D 2D 3D 3D 3D

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

[172] [39]

{Mg(H2O)6[MgTb(oda)3]2}6H2O [Mg2(BTEC)(H2O)10]6H2O [Mg3L’2(H2O)6]6(Me2NH2)DMAH2O [Mg3(OH)2(H2O)4(TDC)2] [NH2(CH3)2]2[Mg3(TDC)4] [Mg2(TDC)2(DMF)2] [MgL(DMF)(H2O)3] [Mg3/2(BTTB)(H2O)(DMF)](DMF) [Mg3/2(BTTB)(DMAc)2](DMAc)0.5 [Mg2(tptc)(l2-H2O) (l2-DMA)]DMA

3D 0D 3D 2D 3D 3D 1D 2D 2D 3D

427 nm 362 nm 363 nm 363 nm 461 nm 475 nm 343 and 460 nm 483 nm 426 nm 380 nm 479 nm 480 nm 455 nm 430 nm 452 nm 432 nm 407 nm 413 nm 395 nm 570, 592, 616, 654, 704 nm 489, 545, 583, 621 nm 450 nm 417 nm 427 nm 410 nm 437 nm 407 nm 390 nm 375 nm 380 nm

Mg-NDI showed a yellow emission maximized at 570 nm, while an obvious 55 nm red shift was observed when dispersed in DMF. The interaction between the guests and the electron deficient NDI moiety in Mg-NDI is the main reason for the solvent dependent luminescence. 3.2.2. Dual FL emitting related properties In luminescent compounds, dual emissive materials can often be constructed by assembling two chromophores into one molecular structure. Through tuning excitation energies to excite such luminophores, it is possible to tune the emission of these materials. In FL CPs, dual emission materials are typically based on emissive rare earth metals [190–192]. In the few examples of transition metal based CPs, dual emission was usually established through post-synthetic modification [193–197]. The most common applications for dual emitting CPs are as white light emitting materials and ratiometric sensors.

[173] [174] [175] [176] [177] [178] [179] [180] [181] [182] [92] [183]

N N N N

[105] [184] [185]

N N

[186] [187]

N

[188]

The first related examples of dual-emitting Mg-CPs were reported by the group of X. Y. Huang. Through mixing the pyridine-containing ligands of bpy, dpe and dppe with 1,4NDCH2, three 3D structural Mg-CPs were obtained (Fig. 11) [146]. In these compounds, the rod-like [Mg3(OH)2]n chains were interlinked by 1,4-NDC linkers to generate three Mg-CPs with similar structures. FL measurements indicated that these compounds gave dual emissions with maxima at 450 and 600 nm. Excitation wavelength-dependent luminescence was observed for these compounds, in which the ratio of intensities of emission at 450 nm and 600 nm could be controlled by altering the excitation wavelength. This was especially illustrated in the case of [Mg3(OH)2 (1,4-NDC)2(dppe)(H2O)], in whichthe luminescence could be easily tuned into the white region by altering the excitation wavelength. Using the same method, another 3D structural Mg-CP [Mg2(H2O)(1,4-NDC)2(1,10-phen)] was designed by the same group [145]. This compound exhibited a broad adsorption peak

Fig. 10. (a) The 3D framework of Mg(DHT)(DMF)2. (b) Solvents tunable luminescence of Mg(DHT)(DMF)2. Inset is the photographs of the corresponding emulsion under UV light. Adapted from Ref. [33] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

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Fig. 11. The 3D structures of Mg-CPs and their solid-state FL spectra under different excitation wavelengths. Adapted from Ref. [146] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

that was tunable from green to yellow by exciting at wavelengths from 335 to 450 nm. The quantum yield was also improved at longer excitation wavelengths, increasing from 6.87% under 335 nm excitation to 21.42% under 450 nm excitation. Remarkably, the authors demonstrated that this compound could act as yellow phosphor for a WLED, that is, the white light with 20 lm/W

luminous efficacy could be achieved, outperforming filament lamps. This compound was the first Mg-CP reported for the use as yellow phosphor in a WLED (Fig. 12). Post-synthetic modification is often an effective way for generating dual-emissive CPs. It can be used to introduce emissive guests, dope rare earth metals as heteroatoms, modify organic

Fig. 12. The 3D structures of Mg-CP (a) and the corresponding excitation wavelength dependent solid-state FL spectra (b). (c) The fabrication for WLED and the PL spectra of the device. Adapted and with permission from Ref. [145].

Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

linkers, and so on. X. Y. Huang’s group reported the post-synthetic modification with CuI on a 3D Mg-CP [Mg2(1,4-NDC)2(H2O)2](bpy) (H2O). As a result, a new 550 nm emission peak was introduced into this blue emissive Mg-CP. Based on a dichromatic mechanism, direct white light could be generated for this dual-emissive Mg-CP by tuning the excitation wavelength (Fig. 13) [142]. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and other measurements demonstrated that the new emission band originated from the interactions between bpy guest and CuI. 3.2.3. Luminescent detection FL CPs for chemical sensing have been developed rapidly in recent years, with applications involving the sensing or detection of small solvents, gas molecules, cations and anions, pH, humidity, temperature, and a number of other species and conditions. Based on ‘‘turn-on/off” and ‘‘the shift of centre FL wavelength” luminescent response mechanisms, FL CPs can show ultra-sensitivity, selectivity, and fast response time towards these external stimuli. Several previous review articles covering FL CP sensors have been produced [117–120,122,125,198]. To date, almost all FL CPs utilized for chemical sensing are based on 3d and 4f metals, while FL Mg-CPs have been investigated less for use in this field. In rare examples discussed in the following section, FL Mg-CPs are successfully used for probing of volatile organic compounds, explosive-like molecules, and metal ions such as Fe3+, Cu2+, Cr3+. 3.2.3.1. Amines. Ammonia and organic amines are widely used in industry, but the leaking of these molecules is a serious hazard. Thus, exploring the CPs based sensing materials for amines is of great importance. Dinca˘ and coworkers explored a 3D FL Mg-CP namly Mg(dhbdc) that exhibited strong green emission in the presence of NH3 [134]. In this research, Mg(dhbdc) was activated at 120 °C to remove the DMF guests and obtain the desolvated sample. Then at 100 °C, exposing this desolvated sample to NH3 gas resulted in a significant FL band shift with a very fast responding time. Remarkably, this compound could selectively sense NH3 gas in the presence of CO2, N2, methanol, water vapors. The selective response for NH3 was attributed to the interaction between NH3 and the open Mg2+ sites that altered the FL-relevant HOMO/LUMO energy levels of dhbdc2 linker. The Mg-NDI designed by Rahul Banerjee and coworkers showed selective ‘‘turn off” FL sensing behavior towards various small organic amines (Fig. 14) [136], with the Mg-CP exhibiting obvious and rapid color changes in response to different amines. This MgCP was also effective at detecting amines in the vapor phase. The electron transfer between electron rich amines and the electron deficient NDI moieties within the Mg-NDI was the main reason for the FL quenching efficiency.

17

3.2.3.2. Cs2. CS2 is a neurotoxic molecule that can be present in residue from industrial chemical productions and that can be oxidized to create hazardous air pollutants. Thus, it is urgent to develop FL CPs as chemical sensors for this pollutant. X. Y. Huang’s group has explored a series of FL Mg-CPs exhibiting sensitive photoluminescence ‘‘turn-off” in response to CS2. Mg-BTEC represented the first FL CP exhibiting selective luminescent quenching towards CS2 (Fig. 15). The luminescence of this 3D porous Mg-CP was quenched more than 66% by CS2 at concentrations of just 0.08 vol%. When the CS2 content was increased to 0.8 vol%, the FL was almost completely quenched [42]. Another 3D FL Mg-CP namely Mg-NDC was also reported for CS2 sensing. The FL of MgNDC was gradually quenched following the introduction of increasing CS2 content into the DMF emulsion, and 87% FL was quenched when exposed to only 3.0 vol% [141]. All the results mentioned above demonstrate that FL Mg-CPs should be effective candidates for selective sensing of CS2. 3.2.3.3. H2o. As a common contaminant and impurity, trace water identification is relevant to chemical industries that produce dry solvents, manufacturing oils, and petroleum products, etc. Developing efficient sensors for the detection of the trace concentrations of water is therefore highly desirable. Mg-CPs usually show a strong tendency to absorb water that can affect luminescence. Antigoni Douvali and coworkers prepared a 3D porous Mg-CP [Mg(H2dhtp)(H2O)2]DMA (AEMOF-1DMA). Disordered DMA guests fill in the channels of AEMOF-1DMA (Fig. 16) [135]. FL measurements showed that the desolvated AEMOF-10 exhibited enhanced yellow-green fluorescence (kem = 530 nm, kex = 360 nm) when it was hydrated to AEMOF-16H2O, enabling AEMOF-10 to act as a FL sensor for trace water in THF, MeOH, CH3CN, etc. Based on a ‘‘turn on” mechanism, the FL intensity of AEMOF-10 suspended in dry solvents exhibited significant enhancement with water content increasing from 0.05 to 5% v/v. The FL sensing mechanism is based on the solvatochromic effect generated by forming strong H-bonds between H2O and the –OH on the pore walls. 3.2.3.4. Explosive type molecules. Since the first explosive-detecting LMOF-111 was reported by the Jing Li research team in 2009 [199], the field of FL CPs as explosive sensors has rapidly grown and remains popular today. Although FL Mg-CPs for detective explosives and explosive-like molecules have not been explored as extensively as those based on d10 metals (e.g. Zn2+, Cd2+), they also can show sensitive luminescent detection behavior towards nitrocompounds. X. Feng and coworkers reported a luminescent TABD-MOF-1 that was constructed from TABD-COOH and Mg2+ in a solvothermal reaction [140]. Luminescence investigations showed that

