Major unconformities in the Mesozoic sedimentary sequences in the Kuqa–Tabei region, Tarim Basin, NW China

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 183 (2019) 103957

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Major unconformities in the Mesozoic sedimentary sequences in the Kuqa–Tabei region, Tarim Basin, NW China ⁎

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Gaokui Wua,b,c, Changsong Lina,d, , Haijun Yange, Jingyan Liua, , Yongfu Liue, Hao Lid, Xianzhang Yange, Jun Jianga, Qiaolin Hee, Dengkuan Gaoe a

School of Energy Resources, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China Key Laboratory of Marine Reservoir Evolution and Hydrocarbon Enrichment Mechanism, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100083, China c Beijing Key Laboratory of Unconventional Natural Gas Geological Evaluation and Development Engineering, Beijing 100083, China d School of Ocean Sciences, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China e Exploration and Development Research Institution, Tarim Oilfield Company, Korla 841000, China b

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A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Unconformities Palaeo-uplift Tectonic setting Mesozoic Kuqa–Tabei region Tarim Basin

Investigation of major unconformities and large-scale palaeo-uplifts that developed during basin deformation is key in determining the geodynamic setting and hydrocarbon accumulation. Based on the integral analysis of seismic, logging, and outcrop data, the distribution and erosion amounts of Mesozoic major unconformities, the uplifts of the Tabei Uplift and the geodynamic setting in the Kuqa–Tabei region of the Tarim Basin are documented in this study. The Tabei Uplift underwent four stages of uplifts, resulting in four regional angular unconformities and significant changes in palaeo-geomorphology. The deformation occurring at the end of the Permian is characterised by the uplift in the Midwest and the development of an angular unconformity (TT) with maximum erosion thickness of 1200 m. Another deformation occurred at the end of the Triassic, leading to significant uplift of the palaeo-uplift and producing an extensive angular unconformity (TJ) with maximum denudation thickness of 400 m. The end-Jurassic deformation resulted in another uplifting along the palaeouplift and generated a regional unconformity (TK) with maximum erosion thickness of 500 m. The Late Cretaceous deformation is characterised mainly by the development of the Wensu Palaeo-uplift in the western margin of the study area. The associated angular unconformity (TE) has a limited distribution mainly along the palaeo-uplift with maximum erosion thickness of 300 m. Four stages of uplifts are attributed to the Palaeo–Tethys oceanic closure; the Qiangtang collision; the Lhasa collision; and the Kohistan collision, respectively. Triangular unconformity belts in the paleo-uplift slope area are favourable for petroleum accumulation.

1. Introduction The Tarim Basin, the largest superimposed basin in China with complicated basin architecture (Li et al., 1996; Jia, 1997), has undergone multiple phases of tectonic deformation in the Mesozoic characterised by the development of a series of tectonic unconformities and large-scale palaeo-uplift. Investigation of the distribution of these unconformities and palaeo-uplifts is highly significant in evaluating the geodynamic setting and the petroleum accumulation. Many years of petroleum exploration in the basin has developed into debated topics of related discipline investigations (He et al., 2001; Ren et al., 2002; Paulsen et al., 2007; Charvet et al., 2007, 2011; Liu et al., 2015; Fang et al., 2016; Huang et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2018).

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The development of unconformities, particularly their erosion and origin within the basin dynamic setting, has led imperative and longterm controversies in basin analysis (Thorne and Watts, 1984; Lin et al., 2012). The formation of unconformities can be attributed to tectonics, eustasy, or climate change (Rona, 1973; Davies et al., 1975; Huuse and Clausen, 2001; Dickinson et al., 2002; Jaimes and de Freitas, 2006; Otonicar, 2007; Baranoski et al., 2009; Lin et al., 2012). Angular unconformities with underlying deformed strata, which indicate a cyclic process from deposition, sedimentation to uplifting, erosion or nondeposition to deposition, and sedimentation, are always caused by a tectonic event which occurred prior to the deposition of the unconformable strata (Rafini et al., 2002; Li et al., 2004; Ghiglione and Ramos, 2005). Moreover, the unconformities vary significantly among

Corresponding author at: School of Energy Resources and School of Ocean Sciences, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China. Corresponding author at: School of Energy Resources, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. Lin), [email protected] (J. Liu).

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2019.103957 Received 27 November 2018; Received in revised form 24 July 2019; Accepted 10 August 2019 Available online 12 August 2019 1367-9120/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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2015). The Kuqa Depression has experienced multiple phases of tectonic deformation, which ultimately led to its setup in the Himalayan Movement. In the early Triassic, following the sedimentation of Permian thick molasse, the Kuqa Depression experienced a new stage of development as a closed flexing depression, which began the evolutional stage of the Mesozoic foreland basin (Li et al., 1996; Lin et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2004). The Mesozoic rocks in the Kuqa Depression contain a set of sustainable alluvial fan–lacustrine deposits with a thickness of thousands of metres. As a key object for petroleum exploration and basin–mountain coupling study, attention to the Kuqa Depression has increased (Lu et al., 1994; Li et al., 2000; Wu et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2004; Li et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2006; He et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2015; Yu et al., 2015). Four regional angular unconformities referred to as TT, TJ, TK, and TE, respectively, and one parallel unconformity, TK1bs, have been identified in the study area (Figs. 2 and 3). Based on the five unconformities above, the Mesozoic can be divided into four second-order sequences roughly corresponding to the Triassic (T), the Jurassic (J), the lower Cretaceous Kapushaliang Group (K1kp), and the lower Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation (K1bs). The Triassic units, including the Ehuobulake, Kelamayi, and Huangshanjie formations from bottom to top, have residual thicknesses of 0–700 m, and a high angular truncated unconformity serves as the contact between the Triassic and the PreTriassic units. Unconformably underlain by the Triassic with a highangle unconformity, the Jurassic strata in the Tabei area consist mainly of the lower Jurassic Yangxia Formation with a residual thickness of 0–300 m. Although only a few boreholes have been drilled in the Jurassic units in the Kuqa Depression, all of the drilling results prove that it has reached full development with a thickness of 1500–2000 m. The Cretaceous units in the study area consist of the Kapushaliang Group and the Bashijiqike Formation. The contact relationship between the two is displayed as a parallel unconformity, TK1bs. The Kapushaliang Group, with a residual thickness of 0–390 m in the research area, is composed of the Yageliemu, Shushanhe, and Baxigai formations from bottom to top. It rests unconformably on the Jurassic units with an obvious angular unconformity which can be recognised by an apparent angular truncation contact in many seismic profiles along the palaeouplifts. The Bashijiqike Formation has a residual thickness of 0–700 m in the study area.

