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Management of water for irrigation agriculture in semi-arid areas: Problems and prospects
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 30 (2005) 809–817 www.elsevier.com/locate/pce
Management of water for irrigation agriculture in semi-arid areas: Problems and prospects A. Mvungi *, D. Mashauri, N.F. Madulu Department of Sociology, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35043, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Accepted 15 August 2005
Abstract Most of the Mwanga district is classified as semi-arid with a rainfall range of 300 and 600 mm. Rainfall patterns in the district are unpredictable and are subject to great fluctuations. Like other semi-arid areas, the district is characterized with land degradation, unreliable rainfall, repeated water shortage, periodic famine, overgrazing, dry land cultivation in the marginal areas and heavy competition for limited biomass between farmers and cattle. Vulnerability here is high due to unreliability of weather. The people of Mwanga are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. However agriculture is difficult in the area due to inadequate rainfall. For a very long time the people have been dependent on irrigation agriculture to ensure food security. Of late the traditional irrigation system is on the decline threatening food security in the area. This paper examines the state and status of the irrigation canal system in Mwanga district with the view of recommending ways in which it can be improved. The study used participatory, survey and in-depth interviews to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data. The major findings are that social, political, environmental and demographic bases that supported the traditional irrigation system have changed drastically. As a corollary to this, the cultural and religious belief systems that supported and guided the traditional canal system management have been replaced by mistrust and corruption in water allocation. In addition the ownership and management system of the water resources that was vested in the initiator clans has changed and now water user groups own the canals/furrows but they do not own the water sources. This has rendered the control of the water sources difficult if not impossible. Currently the system is faced by a number of problems including shortage of water and poor management as demand for water increases and this has led to serious conflicts among and between crop producers and pastoralists over water use. Water users and leaders are also not knowledgeable of the policy guiding water use, ownership and management implying their non-involvement in the policy formulation process. The paper concludes that the traditional irrigation system in Mwanga district that has cushioned people from food insecurity for a long time is under serious threat and something urgently needs to be done. The paper recommends modernizing the irrigation infrastructure, instituting a system of governance that takes on board the interests of all the stakeholders, involving local people and their leaders in the policy formulation process not as an ‘‘excess luggage’’ but as an organic part of the process. The recommendations can only be effected as an organic part of the holistic approach to eradicate poverty. Ó 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Traditional irrigation; Indigenous knowledge; Food security; Governance; Traditional canals
1. Introduction 1.1. Background to the study Traditional irrigation canal system in Mwanga district has been practiced since time immemorial and has been a *
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Mvungi).
1474-7065/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2005.08.024
solution for food insecurity. Historical tales and archival documentation indicate that traditional irrigation canals were on use long before colonialism (Fungameza, 1992; Kimambo, 1969; Mashauri, 1985; Yoshida, 1985). Other writers posit that traditional canal system in Mwanga district is in fact as old as stories about the settlement pattern among the Pare who inhabit the area today (Omari, 1969). It was the availability of water and possibility of irrigation that attracted people to settle in what is now Mwanga
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district. During that time the irrigation system thrived on a political system that included dominance of religious and ritualistic beliefs of the Pare. Management and ownership of canals, furrows, water sources and catchment areas was under an initiator clans but water was used by the whole community. In most cases, clan leadership and community was responsible to ensure sustainable irrigation system. The traditional land use and water management was guided by belief systems (Omari, 1990a). For example, water sources and forests were seen as sacred places where people cannot conduct any activity except rituals and offerings (Omari, 1990b). The management of irrigation canals and water sources was guided by family and clan bonds and strengthened by rituals, culture and customs. In this regard and because people respected the norms of the society the irrigation system was sustainable and a major source of food security. It was the responsibility of the clan leadership and community at large to see to it that the available natural resources including water are sustainably managed and utilized by all in accordance with the existing and accepted norms and regulations. Currently and as result of socio economic, political and demographic changes the traditional irrigation system is under serious threat. Apart from the new political system, which no longer gives respect to traditional beliefs and rituals, population growth in the area has meant putting pressure on the water resources. The result has been drying up of some water sources and canals (Fig. 1), conflicts as people compete for the resource that is inadequate and abandonment of some canals as people have blocked them through settlements. Whereas in the traditional water resources management equal access to all community members and resource sharing on a much larger scale was ensured, the current management systems does not guarantee equal access to all community members. Experience from the Pare people in
Mwanga district indicate limited access to irrigation water where some individuals are even attempting to process water rights individually (Mvungi et al., 2004). The water resource conflicts is even accelerated by increasing extraction in the upper area leaving most of the rivers and canals dry and without water for a long period. The changes that are occurring in the district have affected traditional water management systems, hence, affecting food security. In many areas, the traditional canals have been strengthened through technical solutions. Though huge amounts of money have been invested in improving the traditional irrigation systems, these efforts have not all been fruitful. To a surprise of many, the systems are not operating efficiently and effectively as compared to the traditional canals. One wonders what went wrong. Actually, the new irrigation system has led to conflicts between villages over access to irrigation water. The foregoing is echoed by the Draft National Water Policy (2002) when it states that water is increasingly becoming a source of conflict as both population growth and development exert growing pressure on the limited and finite water resources. Although water is central to meeting human basic needs and the needs of the environment, water resources depletion and the increasing demand put at risk some of the water-based investments. Among others one of the culprits is extensive dry season irrigation which dries up the rivers and disturbs the ecosystem and wildlife and inefficient water use e.g., low efficiencies of many irrigation schemes which are estimated at 10–15%. 1.2. Objectives The study was prompted by the decline of the traditional irrigation canals system in Mwanga district that have been a major cushion against food insecurity in the area for
Fig. 1. Comparison of rivers and canals during wet and dry season, Mwanga district.