Fig. 13. The 3D [Mg2(1,4-NDC)2(H2O)2](bpy)(H2O) with white emitting after CuI modification. Adapted from Ref. [142] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

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Fig. 14. (a) ORTEP diagram of H4BINDI and the 3D Mg-NDI structure. (b) Photograph showing the color change of Mg-NDI that treated with 0.1 M amines and the FL spectra with varied concentrations of aniline. Adapted from Ref. [136].

Fig. 15. The 3D framework of Mg-BTEC and the FL sensing property for CS2. Adapted from Ref. [42] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

TABD-MOF-1 exhibited a ‘‘turn on” FL response to the presence of an explosive compound (Fig. 17). The artificial testing papers with 0.1 mg TABD-MOF-1 samples showed obvious FL color changes from blue to green when treated with 103 M THF solutions of 5nitro-2,4-dihydro-3H-1,2,4-triazole-3-one (NTO) explosive. Various characterizations indicated that free TABD-COOH molecules were released into the solutions upon addition of NTO, resulting in aggregation-induced luminescence. The 3D porous Mg-BTEC reported by X.-Y. Huang et al. was utilized to detect nitrobenzene in THF suspension, and the luminescence intensity decreased 83% with a nitrobenzene content of 0.04 vol%. When Mg-BTEC was exposed to nitrobenzene vapor, its solid state FL decreased by 50% within 60 s. In addition, the CP’s ability to detect 2,4-nitroaniline, p-nitroaniline and o-nitroaniline were also investigated, and it showed a good linear response [42]. Another 3D FL Mg-NDC based on 1,4-NDC linker was reported by X.-Y. Huang et al. in 2017. This compound also showed sensitive FL quenching effect towards various nitro-compounds, e.g. 2,4dinitroaniline, p-nitraniline, and o-nitrophenol. The luminescence

of this Mg-NDC decreased to less than 35% of its original intensity when the concentration of 2,4-dinitroalinine in the FL emulsion was just only 0.2 mM [144]. 3.2.3.5. Thiols. Exploration of thiols FL sensors is in high demand due to the roles they play in natural and physiological systems. A blue emissive Mg-CP ([Mg2(1,4-NDC)2(H2O)2](bpy)(H2O)4 (1)) was converted into the dual-emitting 1-CuI through the simple post-synthetic addition of CuI [150]. Due to the interaction between CuI and sulfhydryl group, the FL intensity of CuI-bpy moiety generated 535 nm luminescence was decreased, and the FL of Mg-CP skeleton with maximum at 420 nm was enhanced. When thiols were added into the 1-CuI detection system, the FL obviously changed from green to blue. Thus, a ratiometric FL sensor towards thiols was generated. The luminescent intensity ratio of I420/I535 showed a good linear relationship towards thiols concentrations, indicating that the accurate and quantitative detection of thiols could be achieved, Fig. 18. Noticeably, complex 1-CuI exhibited selective FL sensing to thiols with different sizes.

Z.-F. Wu et al. / Coordination Chemistry Reviews 399 (2019) 213025

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Fig. 16. Upper: The coordination environment of Mg and the single crystal structure of AEMOF-1. Lower: FL spectra showing the response of MOF-10 in dry THF (left) and EtOH (right) towards varied concentrations of H2O. Adapted from Ref. [135], reproduction with permission of the copyright holder.