tectonic belts owing to differentiation of the tectonic setting and tectonic intensity (Lin et al., 2008, 2012; He et al., 2016). In the Kuqa–Tabei region of the Tarim Basin, numerous previous studies have shown that a series of angular unconformities with structural origin and largescale palaeo-uplifts was developed during the Mesozoic (Jia et al., 2003; Lv et al., 2006; Li et al., 2007; Tang et al., 2008; Wan et al., 2007; Yu et al., 2007; Cheng et al., 2009; Li et al., 2012b; Tang et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2015). Specifically, several previous works focus on the importance of unconformities for petroleum accumulation near palaeouplifts in the study area (Yang et al., 1991; Wang et al., 1994; Fan et al., 1996; Tang et al., 1999; Zhou et al., 2002). However, systematic research on the distribution and erosion of unconformities and the development of palaeo-uplifts during the Mesozoic in the entire Kuqa–Tabei region requires further investigation. As previously noted, the formation of angular unconformities is always preceded by a tectonic event (Lin et al., 2012); however, their genetic relationship with the development of palaeo-uplift and the evolution of the geodynamic setting of the basin (He et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2012), particularly the evolution of the surrounding collision events, has been less studied. We address these issues by integrating the analysis of seismic profiles, well logs and outcrop data with a focus on the comprehensive interpretation and correlation of two-dimensional (2D) seismic profiles across palaeo-uplifts and local but very typical three-dimensional (3D) seismic profiles in the study area. This study provides a foundation for further research on the dynamic evolution of the Tarim Basin and prediction of the reservoir distribution within it. 2. Geologic setting The Tarim Basin, located in the northwest China, is diamond shaped in plane view and covers an area of approximately 560,000 km2. The basin is surrounded by the South Tianshan Mountains, the Kunlun Mountains, and the Altyn Fault Belt (Yu et al., 2009). As the largest and the most typically superimposed basin in China (Pang et al., 2012), the Tarim Basin has been extensively studied by domestic and overseas experts. After the Permian, marine conditions generally ended in the Tarim Basin (Lin et al., 2012). Since the Mesozoic, the Tarim Basin has developed into a new era of inland basin evolution in which the terrain generally inherited the old setup formed in the late Palaeozoic characterised by alternating N–S depressions and uplifts and W–E chunking (Jia, 1997; He et al., 2005). The Tarim Basin can be tectonically subdivided into seven units: the Kuqa Depression, Tabei Uplift, Northern Depression Belts including the Manjiaer and the Awati depressions, Central Uplift Belt, Southeastern Uplift Belt, and Taxinan Marginal Depression. This study focuses mainly on the Tabei Uplift and the Kuqa Depression in the Kuqa–Tabei region (Fig. 1). With a length of 400 km and a width of 80 km the Tabei Uplift is located in the Northern Tarim Basin between the Kuqa Depression and the Northern Depression Belts. The Tabei Uplift, originally formed in the early Palaeozoic (Jia, 1997; Li et al., 2000), has undergone a longterm and complex historic process with complicated geologic structures. Presently, the Tabei Uplift is covered mainly by Quaternary deposits (Li et al., 2012b). During the Mesozoic, the Tabei Uplift was composed of four sub-uplifts: the Wensu, Xiqiu, Xinhe, and Yaha Palaeo-uplifts (Yu et al., 2015). The petroleum system of the Tabei Uplift includes the Cambrian–Ordovician and Triassic–Jurassic petroleum systems (Huang, 1998; He et al., 2011). The Tabei Uplift plays an important role in both geoscience research and petroleum exploration in the Tarim Basin. For many years, the Tabei Uplift has been attractive to many geologists (Cui et al., 2006; Luo et al., 2007; Lin et al., 2009; Li et al., 2012b; Xie et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2014). The Kuqa Depression, located in the Northern Tarim Basin, is confined by the South Tianshan Mountains to the north, the Wensu Uplift to the west, the Kuluketage Uplift to the east, and the Tabei Uplift to the south. It extends in an E–W direction and covers an area of about 28,000 km2 with a length of 470 km and a width of 40–90 km (Yu et al.,