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many years in the past. The major objective was to identify the factors behind the decline with a view of recommending ways in which the decline can be reversed.
2. Presentation of research findings and discussion
1.3. Methodology
Data from the interviews and group discussions indicate that the major economic activity in the area is agriculture which is practiced by 63% and livestock keeping is practiced by 18% of those interviewed. Other activities are business (6%) and employment (3%). About 7% of the interviewees indicated to combine all the activities mentioned above which is typical in the rural areas as a means to guard against unreliability in the activities. Table 2 below is illustrative. Ownership of land which is the major means of production is mainly through inheritance. Even though, about 15% of the respondents indicated to have acquired land through village government allocations, 13% got land through purchase, and 10% hired land. Land renting which was famous in the past is insignificant today because the traditional contracts under which land is rented are no longer honored. The major food crops in the area include maize which is grown by 98% of respondents, vegetables (87%), and banana (50%). A number of people have given up growing some crops for various reasons. Crops that were grown in the past are no longer being grown in the district. For example, the number of people growing coffee (once a dependable cash crop in the area) has declined and is now being grown by only around 16% of the households. Table 3 below is illustrative of this situation. Shortage of water and drought (21%) were the main reasons that were given for a change in crops grown in the
This paper is based on a recent study on Mwanga district traditional irrigation canal system. Given the two important typologies in the district (highlands and lowlands), the selection of sample villages was made carefully to ensure that villages from both the highland and lowland are included in the sample. The list of selected villages and number of interviews per village is summarized in Table 1. The study was mainly done through participatory approaches, which included discussions with stakeholders at various levels (i.e., governments and local village leaders, water user associations, water cooperatives and individual farmers). These discussions were conducted in groups. The first groups comprised of village and hamlet leaders and water users. Others included stakeholders groups, i.e., local government institutions, NGOs, Irrigators, and non-irrigators. In-depth interviews were also conducted with key informers from the local population. Here key informants like elderly people were visited with a view of gathering some historical insights about the management of the traditional irrigation canals. In addition, a structured questionnaire was administered to 271 farmers (169 men and 111 women) who were associated with the traditional irrigation systems in the sampled villages. After data collection and preliminary analysis, a stakeholdersÕ workshop was organized to discuss the preliminary results with the local communities and other stakeholders where the study was conducted. The objective the meeting was to ensure that the stakeholders get a chance to comment and contribute to the study findings and the final report. Table 1 List of villages, population size and number of interviews Name of village
Population 2002
Kileo Butu-Ugweno Kigonigoni Chomvu Kati Mbore Shigatini Kwakoa-Toloha Kisangara Ndanda-mbakwe Usangi-Kilaweni Lambo Lembeni Mshewa Mamba No response
2973 738 2153 – 1423 1971 1932 3325 1683 1596 2338 1003 2092 1033
Total
Number of interviews
Percentage of sample
48 34 52 8 33 8 22 18 4 5 11 3 4 6 15
17.7 12.5 19.2 3.0 12.2 3.0 8.1 6.6 1.5 1.8 4.1 1.1 1.5 2.2 5.5
271
100.0
2.1. Major economic activities in Mwanga district
Table 2 Main economic activities Activities
Frequency
Farming Livestock Business Employment All above No response
170 49 16 7 18 11
Percentage 62.7 18.1 5.9 2.6 6.6 4.1
Total
271
100.0
Table 3 Which crop were you growing in the past which you are not growing now Crop Maize, beans, cassava Coffee, bananas Sugarcane Sisal Rice None Vegetable Beans No response Total
Frequency
Percentage
15 28 5 17 36 91 11 8 60
5.5 10.3 1.8 6.3 13.3 33.6 4.1 3.0 22.1
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area. This reason supports the arguments given earlier that the area is drought prone and water scarcity is a major problem. Other reasons for the change of crops include high cost of production (9%), labour shortage (6%), marketing problem (4%), diseases (3%), and soil erosion (2%). People change cropping patterns due to market availability, food security issues, water scarcity, and for income generation. A large number of the respondents (55%) did not respond to this question. Coffee is grown in the highlands while maize, paddy and vegetables are grown in the lowlands. To replace coffee, households which benefit from irrigation now grow vegetables as a cash crop. Vegetables are preferred to coffee because they are shot term crop, require less labour, and the market is not bureaucratic as compared to coffee. With regards to marketing, there are daily evening markets in most villages whereby vegetables are sold. There was agreement among the various respondents that irrigation is very central to agricultural production in the area. For example, the majority of respondents (90%) irrigate their land and it is only through irrigation that they can manage to produce enough crops. Through irrigation people are able to produce two crops of maize and at least three crops of vegetables per year. However observations indicated that most of the irrigation infrastructures are elementary with major source of water for irrigation being rivers. Slightly more than 91% of respondents reported to get water for irrigation from rivers. The use of Dams as sources of irrigation water is insignificant (2%). However, most of the irrigators rely on small overnight reservoirs called ndiva (Fig. 2) as a source of the irrigation water. Water is collected in a ndiva overnight and it is distributed to the irrigation channels/furrows in accordance to established rules and timetable. The dependence on rivers means that people are not informed about the risks they face from climate change and increased extraction upstream as very little water is available for irrigation during, especially the dry season. These observations
clearly indicate that water shortage is a real and most serious problem facing the people in the district, especially for irrigators. 2.2. Ownership and supervision of operations One of the main factors that are leading to decline in the use of traditional irrigation systems is the changes in the social, economic and demographic domains. Whereas the population in the area has significantly increased leading to increased demand for food and arable land, the number of water extractors and irrigators has also increased. The disparity between available resources and demand is causing a number of water use conflicts. There are conflicts between upstream and downstream users, among downstream irrigators themselves, and between irrigators and livestock keepers. All these conflicts are cantered around changes in the ownership and management systems of the water resources and the canals. Group discussions and in-depth interviews revealed that in the past, the ownership and supervision of operation of traditional canals and water sources and catchments were under the initiator clan which dictated terms with regard to irrigation water management. The owning clan normally nominated an individual who was seen as diligent, responsible and committed to operate the irrigation system. The clan planned the water scheduling, allocation and distribution. The later was more crucial during lower discharges from the sources when irrigation rotation becomes inevitable. The maintenance of the traditional canals was the responsibility of the user community. The community instituted cultural norms that regulated and controlled the users with regard to water allocation and distribution. The canal system had the support of the Chiefs who punished unruly users. The current system puts the management and control of water resources and canals under the user groups or individuals but these do not own water sources and/or catchments. Whereas in the past some of
Fig. 2. Improved ndiva and irrigation canal in Mwanga district.