Fig. 17. (a) Crystal structures of TABD-MOF-1. (b) Schematic representation of FL sensing mechanism. Adapted from Ref. [140] with permission from American Chemical Society.

3.2.3.6. Metal ions. Trace metal ions like Cu2+ and Fe3+ are essential to various biological metabolisms, but higher concentrations of these metal ions also cause health and environmental issues. Hence, exploration of FL sensors towards these metal ions at low concentrations is a significant but challenge task. Thus far, several FL-Mg-CPs have been reported as luminescence sensors for Fe3+, Cr3+, Cu2+, etc. A structure reported by X.-Y. Huang and coworkers with the formula [CH3-dpb]2[Mg3(1,4-NDC)4(l-H2O)2(CH3OH) (H2O)]1.5H2O represents the first Mg-CP for Fe3+ and Cr3+ luminescence sensing (Fig. 19) [144]. A concentration of just 0.2 mM Fe3+ ions in the detecting system quenched the FL intensity by 60%, and the LOD was 4.7  104 M. The compound also showed sensitivity towards Cr3+, with 0.6 mM Cr3+ quenching emission by more than 50%. Another related example, a 3D porous Mg-CP with the formula Mg(DHT)(DMF)2, was synthesized by Kolleboyina Jayaramulu et al.

(Fig. 20) [137]. In this compound, OH groups from the DHT linkers decorated the pore surface of the c axis directional 1D channels, which could further act as binding and sensing active sites for Cu2+ ions. Following exposure to different metal ion solutions, this compound exhibited selective fluorescent quenching response towards Cu2+. The fluorescence lifetime, quantum yield were used to characterize the quenching effect, changing from 10.3 ns to 3.6 ns and from 1.55% to 0.059% under 103 M Cu2+, respectively. 3.3. Energy related applications 3.3.1. Proton conductivity As new developing proton-conducting materials, CPs have become a good crystalline model candidate for improving understanding of proton conducting structure–activity relationships. As AE2+ metals have comparatively high hydration energies, Mg-CPs

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Fig. 18. The 3D framework of 1-CuI acting as the ratiometric FL sensor for different thiols. Taken from Ref. [150] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 19. The 3D framework of Mg-NDC and the FL sensing property for Fe3+ and Cr3+ ions. Taken from Ref. [144] with permission from American Chemical Society.

Fig. 20. (a) The Mg(DHT) 3D structure viewed along the c axis. Inset is the fluorescence photographs of the Mg(DHT) emulsion used for Cu2+ sensing. (b) Luminescence related measurements before and after adding Cu2+ into DMSO solution of Mg(DHT). Adapted from Ref. [137] with permission from American Chemical Society.

often contain abundant lattice and coordinated solvent water molecules. Thus, a regular array of these water molecules in the crystallized structure can enable conduction of protons through the regular hydrogen bond network. Generally, conductivity of Mg-CPs is highly humidity dependent; the activation energy of these Mg-CPs is usually below 0.5 eV, which indicates that the water-mediated Grotthuss transfer mechanism is responsible for proton conduction. The first Mg-CP for proton-conductivity was developed by Aurelio Cabeza et al. in 2012 [200]. The H8ODTMP ligand was coordinated to Mg2+ to form a 3D MgH6ODTMP6H2O.

The regular arrangement of water filling in the 1D channels of this Mg-CP implied that proton conductivity might take place. Proton conductivity measurement demonstrated that the conductivity of MgH6ODTMP6H2O increased with humidity. The maximum value was 1.6  103 S cm1 at 292 K, 100% relative humidity. The research team of George K. H. Shimizu reported the proton conducting CP PCMOF10, with a formula of Mg2(H2O)4(H2dbdp) H2O (Fig. 21) [201]. PCMOF10 features a 2D layered grid-like architecture, and the extensive hydrogen bond network formed between the phosphonate/carboxylate oxygen and water provides

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Fig. 21. Single crystal structure of compound [Mg2(H2O)4(H2dbdp)H2O] and Nyquist plots of this compound under 95% RH, 20  70 °C. Adapted from Ref. [201] with permission from American Chemical Society.