3. Material and methods The data used in this study include distributed seismic profiles, more than 150 well logs, and Kuqa River outcrop profiles (Fig. 1). Comprehensive analysis of 2D seismic profiles across the entire study area, together with local 3D seismic data of the western region of the Tabei Uplift, provides a firm basis for the recognition and erosion calculation of major unconformities, the resumption of palaeo-uplifts, and the division of palaeogeomorphic units. Contact features and erosion distribution of tectonic unconformities can provide very useful information for palaeogeography reconstruction and petroleum exploration (Lin et al., 2012). At present, the erosional thickness of major unconformities is quantitatively calculated by such means as vitrinite reflectance, palaeopore analysis, and sonic well log data based on borehole information (e.g. Magara, 1976; Henry, 1996; Liu et al., 2000). However, it is usually difficult to use only these data to map the distribution of an unconformity or its erosion amount in plane owing to limitations of the available borehole data (Lin et al., 2011, 2012). In this study, the erosional amounts of unconformities are estimated on the basis of the geometry of the eroded strata underlying the unconformity surfaces, which is shown on seismic profiles calibrated with borehole data (Lin et al., 2012). The calibrated borehole logging profile is drawn by making a synthetic seismic record. Based on the study of the distribution and erosional features of unconformities, palaeo-uplifts can be resumed with the method of ‘onlap points tracking’ on seismic profiles with the sequence top boundaries flattened 2

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Fig. 1. (a) Showing the location of the Tarim Basin; (b) schematic tectonic map of the Tarim Basin, showing the distribution of tectonic units within the basin and the location of the study area (modified after Jia, 1997; Li et al., 2012a; Lin et al., 2012; Gao et al., 2014; Gao and Fan, 2014); (c) showing the distribution of the data used in this study.

4.1. Distribution of unconformity TT and uplifting of the Tabei uplift

(Sawyer et al., 2007; Lin et al., 2009). The extent of the unconformity denudation belt is the palaeo-uplift range in the early stage of a sequence overlying the unconformity. The palaeo-uplift range at the end of the sequence is defined by the terminal onlap point resumed during the calculation of the unconformity denudation amount. According to the initial and terminal ranges of the palaeo-uplift, the palaeogeomorphic unit can be divided into three units: uplift high, slope area, and depression (Fig. 4). The uplift high contains the exposure, denudation, and unconformity belt development. In the slope area, is the onlap unconformity triangle belts and the truncated unconformity triangle belts are developed; this area is favourable for lithologic trap generation (Lin et al., 2008). The depression corresponds to the parallel unconformity/conformity belts. The geodynamic setting is discussed in this study by investigating the response of the development of unconformities and palaeo-uplifts to the collision orogeny genesis near the basin.

Unconformity TT can be traced regionally. In the west and the central parts of the study area, particularly in the 3D seismic grids, high angular truncation is obvious beneath the unconformity surface (Fig. 5a). Logging data show that unconformity TT is located widely between the overlying lower Triassic Ehuobulake Formation and the underlying upper Permian Shajingxi Formation. In local areas, the Triassic units rest directly on Devonian, Silurian, or even on Ordovician units (Zhang et al., 2007). In outcrop profiles at the west bank of the Kuqa River, apparent lithology mutation is observed along unconformity TT, with the lower Triassic Ehuobulake Formation variegated gravel resting directly on the upper Permian Biyoulebaoguzi Formation variegated conglomeratic sandstones (Fig. 6a). Detailed interpretation of many seismic profiles shows that unconformity TT has specific combination patterns and distribution characteristics on profiles and in plane. From the high uplift to the depression, composed unconformity belts at the high uplift, triangular unconformity belts along the slope area, and parallel unconformity/ conformity belts in the depression can be found (Fig. 3). In the Tabei area, the Permian unit was truncated intensively by unconformity TT and even by Cambrian units in local areas, leading to the superposition of unconformity TT and some Palaeozoic regional angular unconformities (Fig. 5). In plane, unconformity TT has an extensive erosion belt located in the west and the central parts of the study area which covers an area of about 34880 km2, including the locations of the Wensu, Xiqiu, Xinhe, and Yaha palaeo-uplifts (Fig. 5c). A stronger erosional zone of unconformity TT with a thicker denudation amount is distributed mainly along the core of the Xinhe Palaeo-uplift with a

4. Results On the basis of on seismic, drilling, and outcrop data analysis, four major tectonic unconformities—TT, TJ, TK and TE—were recognised in the Kuqa–Tabei region of the Tarim Basin during the Mesozoic (Figs. 2 and 3) which were generated in the latest Permian, the latest Triassic, the latest Jurassic, and the Late Cretaceous, respectively. The relatively high-angle surface, deformed or hinged underlying strata, and associated thrust faults or fold structures all suggest that the origin of those unconformities was related mainly to tectonic events or compressive uplifting (Jia, 1997; Zhang et al., 2000; Sun et al., 2007; Lin et al., 2008, 2012). 3

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Fig. 2. Mesozoic tectonic-stratigraphic sequence of Tabei area, showing the unconformity-bounded sequences and the evolution of deposition and the basin dynamic setting. Note that there are four major angular unconformities (TT, TJ, TK and TE) formed indicating four deformation stages.

of unconformity TJ is distributes mainly in the west and the central parts of the study area. It covers a larger area of about 41680 km2 with a nearly E–W trend (Fig. 8c). The most obvious erosional belt is located in the thrust structural high of the Xinhe Palaeo-uplift with a maximum erosional thickness of 400 m (Fig. 8b). The formation of unconformity TJ with the widest erosion belt may suggest that a regional-scale tectonic event occurred at the end of the Triassic, which contributed to the obvious increase in the palaeo-uplifts range and massive erosion of the Pre-Jurassic units in the study area.

maximum erosional thickness of 1200 m and includes the Ordovician limestone in the Yingmaili area located in the southeastern Xinhe Palaeo-uplift (Fig. 5b). Development of unconformity TT and parallel fold structures (Fig. 5a) may indicate that a dramatic tectonic event occurred at the end of the Permian, leading to the uplift of the Pre-Triassic units and the enlargement of the Tabei Uplift.