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the rules and guidelines were guided by myth and beliefs, today they are guided by-laws that are hardly observed. In other words, community and community leaders no longer take responsibility of the irrigation canal or furrow system. After independence most ownership of irrigation canal system was switched to village governments with the central government inclined towards construction of ‘‘new and modern’’ schemes. It is here that the decline set in as a result of mismanagement and the erosion of the sense of obligation that was based on the earlier system of ownership and supervision. This has prompted the government to revert to some kind of community ownership and management of irrigation canal system by encouraging farmers to form Water User Associations and irrigatorsÕ cooperatives. The water use groups that have been formed now do not own the water sources or the catchment areas. The by-laws and sanctions that have replaced the customary norms, beliefs and sanctions are not effective.
managed water distribution systems which at times lead to water loses when some people get more water than they want. This situation has stimulated a number of conflicts that threaten the whole irrigation system. Table 5 below gives the stakeholdersÕ assessment of the intensity of the various causes of water scarcity in the district. As the data in Table 5 shows, the factors that recorded the higher proportion in the very significant column are clearing of water sources and river banks (57.9%); uncontrolled tree felling (57.2%); clearing of catchments forests (51.2%); non-sustainable resource use (49.8%); poor management and allocation of water to the village (49.8%); and population pressure (48.4%). In general terms, the factors that are leading in influencing water scarcity are related to deforestation, non-sustainable resource use and population pressure. The impact of population pressure is being reflected in terms of water scarcity due to increased demand, environmental degradation due to deforestation and expansion of farmlands, conflicts, and poverty levels.
2.3. Problems associated with scarcity of water for irrigation
2.4. Conflicts in water use The National Water Policy (2002) points out that water issues vary from place to place and that such diversity and the nature of activities on the same water resources in the different areas are pertinent issues as far as water management systems. Conflicts among irrigators upstream and downstream in the same district and between two districts have been noted during the study. There are also conflicts between irrigators upstream and downstream, and between animals and crop producers. As human and livestock population grows and agriculture expands the nature and intensity of the conflict also increases. Conflicts between irrigators emerge when individuals competed to get the limited water for irrigation purposes. The study revealed that despite the existence of a water distribution mechanism, some individuals use various means to get water without following the laid down procedures especially during the dry season. This is because there is not enough water and people are not sure whether water will ever get to their fields. Over 20% of the respondents indicate water shortage to be the main cause of conflicts.
There are many problems that are associated with the non-availability of water for irrigation. The most pressing problems are summarized in Table 4. The data demonstrate that water shortage is the major problem followed by poor management of water. Information gathered from group and in-depth discussions suggested that water shortage is not only caused by lack of rainfall and increased users, but also because of poorly Table 4 List of problems associated with scarcity of water for irrigation Problem
Frequency
Water shortage Erosion Poor management of water Misunderstanding among people All above No response
220 7 33 3 4 4
Percentage 81.2 2.6 4.8 1.1 1.5 8.9
Total
271
100.0
Table 5 StakeholdersÕ assessment of the severity of various causes of water scarcity Causes of irrigation water scarcity
Clearing of water sources and river banks Uncontrolled tree felling (deforestation) Clearing of catchments forests Non-sustainable resource use Poor management and allocation of water to the village Population pressure Farming on steep slopes Collection of firewood Charcoal making Unplanned settlements
Importance of various causes of water scarcity
Total
Insignificant
Slightly significant
Very significant
No response
Percent
Number
12.2 19.9 24 32.8 20.3 19.6 33.6 36.2 36.2 39.9
26.2 19.6 19.6 14.4 26.6 29.2 22.9 20.7 23.6 24.7
57.9 57.2 51.2 49.8 49.8 48.4 40.2 38.7 35.1 31.8
3.7 3.3 5.2 3 3.3 3 3.3 4.4 5.2 3.7
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271
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Other sources of conflicts include weak leadership, unfair distribution of water, and non-members interference. Suggestions from the local stakeholders indicate that the conflicts over water resources could be resolved through improvement of canals to increase water volume, strengthening leadership by removing weak leaders and retaining the most capable, introducing water conflict resolution boards and protecting water sources. Discussions revealed that the most common practice used by people is to bribe the water distributors so that they allocate more water. Sometimes others steal water during the nights. The study also revealed that most of the by-laws are not enforced, and where they are enforced the culprits are rarely punished heavily. For example, in some furrows/canals, by-laws stated that persons destroying the furrows/canal were to be fined Tsh 500 or more (equivalent to 0.5 US$); and a person who steals water is fined Tsh 1000 (about 1 US$). But a person who steals water and irrigates his/her crops gets more when he sells his/her products and this means the fine is obviously not deterrent. A more serious and debilitating conflict observed was that between irrigators and pastoralists. In some of the villages, pastoralists and crop producers coexist and during water shortage they differ in terms of which should be