the possibility of proton conductivity in PCMOF10. AC impedance analysis suggested proton conductivity of PCMOF10 was highly humidity dependent. At 95% RH, 70 °C, the proton conductivity reached a maximum value 3.55  102 S cm1. This value was comparable to the best reported proton-conducting CPs to date. PCMOF10 also showed excellent water stability, as it was able to maintain its structure while being submersed in water for one week, indicating PCMOF10 has potential real-world application as a proton conductor. Mircea Dinca et al. reported a porous Mg-CP with a formula of Mg2H6(H3O)(TTFTB)3 (MIT-25). In MIT-25, there are two different types of channels, with widths of 27 Å and 4.5 Å, respectively (Fig. 22) [202]. In this work, proton conductivity measurements were systematically investigated under varied temperature and humidity conditions. At 40% RH, the proton conducting value was tuned from 1.58  105 to 1.03  104 S/cm across the 25 °C to 75 °C temperature range; while at 95% RH, the r values increased from 6.8  105 S/cm to 5.1  104 S/cm. The mechanism study suggested that the small pore afforded a regular hydrogen bond

network that played a major role in the Grotthuss-type proton conductivity. 3.3.2. Optical and electrical related applications In the work of Federico Bella and coworkers, a 3D Mg-CP of Mg3(BTC)2 was explored to tune the light to electricity conversion of quasi-solid DSSCs (Fig. 23) [203]. In this work, Mg-BTC was doped into a polymer to form an electrolyte membrane composite. The carboxyl groups in Mg-BTC formed coordination bonds with the TiO2 layer interface; as a result, the conduction band edge of TiO2 was optimized and the charge carrier recombination rate was reduced. The introduction of Mg-BTC particles increased the performance, and notable 4.8% solar energy conversion efficiencies were obtained. DSSCs based on Mg-BTC additive polymer electrolyte with high durability and longevity has been generated as well. Due to their high volumetric energy density and comparatively low cost, magnesium batteries related research is always a hot research topic. In the work of J. R. Long et al., two Mg-COP-27

Fig. 22. (a)  (c) The 3D crystal structure of MIT-25. (d)  (e) Proton conductivity (25 °C) and activation energy as a function of RH. Adapted from Ref. [202] with permission from American Chemical Society.

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Fig. 23. (a) Structural unit of Mg-BTC. (b) and (c) are the schematic diagram of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) and the corresponding light to electricity conversion efficiencies vs time at 60 .Adapted from Ref. [203] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

structural analogues, Mg2(dobdc) (1) and the expanded Mg2(dobpdc) (2), acted as solid magnesium electrolytes, and their ionic conductivities were explored (Fig. 24). Characterizations indicated that appropriate magnesium electrolyte salts could be incorporated into the channels of the Mg-COP-27 through an enthalpic driving force from unsaturated Mg2+ sites lining the pores. An improvement of over four orders of magnitude of conductivity, with the highest value reaching 0.25 mS cm1, was achieved by embedding different magnesium electrolyte salts into Mg-COP-27 analogues [204].

3.4. Catalysis A number of CP catalysts or CPs-derived catalysis materials have been explored due to the abundant potential catalytic sites formed by metal nodes, organic linkers, and their interaction with

each other. As Mg2+ possesses significant Lewis acidity, it could act as a Lewis acid center in Mg-CPs, which has sparked interest in using these materials for base-catalyzed reactions. A number of advances made in Mg-CP-based catalysis will be briefly reviewed below.

3.4.1. Aldol condensation reactions Subratanath Koner and coworkers have published many papers involving Mg-CP-based catalysis of aldol condensation reactions. A typical example is 3D Mg-CP with the formula of Mg3(3,5-pzdc) (OH)3(H2O)2 reported in 2012. In this compound, as shown in Fig. 25, the 1D rod-type Mg-O SBUs were bridged by pyrazole3,5-dicarboxylate linkers to generate a 3D framework and the BET value was 450 m2g1. Under 5–10 °C with 5 mg of the MgCP catalyst, reactions within varied aromatic aldehydes and excess acetone were tested. 94, 82, and 76 wt% of the isolated yield of

Fig. 24. Nyquist plots and Bode plot for 1 and 2 containing different magnesium electrolyte salts. Taken from Ref. [204] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