4.2. Distribution of unconformity TJ and enlargement of palaeo-uplifts Unconformity TJ developed at the end of Triassic, which can be identified by the high-angular truncation or the lithologic pinchout along the palaeo-uplifts on many seismic profiles (Figs. 7a and 8a). Well data show its location between the overlying Yangxia Formation braided river-delta sandy conglomerates and grit sandstones and the underlying Huangshanjie Formation shore–shallow lake mudstones (Zhang et al., 2009). The upper Triassic Taliqike Formation is missing beneath the unconformity surface, and the lower Jurassic unit is absent above the unconformity surface. In outcrop profiles at the west bank of the Kuqa River, apparent lithology mutation can be observed along unconformity TJ, with the lower Jurassic Ahe Formation grey–white conglomerate and coarse sandstone in direct contact with the upper Triassic Taliqike Formation dark mudstone (Fig. 6b). Differences in dip between the underlying Triassic and overlying Jurassic strata also exist, although they are insignificant. Fine interpretation of a large number of seismic profiles showed that unconformity TJ occurred in the forms of superimposed unconformity belts in the uplift high, angular unconformity belts in the slope area, and parallel unconformity/conformity belts in the depression. In the local area, the Jurassic units overlie the Pre-Triassic units, resulting in the superposition of unconformity TJ with unconformity TT and the Palaeozoic regional angular unconformities (Fig. 3). The erosional belt

4.3. Distribution of unconformity TK indicating another tectonic deformation event Unconformity TK formed at the end of Jurassic. In the 3D seismic projects located in the western part of the Tabei Uplift, high-angular truncation can be observed along the surface of unconformity TT (Fig. 9a). The drilling data show that the middle and upper Jurassic units are absent in the western Tabei area. Adjacent to the palaeo-uplifts, the lower Cretaceous Kapushaliang Group directly overlies the Triassic, Permian, Silurian, or even Ordovician units (Xu et al., 2016). In the outcrop profiles of the west bank of the Kuqa River, the TK unconformity surface can be observed by lithology mutation, with the lower Cretaceous Yageliemu Formation variegated medium conglomerate in direct contact with the upper Jurassic Qigu Formation red mudstone (Fig. 6c). In addition, an angular unconformity is present between the lower Cretaceous Yageliemu Formation and the upper Jurassic Qigu Formation. Detailed interpretation of many seismic profiles shows that distribution and combination styles of unconformity TK can be divided into composed unconformity belts at the high uplift, triangular unconformity belts along the slope area, and parallel unconformity/ 4

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Fig. 3. (a) N–S seismic interpreted profile across the Xinhe Palaeo-uplift (location of the profile shown in Fig. 1, the red line marked P0); (b) the reconstructed tectonostratigraphic framework showing the distribution of Xinhe palaeo-uplift and the major unconformities developed in the Mesozoic sedimentary sequences. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram for the calculation of unconformity denudation thickness and the division of palaeo-geomorphology units. Uplift high area equals the palaeo-uplifts distribution range at the end of a second-order sequence. The outer boundary of slope area equals the outline of the palaeo-uplifts at the beginning of a second-order sequence.

conformity belts in the depression. In the uplift high, Cretaceous units directly overlie the Precambrian units at the basement of the basin, which caused the superposition of unconformity TK with unconformities TJ and TT as well as the Palaeozoic regional angular unconformity (Fig. 3). The denudation belt of unconformity TK, covering an area of 33024 km2, is located mainly along the Wensu–Xiqiu Palaeouplift at the west of the study area, along the Xinhe Palaeo-uplift in the

centre of the study area, and along the Yaha Palaeo-uplift at the northwest part of the research area (Fig. 9c). In the N–W seismic profile P4 across the Yaha Palaeo-uplift, the Jurassic onlap fill is shown to be thinning gradually along the Xinhe Palaeo-uplift and is then eroded together with the strata on the uplift high with a maximum erosional thickness of 500 m (Fig. 9b). Compared with unconformity TJ, unconformity TK has a smaller denudation zone. Correspondingly, the 5

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Fig. 5. (a) 3D Seismic profile P1 across the Xinhe Palaeo-uplift showing the major unconformity TT and the evaluation of the erosion thicknesses of unconformity TT; (b) the calibrated borehole logging profile noting the truncation unconformity TT at the base of the Triassic and the estimation of the erosion thickness of unconformity TT; (c) distribution of denudation thickness of unconformity TT and location of the seismic profile, P1.

units are both missing throughout the study area. In outcrop profiles of the west bank of the Kuqa River, apparent lithology mutation is also observed along unconformity TE, with Palaeogene Kumugeliemu Group grey conglomerate covered by brownish-red fine sandstone of the lower Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation (Fig. 6e). To the west of the study area, the combined style of unconformity TE can be divided into composed unconformity belts in the uplift high and unconformity triangular belts in the slope area. In the central and eastern parts of the study area, the style changes to parallel unconformity/conformity belts (Fig. 3). Compared with the denudation distribution zone of unconformities TT, TJ, and TK, the denudation distribution zone of unconformity TE is considerably smaller, covering an area of only 18032 km2 mainly around the Wensu Palaeo-uplift at the west margin of the study area, which was still exposed during that time (Fig. 10c). The most obvious erosion belt with N–E trending is

Palaeo-uplift range of the Early Cretaceous is less than that of the Early Jurassic. This could suggest that the tectonic intensity at the end of the Jurassic was weaker than that at the end of the Triassic.