given priority animals or crops. In Kirya village, for example, the situation is very serious because while there are by-laws guiding water use, these favoured agriculturalists. In fact the pastoralists claimed not to have been involved in the formulation of the by-laws. The common prejudice that sees pastoralism as a relic of the past was operative here. Discussions revealed that both leaders and the agriculturalists equated agriculture to progress and therefore by-laws to safeguard agriculture should be respected by all even if they did not participate in making them. Of course for the laws to be respected and hence effective, it is important that they are just to all parties. The pastoralists felt that he by-laws were prejudiced against them so they were not keen in respecting them. In this regard the process of formulating by-laws should as much as possible strive to safeguard the interests of all the stakeholders. The last major conflict concerns upstream and downstream users. This was identified as a serious problem in the study area. During the dry season when there is water shortage and in the absence of effective water sharing mechanism that binds all parties, the irrigators downstream go without water. This is the case even where they have valid water user rights. The upstream irrigators use water without recourse to those downstream. The problem is more complicated where the conflict involve people from two districts and hence beyond the jurisdiction of one district authority. The Kileo canal in Mwanga district, for example, is downstream of people in Moshi rural district who use water from the same river (Wona) for irrigation. During the dry season the Kileo irrigators hardly get water for irrigation. It is therefore important that an effective authority is established to ensure equitable use of water
to various categories of water users. For this authority to be effective however it is important that there is good governance in place and this is hardly the case in the study area. 2.5. Observed changes over time Respondents were asked to report whether they have observed any changes during the past 15–20 years. The responses are summarized in Table 6. The data shows that climate change, irrigation, improved implements and environmental destruction are the main observations made during the past 20 years. In a way these changes are related to the water scarcity experienced today. The reasons for these changes include shortage of rainfall/drought, loss of fertility, increased farming knowledge, T.I.P. facilitation, extension services-MIFIPRO, human activities, and expansion of irrigation system. 2.6. Water for irrigation About 97% of the respondents indicated that they have been involved in irrigated agriculture. Table 7 below shows the periods when the respondents started irrigated agriculture. The data suggest that the majority of irrigators started during the 1990s. It is not surprising therefore that these irrigators are not familiar with the traditional irrigation systems and the guiding rules. This seems to be the influenced of the Traditional Irrigation Project (T.I.P.) and Table 6 Changes observed in the past 15–20 years Changes observed
Frequency
Climate changes Irrigation Improvement of implements Environmental destruction Increased production Introduction of fertilizer Insecticides All above None No response Total
Percentage
46 43 33 19 17 9 4 47 38 15
17.0 15.9 12.2 7.0 6.3 3.3 1.5 17.4 14.0 5.5
271
100.0
Table 7 Period of starting irrigated agriculture Period of starting irrigation
Frequency
Before 1960 1960–1980 1980–1990 1990–2000 2000+ Do not remember No response
19 24 58 111 26 14 19
Percentage 7.0 8.9 21.4 41.0 9.6 5.2 7.0
Total
271
100.0
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the MIFIPRO project. The two have been dealing with improvement of the declining traditional irrigation systems. When asked about the main sources of water for irrigation, about 92% indicated that they rely on rivers and only 2% rely on dams. The main problems experienced with regard to availability of water for irrigation include water shortage (81%), soil erosion (3%), poor management of water systems (5%), and misunderstanding among the irrigators (1%). All these problems create a conducive environment for water use conflicts, hence making it difficult for the traditional irrigation systems to flourish. When asked about the main causes of those problems, about 27% and 24% of the respondents indicated seasonal rainfall and increased number of water users, respectively, as the main causes of problems. Yet about 12% of the respondents identified lack of reservoir, 11% destruction and lack of maintenance of traditional canals, 8% mentioned climate change, and 7% ignorance among the farmers. If seasonal rainfall and climate change are combined together, they contribute about 34% of all respondents. The reliance on seasonal rainfall and non-use of other sources of water for irrigation reflects the poverty levels of the water users in the district. Overtime, new changes have been introduced in the management and maintenance of the traditional canals. The major changes observed in management systems of the tradition canal between past and now include improvement of the traditional canals (25%) as a result of the involvement of the T.I.P. and MIFIPRO projects, shortage of water and farm land (19%), User group formed (9%), ownership of canal from personal to communal (8%), and improvement of management is systems (6%). Despite the observed positive changes, there are some people who reported no change and poor management. All in all, the main reasons behind the positive changes observed include the T.I.P. facilitation (13%), improved irrigation technologies (14%) and support from MIFIPRO (16%). On the negative side, the main causes include lack of leadership seminars (6%), misunderstandings (5%), ignorance (4%), and increased water users (25%). Table 8 below summarizes the management related problems that were menTable 8 Problems facing management of traditional agriculture and hope they can be minimized Which problems do you see in the management of traditional irrigation canal?
How can these problems be minimized?