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Fig. 25. Polyhedral representation of Mg3(3,5-pzdc)(OH)3(H2O)2; catalytic results for reactions between different aromatic aldehydes and acetone. Adapted from Ref. [205] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

b-aldol products were achieved when p-, oand m-nitrobenzaldehyde were reacted with acetone within 6 h, respectively. The catalytic selectivity was 100% (Fig. 25) [205]. In 2013, they used the same ligand of pyrazole-3,5dicarboxylate to get another 2D Mg-CP [Mg2(HL)2(H2O)4]H2O, and a similar catalytic reaction utilizing more types of aldehydes (e.g., nitro-, MeO- and chloro substituted benzaldehydes) and acetones (e.g. acetone, acetophenone and cyclopentanone) were carried out. The investigation suggested the yield of the b-aldol products decreased from acetone to cyclopentanone through acetophenone, but maintained 100% selectivity [96]. Rupam Sen and coworkers investigated Mg(Pdc)(H2O) as a catalysis for the Claisen–Schmidt reaction after dehydrated. Under an inert atmosphere in THF medium, various aldehydes were converted to their respective b-aldols as the sole products. In addition, Mg(Pdc)(H2O) was easily recovered and reused with no significant loss of catalytic activity [206]. 3.4.2. Hydrogenation of alkenes In Gutiérrez-Puebla and coworker’s work, two Mg-CPs called AEPF-11 [Mg(L)(DEF)0.5] and AEPF-12 [Mg2(dpmdc) (CH3CO2)] were explored as catalysts for the hydrogenation of alkenes [207]. As a result, within only 45 min, 100% conversion was achieved for both Mg-CPs, and the TOF values were 221.1 and 167.5 h1, respectively. Structural analysis indicated the symmetry-distorted MgO5/MgO6 polyhedra acted as Lewis acid catalytic sites in the hydrogenation of activated alkenes. In addition, the two catalysis maintained their structure and performance after the catalytic reactions, and could be recovered. 3.4.3. Dehydrogenation of ammonia borane Srinivas Gadipelli and coworkers confined ammonia borane (NH3BH3, AB) to the pores of MOF-74 [Mg2(DOBDC)] and performed a systematic investigation into the catalytic dehydrogenation of AB molecules [106]. Results indicated that the dehydrogenation properties and hydrogen-release kinetics of this AB/ MOF-74 composite were all dependent on AB loading level. Mg-MOF-74 could load 26 wt% AB because of its high BET surface and the magnesium’s low atomic mass, while other comparatively heavy metal MOFs exhibited only 8 wt% AB loading level. Additionally, the open metal sites in channels of MOF-74 further provided catalytic effects to improve the kinetics of the dehydrogenation

of AB, especially at temperatures <100 °C, and the dehydrogenation was a single-step process without unwanted by-products. The volumetric temperature programmed desorption (TPD) analysis estimated about 11 wt%, 16 wt% of H2 release capacity at 120 °C and 200 °C compared to 6 wt% and 12 wt% of H2 capacity for pristine AB, respectively. 3.5. Precursors for porous nanomaterials CPs have drawn intense scientific interest as precursors for new nanostructured materials as well. A number of reports have demonstrated that Mg-CPs are appropriate sacrificial precursors for porous carbon or magnesium oxide. In this section, we will discuss several illustrative examples. 3.5.1. Templates for MgO Mesoporous MgO plays an important role in CO2 adsorption, heterogeneous catalyst in Henry and Michael reactions, medical applications for cancer therapy, etc. It is possible to synthesize a nanoporous version of this material by directly thermal decomposition of Mg-CPs. Tae Kyung Kim et al. prepared a hierarchically nanoporous MgO through the thermal decomposition of a Mg-CP with the formula of [Mg4(adipate)4(DMA)(H2O)]5DMA2MeOH4 H2O. Acting as template, it was decomposed at 500 °C for 12 h under N2 and open air to generate porous MgO (Fig. 26) [208]. The obtained MgO had hierarchical porous structures with micro-, meso-, and macropores, which showed an exceptional 9.2 wt% CO2 capture ability under conditions mimicking flue gas. The research team of Hiroshi Kitagawa prepared a MgO nanoparticle (NP)/MOF hybrid composite by partial thermal decomposition of MOF-74 under an H2 atmosphere [209], wherein the relative abundance of MOF and NP components could be easily controlled in the resultant material by altering experimental parameters. The hybrid composite was the main phase when the MOF-74 was treated at 420 °C, while heat treatment at 530 °C produced MgO NPs as the main component. The MgO NPs/MOF composite is a promising material for CO2 adsorption. 3.5.2. Precursors for porous carbon In addition, Mg-CPs can be used as precursors for porous carbons, and the carbonization temperature was lower than other transition metal based CP templates due to the low melting point