4.4. Distribution of unconformity TE and exposure of Wensu Palaeo-uplift Unconformity TE, the top boundary of the lower Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation, can be regionally traced in seismic profiles characterised by low-angle truncation (Fig. 10a). It can also be recognised by the obvious lithologic mutation across the boundary based on the well logging study. The overlying Palaeogene Kumugeliemu Group is composed of shore–shallow lake and gypsum–salt lake mudstones or gypsum rocks (Chen et al., 2017), and the underlying lower Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation contains a large set of braided river delta coarse-grained sandstones. The middle and upper Cretaceous 6

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Fig. 6. Contact relationships of unconformity TT (a), unconformity TJ (b), unconformity TK (c), unconformity Tk1bs (d) and unconformity TE (e) on the west bank of the Kuqa River (see Fig. 1 for the location of the Kuqa River).

uplifts were divided into two rows with an S–N distribution direction and were arranged in echelon, still trending E–W. Their range was significantly reduced, as characterised by the continuous Triassic onlap fill along the slope area (Fig. 11a). In the Early Jurassic, the four palaeouplifts were unified with an E–W trend and had a significantly more extensive range than that in the Late Triassic. At the end of the Jurassic, the previous distribution pattern of the palaeo-uplifts was still intact; however, their range was reduced (Fig. 11b). In the Early Cretaceous Kapushaliang Group, the previous distribution pattern of the palaeouplifts was maintained. At the end of the Kapushaliang Group, the Wensu Palaeo-uplift was the only palaeo-uplift that maintained exposure in the study area (Fig. 11c). In the lower Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation, the Wensu Palaeo-uplift still maintained the exposure and erosion, although the extent was less. In the Early Palaeogene, the range of the Wensu Palaeo-uplift increased (Fig. 11d). In summary, the distribution of the Wensu, Xiqiu, Xinhe, and Yaha Palaeo-uplifts in the study area apparently increased during latest Triassic–earliest Jurassic. Overall, however, they decreased and even disappeared at the end of the lower Cretaceous except for the Wensu

located at the highest position of the Wensu Palaeo-uplift, with a maximum erosional thickness of 300 m. At the Yangtake zone east of the Wensu Palaeo-uplift, the thickness of the lower Cretaceous erosion reaches 200 m (Fig. 10b). The development of unconformity TE could indicate the occurrence of another tectonic event in the Late Cretaceous which resulted in further uplift and erosion in the study area. 4.5. Distribution characteristics of palaeo-uplifts The distribution and erosion of angular unconformities TT, TJ, TK, and TE show that the Tabei Palaeo-uplift was composed of the Wensu, Xiqiu, Xinhe, and Yaha sub-palaeo-uplifts and was deformed during the Mesozoic in the Kuqa–Tabei region of the Tarim Basin. On this basis, the range of palaeo-uplifts in the early second-order sequences and at the end of each (Fig. 2) was recovered by tracing the initial truncated points and resuming the terminal onlap points of the unconformities in the seismic profiles calibrated using borehole data (Fig. 4). In the early Triassic, the four E–W trending sub-uplifts were interconnected as the Tabei Uplift. At the end of Triassic, the four palaeo7

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Fig. 7. (a) 3D Seismic profile P3 (location showed in Fig. 8) across the Xinhe Palaeo-uplift showing the major unconformities TT and TJ; (b) evaluation of the erosion thicknesses of unconformity TJ; (c) the calibrated borehole logging profile. Note the truncation of unconformity TJ at the top of the Triassic.

no more than 300 m thick (Fig. 11a and b). Large-scale sublacustrine fans, fluvial fans, and lacustrine mudstone were developed close to the palaeo-uplifts, along the slope area, and in the depression, respectively (Yu et al., 2016). At the end of the Kapushaliang Group, the previous ‘concave–convex–concave’ tectonic framework was broken by a new palaeogeomorphology with a high to the east but a low to the west. The Wensu Palaeo-uplift was the only uplift exposed with a steep slope in the north and a gentle slope zone in the south. During this time, a largescale uplift marginal slope area formed in the study area including the former locations of place Xiqiu, Xinhe, and Yaha Palaeo-uplift development. In the Northern Depression, south of the previous palaeo-uplift belt, the subsidence centre was located in the southeastern area of the Xinhe submarine uplift. The Kapushaliang Group here was distributed into rings with a general thickness of less than 400 m. Controlled by the topography, the strata thickness changed faster in the marginal slope but slower in the depression, where the landscape was mostly flat (Fig. 11c). During this period, provenances from the south mainland source areas and South Tianshan Mountain occupied the dominant position (Liu et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2016). At the end of the Bashijiqike Formation, the setup was still characterised as high in the east but low in the west. The Wensu Palaeo-

Palaeo-uplift. Within each second-order sequence, from early to late time, the palaeo-uplifts decreased constantly until they disappeared (Fig. 11). 5. Discussion 5.1. Geomorphology characteristics In the Triassic and Jurassic, The E–W trending Tabei Palaeo-uplift was located in the central part of the study area and cut the basin into two parts: the Kuqa Depression to the north and the Northern Depression to the south. The palaeo-uplifts essentially had gentler and wider slope zones in the south. The slope area was distributed mainly along the palaeo-uplifts. In addition, the strata became thicker with distance from the palaeo-uplifts. Specifically, the original strata covered in the depression zone were thicker than that in the marginal slope area, which suggests permanent subsiding basins separated by structural highs. The thickness of Triassic strata in the Kuqa Depression reached 3000 m locally; that of the Jurassic units in the Kuqa Depression also reached thousands of metres locally. However, in the south slope of the palaeo-uplifts, the Triassic units in general had a thickness of only several hundred metres, and the Jurassic units were 8

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Fig. 8. (a) Estimation of erosion thickness of unconformity TJ from the seismic profile, P2; (b) calibrated borehole logging profile; (c) distribution of the erosion thickness of unconformity TJ and location of the seismic profile, P2.