Water leakage Lack of pipes Weak leadership Lack of cooperation Ping implement Erosion Drought Regular maintenance Low income Stilling of water Low capacity of ndiva
Improve leadership Extending canals Maintenance of canals Constructed cemented canals Change leadership Increasing funds Do not know Rain water harvest Improve ndiva capacity
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tioned by the respondents and strategies to minimize those problems. Evidence from the interviews with local people indicates that only 25% of the Water User Groups have actually obtained a Water Right and 58% of the User Groups were operating without official water right. Even under this circumstance different mechanisms are being used to distribute water to the water users. 2.7. Governance issues The diversity and nature of activities that depend on the same water resources is a big challenge to efficient management of water use. The very existence of conflicts discussed above calls for good governance in management of water to ensure that the different user groups enhance their opportunities to fulfill their water needs. Governance in the study area leaves much to be desired and this has adversely affected the efficient management of the traditional canals system as well as engendering the water user conflicts. Table 9 below summarizes the different strategies used to distribute water. The data shows that rationing is the most famous strategy used in distributing water. This is followed by leaders making a decision on how water should be distributed, daily allocations per family, and allocation according to application. These observations suggest that there is no systematic approach to water allocations. Such a situation can create chaos and conflicts. A number of these are discussed below. First the relationship between some village governments and the water user groups is reported as conflictual. To the extent that village governments tend to see issues concerned with irrigation to be the domain of the water user groups. In the circumstance, it becomes difficult for the by-laws that safeguard irrigation system to be effective. This is because it is the village government that should enforce the by-laws. This also indicates a weakness on the part of the village government because it is supposed to be the custodian/care-taker of all natural resources in the village. If the village government abdicates this responsibility then it means that there is no one to ensure that the policies are adhered to at the local level. Table 9 Strategies used to distribute water to various stakeholders How is the water distributed among water users Rotational Leaders decide Daily allocation per person Allocation according to application Depends on water available Homely allocation According to ward Do not know No response Total
Frequency
Percentage
68 62 44 38 21 12 10 2 14
25.1 22.9 16.2 14 7.7 4.4 3.7 0.7 5.2
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Secondly, people complained of the non-observing of the laid down regulations by official institutions. The Law for issuance of certificate of water right, for example, requires that the issuing office must satisfy itself that such action does not deny others access. Besides, the applying individual/ group should have the endorsement of villages that have stake in the watercourse. In some cases this is not observed. In Mikuyuni village, for example, one person claim to have been given a water user permit to construct a reservoir upstream of the irrigation facility which serves about 30 households. The built structure blocks all the water especially during the dry season and this has totally stopped irrigation activities for other farmers during the dry season. The culprit has apparently sought and obtained endorsement from only one village upstream and not the one down tream. Despite several complaints by the water user group downstream which has a water user certificate, the concerned authorities have not redressed the situation. This has bred mistrust among the water user group members and other villagers that some kind of corruption is involved. Thirdly and related to the foregoing, the study noted that most water user groups in the area have applied for water user rights and paid the required fees. However it is now about 2 years but they are yet to get the water user right certificates and the authorities have not provided any satisfactory explanation. Much as there might be justification for the delay, lack of transparency breeds speculations that are more often than not damning to the authorities. In the absence of an explanation the majority of irrigators are convinced that their money has been misused. Fourthly discussions with the leaders at the villages and hamlets level indicated that there was lack of coordination within the village leadership and between the village leadership, the ward executive secretary and the District authorities. It was pointed out that executive Officers at times failed to be effective because she/he does not get support from the village government which is comprised of elected persons from within the village. The village government tended to support the local people even where they were in the wrong. The tendency is to be sympathetic to the culprits instead of following the laid down by-laws that were made by the same government. The situation is more serious for the Ward executive Officer (WEO) who is a District Government employee. He is an outsider as far as the villagers and their elected leaders are concerned. In this regard his work too becomes difficult. Even where the WEO strives to see to it that set by-laws are followed, (s)he is frustrated by lack of support from the district authorities. The discussions, for example, indicate that people sent to the district for breaking laws are often let free to come and boast in the village including ridiculing the authorities. A notable observation was that apart from the fact that the National water policy emphasizes on involvement of the stakeholders, about 95% of the people interviewed were not clear on a number of policy issues. This was true for both the leaders (at the village level) and ordinary water users. This is a serious state of affairs. It means people were
not effectively involved in the policy formulation process despite official claims to the contrary. One is tempted to argue for the need to train the local leaders and people on policy issues. But for purposes of empowering them, this is a non-starter because it is important that they are an organic part in the policy formulation process. The strength of this is that people and their leaders emerge from the process not only understanding the policies but also their responsibilities and that of others in the implementation of the policies. This helps also to ensure accountability on the parts of the leaders. If policies on water use are clear to people then transparency and accountability will reign and this will ensure efficiency in water use and distribution. 3. Conclusions It has been pointed out that the people of Mwanga are dependent on water for their twin activities of crop and animal production. Irrigation, for example, is the only means through which these people can obtain adequate produce. This notwithstanding the irrigation infrastructure is still very rudimentary. This coupled with shortage of water, the pressure on water resources as users increase, ineffective by-laws and weak governance at the local level is threatening the traditional canal system. The situation can be salvaged through better management and need based water distribution. Conflicts arise because there is no effective management system that takes into account the various and diverse interests as far as water uses are concerned. Given the importance of water to human needs and the fact that it is a common need and also that there is multiplicity of use, it is pertinent that there is a clear system of managing water to ensures that various interests are taken into account. In this regard the study recommended strengthening of governance at the local level and ensuring political support to ensure empowerment of the local leaders to take action as per the laid down by laws and regulations. In order to achieve this, the study suggested improved coordination and increased awareness about the water policy, the role of leaders and the general public, and relationship with other institutions in the village/district and with natural resources like water in the village/district. This should also ensure involving the diverse interests in making by-laws or any other regulation with regard to water use. A second recommendation is to establish watercourse boards that will oversee equitable allocation and distribution of water among different categories of water uses. This body will have to be given the requisite training but more important cooperation from all stakeholders, including village and district governments. There is also a need for the stakeholders to take stock on the needs of the water users and evolve with a needs assessment based distribution system. The last recommendation from this study is the introduction of water serving irrigation techniques that will ensure efficient use of water and environmental sustainability. Given the fact that Mwanga district receives inadequate