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Fig. 26. Compound Mg-aph-MOF acts as MgO precursor for CO2 capture. Taken from Ref. [208] with permission from American Chemical Society.

property of Mg metal. When using CPs as porous carbon precursors, the residual metal oxide is needed to remove. This can be considered to ‘‘waste” more expensive metal resources, which is less of a concern for the relatively inexpensive metal Mg. Additionally, any residual MgO that is generated in this process would be nontoxic, which is not the case for many other metal oxides. X.-Y. Huang’s group prepared the 3D Mg-CP [Bmim][Mg6(NDC)5 (HNDC)2(HCOO)2] and used it as a template to generate porous carbons (Fig. 27) [27]. Unlike the high decomposition temperature (>1000 °C) reported for transition-metal-based CPs, the optimum decomposition temperature for this compound was only 700 °C. This Mg-CP derived carbon showed a 100 m2 g1 BET surface and exhibited N2-selective adsorption capacity over H2 and CO2. It should be noted that this was the first report of a Mg-MOF as precursor for porous carbons. Additionally, in 2018, they designed a series of bimetallic Mg-Co CPs; one of these Mg-Co CPs ([(CH3)2NH2]2[Mg1.2Co1.8(bpdc)4]4DMF4CH3OH6H2O) could be used as a precursor for CNT containing hierarchical carbons following calcination at just 600 °C [210]. By doping N/S heteroatoms into the resultant porous carbons, an enhanced ORR activity that is comparative to the commercial Pt/C catalyst was achieved. Fujiwara et al. used four porous Mg-CPs as precursors to prepare porous carbons. The four compounds are Mg4(1,3-bdc)3(HCOO)2(DMF)2, Mg3(1,4bdc)3(EtOH)2, Mg3(btc)2(DMF)4 and [Mg2(btec)(H2O)4]2H2O,

which were constructed from 1D Mg-O chains and benzene di, tri, and tetra-carboxylate linkers, respectively. Systematical investigations revealed that the particle sizes of MgO could be tuned by tuning the dimensionality of inorganic building blocks and the metal–oxygen–metal connectivity, resulting in the tuning of pore size of the porous carbons [211].

4. Conclusions and outlook The design of functional CPs has been a hot research topic in the past two decades, and the largest amount of progress has been made on CPs based on 3d or 4f metal ions. Although limited reviews of CPs based on group 13 elements and s-block metals have been presented, the CPs constructed from magnesium have been somewhat overlooked. However, magnesium CPs deserve much more attention, whether it is due to the important properties of magnesium or solely for the inclusion of such an abundant and nontoxic metal into CPs research. Despite being a lower-profile material, significant work has been done with Mg-CPs, as exemplified by MOF-74 (COP-27), which is as famous as UiO-66, ZiF-8, and MOF-5. In this review, we have aimed to demonstrate the importance of Mg-CPs and stimulate interest in these materials thorough a holistic and systematic overview of the following topics: 1) the

Fig. 27. A schematic illustration of the use of Mg-CP as carbon precursor. Taken from Ref. [27] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