5.2. Triangular unconformity belts in slope area and litho-stratigraphic traps

uplift, located in the southeastern region of the research area, was exposed and eroded. The marginal slope area was distributed around the palaeo-uplift with a larger slope range in the south. The original stratum near the Wensu Palaeo-uplift and in the northern piedmont belt area had a thickness of 200–300 m, with the distribution rule of a thicker residual formation with distance from the palaeo-uplift. During the early development of the Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation, the Xinhe Palaeo-uplift evolved into a submarine low uplift, around which a ring thickness anomaly area with thin inner and thick outer areas developed with a thickness of 250–300 m. In the southeastern part of the study area, the thickness of the strata showed a trend of increasing from northwest to southeast with a slower gradient controlled by the topography. In addition, in the northwestern part of the study area, a sedimentation centre with a possible provenance from the northern piedmont belt (Ma et al., 2016) developed with an abnormal thickness of 450 m (Fig. 11d).

The latest petroleum exploration shows that the Mesozoic hydrocarbon reservoirs found in the study area are concentrated mostly near the palaeo-uplifts and are closely related to the litho-stratigraphic traps formed by regional angular unconformities (Pang et al., 2012; Zhai et al., 2002; Geng et al., 2008). Multi-period tectonic uplifts caused multi-cycle denudation and subsidence in the slope area, and the associated triangle unconformity belts are important favourable areas for litho-stratigraphic trap formation. The triangular unconformity belts can be divided into truncated triangular unconformity belts and onlap triangular unconformity belts (Lin et al., 2008). The former is formed by the truncation of sub-unconformities by a main unconformity, and the latter is formed by the onlap fill of sub-unconformities on a main unconformity (Fig. 4). 9

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Fig. 9. (a) Estimation of the erosional thickness of unconformity TK from the seismic profile, P4; (b) calibrated borehole logging profile; (c) distribution of the denudation thickness of unconformity TK and location of the seismic profile, P4.

In the Cretaceous strata above unconformity TK, the Yageliemu Formation braided river delta deposits including conglomerates, pebbly sandstones, and fine sandstones onlapped and pinched out along the slope area can be good reservoirs. The overlying Shushanhe Formation composed of shore–shallow lake mudstones or siltstones provides a good seal. In addition, the Baxigai Formation delta facies fine sandstone and siltstone, which present onlap and pinchout. The Shushanhe Formation lentoid beach bar developed in the shore–shallow lake facies in the slope are also important locations for forming litho-stratigraphic hydrocarbon reservoirs (Xu et al., 2016). Beneath unconformity TE, the Bashijiqike Formation upwards pinchout braided river delta sand body caused by erosion can serve as a high-quality reservoir, and its overlying Palaeogene gypsum rock and mudstone can be good seals (Fig. 2). The recent petroleum exploration in the Cretaceous strata in the study area confirms that the oil and gas reservoirs here are mostly lithostratigraphic hydrocarbon reservoirs related to the triangular unconformity belts in the slope area and are distributed mainly in the

During the latest uplifting period, the palaeo-uplift was strongly eroded, and the coarse clastic sediments of lowstand systems tracts, such as deltas or low-level fans, developed mainly along the depression marginal ramps below the initial truncated point. When palaeo-uplifts gradually subsided after the latest uplifting stage and the subsequent regional transgression occurred, the clastic sediments of the early transgressive systems tracts with good reservoir properties were deposited usually along the slope area, which were important reservoirs. With the aggravation of transgression, most parts of or even entire palaeo-uplifts were submerged and were finally were capped with mudstone or lime mudstone overlying the clastic sediments as good seals. Therefore, the onlap triangular unconformity belts developed in the slope area during the transgression are some of the best places for the formation of litho-stratigraphic traps. In addition, the triangular truncated unconformity belts beneath unconformity surfaces in the slope area are important locations for favourable reservoir and trap formation. 10

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Fig. 10. (a) Estimation of the erosion thickness of unconformity TE from the seismic profile, P5; (b) calibrated borehole logging profile; (c) distribution of the denudation thickness of unconformity TE and location of the seismic profile, P5. Note that the Wensu Palaeo-uplift still exists at the end of the lower Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation.

5.3.1. Development of unconformity TT: effects of the Permian–Early Triassic closure of the Palaeo–Tethys Ocean The development of unconformity TT has been assigned by some researchers to the abrupt rise of South Tianshan Mountain in the northern margin of the Tarim Basin during latest Permian in response to the collision between the Tarim block and the Yili–Central Tianshan with the closure of the South Tianshan Palaeo-ocean (Tian et al., 2000; Li et al., 2009; He et al., 2011; Zheng et al., 2014; Zuo et al., 2015). However, other studies suggest that the closure of the South Tianshan Palaeo-Ocean was completed since the Carboniferous (Charvet et al., 2007, 2011; Wang et al., 2011). This is evidenced by the following

Basijiqike and Baxigai formations.

5.3. Tectonic setting Comparative analysis of the uplift in the study area with the regional tectonic setting suggests that the four times of deformation observed within the basin correspond to regional geodynamic events, which contributed to the developments of major unconformities and the uplifts of the Tabei Uplift.