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rainfall, shortage of water for irrigation is eminent. Irrigators need to be encouraged to use low water consuming irrigation technologies like include drip irrigation and use of pipes to curtail seepage and wastage respectively. Related to this is the need to transform the irrigation infrastructure through reinforcement of the furrows and damming of the rivers. Yet, emphasis should be put on rainwater harvesting which is another important option to sustain irrigated agriculture in the district. All these efforts need to be supported by the indigenous knowledge and traditional management systems that are still relevant today. The study is aware that the recommended measures have cost implications and hence begs the question who should finance the changes. One positive fact is that the irrigators are committed to change and invest in some activities to ensure sustainable irrigation e.g., in terracing for purposes of conserving land. Besides, most crucial is the fact that the recommended changes need to be integrated into the broader efforts to eradicate poverty which include inter alia doing away with the structural constraints on peoples capacity to improve their livelihoods. One of the constraints is the absence of credit facilities at the grass root level that may enable the peasants to obtain loans to improve or transform their agricultural infrastructure in general and irrigation technology in particular. Besides, the Tanzanian Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) mentions research and extension in agriculture as one of the priority sectors where debt relief funds under Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) should be channeled. So if policies and strategies stay focused and committed to this course, resources should
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be available to facilitate changes at the grass root level that would ensure improvement of livelihoods. References Fungameza, D., 1992. Study on the indigenous land use system in the North Pare Mountains with special reference to the Wagweno and Wasangi ethnic groups in North and South respectively. GTZ/TFAP Mwanga, Mwanga. Kimambo, I.N., 1969. A Political History of the Pare of Tanzania 1500– 1900. East African Publishing House, Nairobi. Mashauri, A., 1985. The cultural dimension in water project. In: Ari Serkkola, Christine Mann (Eds). Cultural Dimension of Development Seminar Proceedings. Finnish National Commission for UNESCO, Publication No. 33, pp. 221–242. Mvungi, A.A.K., Mashauri, D., Madulu, N., Wahure, O., 2004. Social Economic Aspects of Traditional Canals in Mwanga District, Research Report to Water Research Fund for Southern Africa (WARFSA), Harare. Omari, C.K., 1969. Religion, Population and Land use in Pare: A Case Study in a Traditional Society Staff Seminar Paper, Department of Sociology, Dar es Salaam, August. Omari, C.K., 1990a. God and Worship in Traditional Asu Society. Verlagder Ev-Lutheran, Erlangen. Omari, C.K., 1990b. Traditional African land ethics. In: Ronald Engel, J., Gibb Engel, Joan (Eds.), Ethics of Environment and Development Global Challenge international Response. Belhaven Press, London, pp. 167–175. United Republic of Tanzania, 2002. The National Water Policy of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam. Yoshida, M., 1985. Traditional furrow irrigation system in the South Pare Mountains area of Tanzania. In: Mascarenhas et al. (Eds.), Opportunities for Irrigation Development in Tanzania. Institute of Developing, Tokyo.
Management of water for irrigation agriculture in semi-arid areas: Problems and prospects A. Mvungi *, D. Mashauri, N.F. Madulu Department of Sociology, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35043, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Accepted 15 August 2005
Abstract Most of the Mwanga district is classified as semi-arid with a rainfall range of 300 and 600 mm. Rainfall patterns in the district are unpredictable and are subject to great fluctuations. Like other semi-arid areas, the district is characterized with land degradation, unreliable rainfall, repeated water shortage, periodic famine, overgrazing, dry land cultivation in the marginal areas and heavy competition for limited biomass between farmers and cattle. Vulnerability here is high due to unreliability of weather. The people of Mwanga are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. However agriculture is difficult in the area due to inadequate rainfall. For a very long time the people have been dependent on irrigation agriculture to ensure food security. Of late the traditional irrigation system is on the decline threatening food security in the area. This paper examines the state and status of the irrigation canal system in Mwanga district with the view of recommending ways in which it can be improved. The study used participatory, survey and in-depth interviews to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data. The major findings are that social, political, environmental and demographic bases that supported the traditional irrigation system have changed drastically. As a corollary to this, the cultural and religious belief systems that supported and guided the traditional canal system management have been replaced by mistrust and corruption in water allocation. In addition the ownership and management system of the water resources that was vested in the initiator clans has changed and now water user groups own the canals/furrows but they do not own the water sources. This has rendered the control of the water sources difficult if not impossible. Currently the system is faced by a number of problems including shortage of water and poor management as demand for water increases and this has led to serious conflicts among and between crop producers and pastoralists over water use. Water users and leaders are also not knowledgeable of the policy guiding water use, ownership and management implying their non-involvement in the policy formulation process. The paper concludes that the traditional irrigation system in Mwanga district that has cushioned people from food insecurity for a long time is under serious threat and something urgently needs to be done. The paper recommends modernizing the irrigation infrastructure, instituting a system of governance that takes on board the interests of all the stakeholders, involving local people and their leaders in the policy formulation process not as an ‘‘excess luggage’’ but as an organic part of the process. The recommendations can only be effected as an organic part of the holistic approach to eradicate poverty. Ó 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Traditional irrigation; Indigenous knowledge; Food security; Governance; Traditional canals
1. Introduction 1.1. Background to the study Traditional irrigation canal system in Mwanga district has been practiced since time immemorial and has been a *
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Mvungi).