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chemical history of magnesium and the advantages of magnesium for constructing functional CPs; 2) the synthesis and structural features of Mg-CPs; 3) important potential applications. Although some progress has been made on Mg-CPs, many challenges remain: 1) how to better understand the structure-directing roles of the inorganic Mg-O SBUs, control the specific types of Mg-O inorganic SBU formed in a reaction, and produce systematic guides for synthesis of desirable structures; 2) how to enhance the water tolerance of Mg-CPs and explore water-related applications such as FL sensing, toxic ions capture in aqueous solution, adsorption and separation in humidity conditions, etc.; 3) How to maximize MgCP functionalities that are derived from the metal’s desirable properties, such as high gravimetric guests adsorption capacity based on the low density of Mg2+, base-catalyzed applications using Lewis acid Mg-O centers, battery materials taking advantage of the high-density energy storage of Mg2+, and so on. However, based on the rapid pace of developments in this field, we firmly believe that these challenges will be met. Acknowledgements This work is funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 21403233) and the NSF of Fujian Province (2018J05033). The Rutgers team acknowledges the partial support from the National Science Foundation (Grant No. DMR-1507210). Zhao-Feng Wu also acknowledges the support from the China Scholarship Council (CSC). References [1] N.T. Kirkland, N. Birbilis, M.P. Staiger, Acta Biomater. 8 (2012) 925–936. [2] S. Shadanbaz, G.J. Dias, Acta Biomater. 8 (2012) 20–30. [3] H. Hornberger, S. Virtanen, A.R. Boccaccini, Acta Biomater. 8 (2012) 2442– 2455. [4] A. Atrens, G.L. Song, M. Liu, Z.M. Shi, F.Y. Cao, M.S. Dargusch, Adv. Eng. Mater. 17 (2015) 400–453. [5] K.J. Jeon, H.R. Moon, A.M. Ruminski, B. Jiang, C. Kisielowski, R. Bardhan, J.J. Urban, Nat. Mater. 10 (2011) 286–290. [6] D.W. Lim, J.W. Yoon, K.Y. Ryu, M.P. Suh, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51 (2012) 9814–9817. [7] Y. Jia, C.H. Sun, S.H. Shen, J. Zou, S.S. Mao, X.D. Yao, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 44 (2015) 289–303. [8] H. Wang, H.J. Lin, W.T. Cai, L.Z. Ouyang, M. Zhu, J. Alloy. Compd. 658 (2016) 280–300. [9] T. Sadhasivam, H.T. Kim, S. Jung, S.H. Roh, J.H. Park, H.Y. Jung, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 72 (2017) 523–534. [10] J. Muldoon, C.B. Bucur, T. Gregory, Chem. Rev. 114 (2014) 11683–11720. [11] H.J. Tian, T. Gao, X.G. Li, X.W. Wang, C. Luo, X.L. Fan, C.Y. Yang, L.M. Luo, Z.H. Ma, W.Q. Han, C.S. Wang, Nat. Commun. 8 (2017) 14083. [12] S. Kitagawa, R. Kitaura, S. Noro, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43 (2004) 2334–2375. [13] L.Q. Ma, C. Abney, W.B. Lin, Chem. Soc. Rev. 38 (2009) 1248–1256. [14] D.M. D’Alessandro, B. Smit, J.R. Long, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (2010) 6058– 6082. [15] O.M. Yaghi, A. Phan, C.J. Doonan, F.J. Uribe-Romo, C.B. Knobler, M. O’Keeffe, Acc. Chem. Res. 43 (2010) 58–67. [16] J. Rocha, L.D. Carlos, F.A.A. Paz, D. Ananias, Chem. Soc. Rev. 40 (2011) 926– 940. [17] O. Shekhah, J. Liu, R.A. Fischer, C. Woll, Chem. Soc. Rev. 40 (2011) 1081–1106. [18] P. Horcajada, R. Gref, T. Baati, P.K. Allan, G. Maurin, P. Couvreur, G. Ferey, R.E. Morris, C. Serre, Chem. Rev. 112 (2012) 1232–1268. [19] J.P. Zhang, Y.B. Zhang, J.B. Lin, X.M. Chen, Chem. Rev. 112 (2012) 1001–1033. [20] Y.J. Sun, H.C. Zhou, Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 16 (2015) 054202. [21] L. Wang, Y.Z. Han, X. Feng, J.W. Zhou, P.F. Qi, B. Wang, Coord. Chem. Rev. 307 (2016) 361–381. [22] T. Islamoglu, S. Goswami, Z. Li, A.J. Howarth, O.K. Farha, J.T. Hupp, Acc. Chem. Res. 50 (2017) 805–813. [23] A.J. Howarth, A.W. Peters, N.A. Vermeulen, T.C. Wang, J.T. Hupp, O.K. Farha, Chem. Mater. 29 (2017) 26–39. [24] K.L. Gurunatha, K. Uemura, T.K. Maji, Inorg. Chem. 47 (2008) 6578–6580. [25] Z.-F. Wu, B. Hu, M.-L. Feng, X.-Y. Huang, Y.-B. Zhao, Inorg. Chem. Commun. 14 (2011) 1132–1135. [26] Z.-F. Wu, M.-L. Feng, B. Hu, B. Tan, X.-Y. Huang, Inorg. Chem. Commun. 24 (2012) 166–169. [27] Z.-F. Wu, B. Tan, C.-F. Du, M.-L. Feng, Z.-L. Xie, X.-Y. Huang, CrystEngComm 17 (2015) 4288–4292. [28] M. Eddaoudi, D.B. Moler, H.L. Li, B.L. Chen, T.M. Reineke, M. O’Keeffe, O.M. Yaghi, Acc. Chem. Res. 34 (2001) 319–330.

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