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Fig. 11. Palaeo-geomorphology characteristics of the Triassic (a), the Jurassic (b), the lower Cretaceous Kapushaliang Group (c) and the lower Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation (d) in the Kuqa–Tabei region. The Wensu, Xiqiu, Xinhe, and Yaha sub-uplifts apparently increased during latest Triassic–earliest Jurassic. Overall, however, they decreased and even disappeared at the end of the lower Cretaceous except for the Wensu Palaeo-uplift.

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is the latest Jurassic and suggests the possible existence of a remote structural response with stress transmission (Yan et al., 2003). However, several authors have argued that this accretion generated only very limited deformation (Coward et al., 1988; Roger et al., 2011), which means that it could hardly have affected the Central Asian crust several thousands of kilometres to the north. Furthermore, this collision began in the latest Jurassic, although the deformation in the Tianshan–Tarim area could have started during the Late Jurassic, prior to the collision (Jolivet et al., 2013). Hence, the development of unconformity TK might correspond to the far-field effects of another major geodynamic event: the Mongol–Okhotsk oceanic closure in southern Siberia (Zonenshain et al., 1990; Zorin et al., 1990; Wang et al., 2008; Jolivet et al., 2009, 2013; Metelkin et al., 2010). If the Lhasa collision might have generated some of the compressive stress, inducing the end-Jurassic deformation in the Kuqa–Tabei region, the far-field effects of the closure of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean, combined or not with the effects of the Lhasa collision, should also be considered. That is, the specific driving mechanism for unconformity TK remains open. Nonetheless, it is clear: that under a regional compressive stress background, tectonic uplift and erosion occurred again in the study area. The middle and upper Jurassic units are generally absent, particularly in the Tabei area. The overlying Cretaceous Kapushaliang Group lies in unconformable contact with the PreCretaceous strata and developed another major unconformity (TK).

facts: (1) The lower Carboniferous strata sealed the nappes, including the obducted ophiolitic slices (Charvet et al., 2007, 2011; Wang et al., 2011), and (2) the deformation generating the Carboniferous–Permian boundary in the South Tianshan and northern Tarim was suggested to be triggered by the North Tianshan–Junggar collision and was already intra-continental (Charvet et al., 2007, 2011; Wang et al., 2011, Jolivet et al., 2013, Loury et al., 2018). Hence, the closure of the South Tianshan Palaeo-Ocean and the formation of the South Tianshan fold zone, both completed in the Carboniferous, prior to the compressive tectonic event around the Permian–Triassic boundary, could not be a reasonable factor for the development of unconformity TT. A possible driving mechanism is the Permian–Early Triassic closure of the Palaeo–Tethys Ocean to the south (Roger et al., 2008, 2010, 2011; Jolivet et al., 2013), which was followed by a general decrease in relief and the progressive formation of the flat topography characterising Central Asia during the Mesozoic (Jolivet et al., 2013). During the Permian, the Qiangtang block detached from the Gondwanan continent and migrated northwards, closing the Palaeo–Tethys Ocean (Roger et al., 2011). The associated northwards subduction may have generated a northward push to the study area to contribute to the development of unconformity TT. 5.3.2. Development of unconformity TJ: effects of the Qiangtang collision in the Late Triassic In the Late Triassic, about 223–200 Ma, oblique collision and suturing between the Qiangtang block and the Tarim plate occurred along the Jinsha suture (Hendrix et al., 1992; Yin and Harrison, 2000; Gao et al., 2003; Li et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2016), as supported by the Mesozoic subsidence rate in the North Tarim Basin (Hendrix et al., 1992) and the apatite fission track (AFT) dating in the Kuluketage and Aksu areas (Zhang et al., 2016). Induced by this collisional event, the Kunlun Mountain orogenic zone rose abruptly, and large-scale A-subduction occurred in the mountain front (Zhao et al., 2000), which might have caused NW-trending compressive stress in the study area. During 220–180 Ma, analysis of the AFT of the West Tianshan Mountains (Chen et al., 2006) and the Triassic–Jurassic heavy mineral assemblage characteristics in the Kuqa Foreland Basin (Zhao et al., 2014) suggest that the West Tianshan Mountains once experienced rapid uplift, which could have caused SE-trending compression in the study area. In addition, the left-slipping shear deformation of the Alytn Fault Belt during the Late Triassic generated NW-trending extrusion stress in the Tarim Basin (Li and Liou, 2001; He et al., 2011). Large-scale uplifting occurred in the study area as a result of the S–N-trending compressional stress (Jia, 1997; Tang, 1997; Zeng et al., 2004; Yang, 2005; Zhang et al., 2005), with an apparent increase in the range of the Tabei Uplift. The Pre-Triassic strata were uplifted and eroded, and the lower Jurassic units were developed on the underlying Triassic or the Pre-Triassic strata with an angular unconformity contact (Zhang et al., 2000). Namely, the Qiangtang collision that occurred in the Late Triassic is assumed to be the major cause of the development of unconformity TJ.