1474-7065/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2005.08.024
solution for food insecurity. Historical tales and archival documentation indicate that traditional irrigation canals were on use long before colonialism (Fungameza, 1992; Kimambo, 1969; Mashauri, 1985; Yoshida, 1985). Other writers posit that traditional canal system in Mwanga district is in fact as old as stories about the settlement pattern among the Pare who inhabit the area today (Omari, 1969). It was the availability of water and possibility of irrigation that attracted people to settle in what is now Mwanga
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district. During that time the irrigation system thrived on a political system that included dominance of religious and ritualistic beliefs of the Pare. Management and ownership of canals, furrows, water sources and catchment areas was under an initiator clans but water was used by the whole community. In most cases, clan leadership and community was responsible to ensure sustainable irrigation system. The traditional land use and water management was guided by belief systems (Omari, 1990a). For example, water sources and forests were seen as sacred places where people cannot conduct any activity except rituals and offerings (Omari, 1990b). The management of irrigation canals and water sources was guided by family and clan bonds and strengthened by rituals, culture and customs. In this regard and because people respected the norms of the society the irrigation system was sustainable and a major source of food security. It was the responsibility of the clan leadership and community at large to see to it that the available natural resources including water are sustainably managed and utilized by all in accordance with the existing and accepted norms and regulations. Currently and as result of socio economic, political and demographic changes the traditional irrigation system is under serious threat. Apart from the new political system, which no longer gives respect to traditional beliefs and rituals, population growth in the area has meant putting pressure on the water resources. The result has been drying up of some water sources and canals (Fig. 1), conflicts as people compete for the resource that is inadequate and abandonment of some canals as people have blocked them through settlements. Whereas in the traditional water resources management equal access to all community members and resource sharing on a much larger scale was ensured, the current management systems does not guarantee equal access to all community members. Experience from the Pare people in
Mwanga district indicate limited access to irrigation water where some individuals are even attempting to process water rights individually (Mvungi et al., 2004). The water resource conflicts is even accelerated by increasing extraction in the upper area leaving most of the rivers and canals dry and without water for a long period. The changes that are occurring in the district have affected traditional water management systems, hence, affecting food security. In many areas, the traditional canals have been strengthened through technical solutions. Though huge amounts of money have been invested in improving the traditional irrigation systems, these efforts have not all been fruitful. To a surprise of many, the systems are not operating efficiently and effectively as compared to the traditional canals. One wonders what went wrong. Actually, the new irrigation system has led to conflicts between villages over access to irrigation water. The foregoing is echoed by the Draft National Water Policy (2002) when it states that water is increasingly becoming a source of conflict as both population growth and development exert growing pressure on the limited and finite water resources. Although water is central to meeting human basic needs and the needs of the environment, water resources depletion and the increasing demand put at risk some of the water-based investments. Among others one of the culprits is extensive dry season irrigation which dries up the rivers and disturbs the ecosystem and wildlife and inefficient water use e.g., low efficiencies of many irrigation schemes which are estimated at 10–15%. 1.2. Objectives The study was prompted by the decline of the traditional irrigation canals system in Mwanga district that have been a major cushion against food insecurity in the area for
Fig. 1. Comparison of rivers and canals during wet and dry season, Mwanga district.
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many years in the past. The major objective was to identify the factors behind the decline with a view of recommending ways in which the decline can be reversed.
2. Presentation of research findings and discussion
1.3. Methodology
Data from the interviews and group discussions indicate that the major economic activity in the area is agriculture which is practiced by 63% and livestock keeping is practiced by 18% of those interviewed. Other activities are business (6%) and employment (3%). About 7% of the interviewees indicated to combine all the activities mentioned above which is typical in the rural areas as a means to guard against unreliability in the activities. Table 2 below is illustrative. Ownership of land which is the major means of production is mainly through inheritance. Even though, about 15% of the respondents indicated to have acquired land through village government allocations, 13% got land through purchase, and 10% hired land. Land renting which was famous in the past is insignificant today because the traditional contracts under which land is rented are no longer honored. The major food crops in the area include maize which is grown by 98% of respondents, vegetables (87%), and banana (50%). A number of people have given up growing some crops for various reasons. Crops that were grown in the past are no longer being grown in the district. For example, the number of people growing coffee (once a dependable cash crop in the area) has declined and is now being grown by only around 16% of the households. Table 3 below is illustrative of this situation. Shortage of water and drought (21%) were the main reasons that were given for a change in crops grown in the
This paper is based on a recent study on Mwanga district traditional irrigation canal system. Given the two important typologies in the district (highlands and lowlands), the selection of sample villages was made carefully to ensure that villages from both the highland and lowland are included in the sample. The list of selected villages and number of interviews per village is summarized in Table 1. The study was mainly done through participatory approaches, which included discussions with stakeholders at various levels (i.e., governments and local village leaders, water user associations, water cooperatives and individual farmers). These discussions were conducted in groups. The first groups comprised of village and hamlet leaders and water users. Others included stakeholders groups, i.e., local government institutions, NGOs, Irrigators, and non-irrigators. In-depth interviews were also conducted with key informers from the local population. Here key informants like elderly people were visited with a view of gathering some historical insights about the management of the traditional irrigation canals. In addition, a structured questionnaire was administered to 271 farmers (169 men and 111 women) who were associated with the traditional irrigation systems in the sampled villages. After data collection and preliminary analysis, a stakeholdersÕ workshop was organized to discuss the preliminary results with the local communities and other stakeholders where the study was conducted. The objective the meeting was to ensure that the stakeholders get a chance to comment and contribute to the study findings and the final report. Table 1 List of villages, population size and number of interviews Name of village