5.3.4. Development of unconformity TE: effects of the Kohistan collision in the Late Cretaceous and the subsequent India–Asia collision in the Early Palaeogene During the Late Cretaceous, regional uplifting occurred in the study area, resulting in the absence of middle and upper Cretaceous units. The AFT chronology of granite, andesite, and rhyolite samples obtained from the Kuqa River shows that this uplift has occurred for about 89 Ma years at an average velocity of 37.8–45.3 m/Ma (Jia et al., 2003). These results agree with other fission track dating results of the southern margin of the Tianshan Mountains and adjacent areas (Yang and Qian, 1995; Hendrix et al., 1994). Moreover, the far-field effects of the collision between the Kohistan Island arc and the Lhasa block, at ~80 Ma, were considered to be an important response to this deformation or the development of unconformity TE (Hendrix et al., 1992; Graham et al., 1993; Jia et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2004; Sun et al., 2016). At the end of the Cretaceous or in the Early Palaeogene, perhaps ~55 Ma, the Indian plate, detached from the Africa plate, collided with the Kohistan arc along the Indus–Yarlung suture zone (Hendrix et al., 1992; Yin and Harrison, 2000; Zhang et al., 2002, He et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2016). With the continent–continent collision, the continuous convergence, and the subsequent northwards push of the Indian Plate towards the Eurasian Continent, the Tethyan Ocean closed (Jia, 1997; Tang, 1997). Correspondingly, the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau uplifted dramatically, and the Himalayan Mountains rose abruptly (Zeng et al., 2004; He et al., 2011). Owing to the remote transmission of the Himalaya Mountain rise effect, the nearly N–S-trending extrusion in the study area formed again at ~65–23.3 Ma, which also might correspond to the development of unconformity TE (Zeng et al., 2004; Liu, 2004; Dai et al., 2009; He et al., 2011; Ding et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2016). Furthermore, the collision between the India Plate and the Eurasian Continent also contributed to the shear-slip movement of the Altyn Fault Belt, which caused a northwards push to the Tarim Basin (Liu et al., 2001). In this geological setting, in the Late Cretaceousor maybe in the Early Palaeogene, the study area experienced another phase of compression uplifting, which led to the formation of unconformity TE with the absence of mid–upper Cretaceous units and erosion of the lower Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation or Pre-Cretaceous units (Yan et al., 2003; Yang, 2005; Wu et al., 2009; Gao et al., 2015).

5.3.3. Development of unconformity TK: effects of the Lhasa collision in the latest Jurassic or the Mongol–Okhotsk oceanic closure in the Late Jurassic It has been suggested that unconformity TK or the end-Jurassic deformation of the Kuqa–Tabei region and the adjacent areas resulted from the collision of the Lhasa and Qiangtang blocks in the southern margin of the Tarim Basin along the Bangong Co-Nujiang River suture zone, which generated a N–S-trending compressive stress field in the study area (Hendrix et al., 1992; Gu, 1996; Fang et al., 2006; De Grave et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2016). From the Late Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous, the abnormal peak of tectonic subsidence, sedimentation, and denudation rate curves and the existence of molasse conglomerates in the study area all indicate that tectonic compression caused the uplift and denudation (Yan et al., 2003). This occurred coeval with and is related to the collision between the Lhasa block and the Eurasian plate 13

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6. Conclusions

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(1) Four tectonic deformation events occurred in the latest Permian, the latest Triassic, the latest Jurassic, and the Late Cretaceous in the Kuqa–Tabei region of the Tarim Basin based on the recognitions of four regional angular unconformities: TT, TJ, TK, and TE. (2) The end-Permian deformation resulted in the uplifts of the Tabei Uplift with E–W-trending located mainly in the Midwest. The associated unconformity (TT) had a thick denuded area along the thrust structural highs with a maximum erosional thickness of 1200 m. The end-Triassic deformation led to a significant increase of the palaeo-uplifts and produced an extensive angular unconformity (TJ) with a maximum denudation thickness of 400 m. The end-Jurassic deformation induced another phase of uplifting along the palaeo-uplifts and generated unconformity TK with a maximum erosional thickness of 500 m. The deformation occurring in the Late Cretaceous is characterised mainly by the development unconformity TE, which was distributed mainly along the Wensu Palaeo-uplift with a maximum erosional thickness of 300 m. (3) The tectonic unconformities were divided into composed unconformity belts at the high uplift, triangular unconformity belts along the slope area, and parallel unconformity/conformity belts in the depression. The contact features and erosional distribution of the tectonic unconformities have great significance for both geomorphology reconstruction and petroleum exploration. (4) The Permian–Early Triassic closure of the Palaeo–Tethys Ocean might have induced the development of unconformity TT and the uplifting of the Tabei Uplift. The Qiangtang collision in the Late Triassic was likely the driving mechanism for the obvious enlargement of the Jurassic palaeo-uplifts and the extensive development of unconformity TJ. The Pre-Cretaceous uplifting and the formation of unconformity TK are likely linked with the far-field effects of the effects of the Lhasa collision in the latest Jurassic. The Pre-Eocene uplifting and the generation of unconformity TE may have been triggered by the Kohistan collision in the Late Cretaceous. Declaration of Competing Interest None. Acknowledgments This work is the result of recent research on the Tarim Basin conducted by Prof. Lin and his fellow researchers and was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41130422, 91328201, and 91528301) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (Grant Nos. 2-9-2016-133 and 2-92015-362). The authors thank the Exploration and Development Research Institution of the Tarim Oilfield Company for their data donation and cooperative research. In addition, the authors thank Dr. Eriksson for his meaningful suggestions for this paper and are grateful to Prof. Zhou, Prof. Faure, Prof. Charvet, and an anonymous reviewer for their constructive and critical comments, which led to substantial improvements in this manuscript. Appendix A. Supplementary material Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2019.103957. References Baranoski, M.T., Dean, S.L., Wicks, J.L., Brown, V.M., 2009. Unconformity-bounded seismic reflection sequences define Grenville-age rift system and foreland basins beneath the Phanerozoic in Ohio. Geosphere 5 (2), 140–151.

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