Population 2002
Kileo Butu-Ugweno Kigonigoni Chomvu Kati Mbore Shigatini Kwakoa-Toloha Kisangara Ndanda-mbakwe Usangi-Kilaweni Lambo Lembeni Mshewa Mamba No response
2973 738 2153 – 1423 1971 1932 3325 1683 1596 2338 1003 2092 1033
Total
Number of interviews
Percentage of sample
48 34 52 8 33 8 22 18 4 5 11 3 4 6 15
17.7 12.5 19.2 3.0 12.2 3.0 8.1 6.6 1.5 1.8 4.1 1.1 1.5 2.2 5.5
271
100.0
2.1. Major economic activities in Mwanga district
Table 2 Main economic activities Activities
Frequency
Farming Livestock Business Employment All above No response
170 49 16 7 18 11
Percentage 62.7 18.1 5.9 2.6 6.6 4.1
Total
271
100.0
Table 3 Which crop were you growing in the past which you are not growing now Crop Maize, beans, cassava Coffee, bananas Sugarcane Sisal Rice None Vegetable Beans No response Total
Frequency
Percentage
15 28 5 17 36 91 11 8 60
5.5 10.3 1.8 6.3 13.3 33.6 4.1 3.0 22.1
271
100.0
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area. This reason supports the arguments given earlier that the area is drought prone and water scarcity is a major problem. Other reasons for the change of crops include high cost of production (9%), labour shortage (6%), marketing problem (4%), diseases (3%), and soil erosion (2%). People change cropping patterns due to market availability, food security issues, water scarcity, and for income generation. A large number of the respondents (55%) did not respond to this question. Coffee is grown in the highlands while maize, paddy and vegetables are grown in the lowlands. To replace coffee, households which benefit from irrigation now grow vegetables as a cash crop. Vegetables are preferred to coffee because they are shot term crop, require less labour, and the market is not bureaucratic as compared to coffee. With regards to marketing, there are daily evening markets in most villages whereby vegetables are sold. There was agreement among the various respondents that irrigation is very central to agricultural production in the area. For example, the majority of respondents (90%) irrigate their land and it is only through irrigation that they can manage to produce enough crops. Through irrigation people are able to produce two crops of maize and at least three crops of vegetables per year. However observations indicated that most of the irrigation infrastructures are elementary with major source of water for irrigation being rivers. Slightly more than 91% of respondents reported to get water for irrigation from rivers. The use of Dams as sources of irrigation water is insignificant (2%). However, most of the irrigators rely on small overnight reservoirs called ndiva (Fig. 2) as a source of the irrigation water. Water is collected in a ndiva overnight and it is distributed to the irrigation channels/furrows in accordance to established rules and timetable. The dependence on rivers means that people are not informed about the risks they face from climate change and increased extraction upstream as very little water is available for irrigation during, especially the dry season. These observations
clearly indicate that water shortage is a real and most serious problem facing the people in the district, especially for irrigators. 2.2. Ownership and supervision of operations One of the main factors that are leading to decline in the use of traditional irrigation systems is the changes in the social, economic and demographic domains. Whereas the population in the area has significantly increased leading to increased demand for food and arable land, the number of water extractors and irrigators has also increased. The disparity between available resources and demand is causing a number of water use conflicts. There are conflicts between upstream and downstream users, among downstream irrigators themselves, and between irrigators and livestock keepers. All these conflicts are cantered around changes in the ownership and management systems of the water resources and the canals. Group discussions and in-depth interviews revealed that in the past, the ownership and supervision of operation of traditional canals and water sources and catchments were under the initiator clan which dictated terms with regard to irrigation water management. The owning clan normally nominated an individual who was seen as diligent, responsible and committed to operate the irrigation system. The clan planned the water scheduling, allocation and distribution. The later was more crucial during lower discharges from the sources when irrigation rotation becomes inevitable. The maintenance of the traditional canals was the responsibility of the user community. The community instituted cultural norms that regulated and controlled the users with regard to water allocation and distribution. The canal system had the support of the Chiefs who punished unruly users. The current system puts the management and control of water resources and canals under the user groups or individuals but these do not own water sources and/or catchments. Whereas in the past some of
Fig. 2. Improved ndiva and irrigation canal in Mwanga district.
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the rules and guidelines were guided by myth and beliefs, today they are guided by-laws that are hardly observed. In other words, community and community leaders no longer take responsibility of the irrigation canal or furrow system. After independence most ownership of irrigation canal system was switched to village governments with the central government inclined towards construction of ‘‘new and modern’’ schemes. It is here that the decline set in as a result of mismanagement and the erosion of the sense of obligation that was based on the earlier system of ownership and supervision. This has prompted the government to revert to some kind of community ownership and management of irrigation canal system by encouraging farmers to form Water User Associations and irrigatorsÕ cooperatives. The water use groups that have been formed now do not own the water sources or the catchment areas. The by-laws and sanctions that have replaced the customary norms, beliefs and sanctions are not effective.
managed water distribution systems which at times lead to water loses when some people get more water than they want. This situation has stimulated a number of conflicts that threaten the whole irrigation system. Table 5 below gives the stakeholdersÕ assessment of the intensity of the various causes of water scarcity in the district. As the data in Table 5 shows, the factors that recorded the higher proportion in the very significant column are clearing of water sources and river banks (57.9%); uncontrolled tree felling (57.2%); clearing of catchments forests (51.2%); non-sustainable resource use (49.8%); poor management and allocation of water to the village (49.8%); and population pressure (48.4%). In general terms, the factors that are leading in influencing water scarcity are related to deforestation, non-sustainable resource use and population pressure. The impact of population pressure is being reflected in terms of water scarcity due to increased demand, environmental degradation due to deforestation and expansion of farmlands, conflicts, and poverty levels.
2.3. Problems associated with scarcity of water for irrigation
2.4. Conflicts in water use The National Water Policy (2002) points out that water issues vary from place to place and that such diversity and the nature of activities on the same water resources in the different areas are pertinent issues as far as water management systems. Conflicts among irrigators upstream and downstream in the same district and between two districts have been noted during the study. There are also conflicts between irrigators upstream and downstream, and between animals and crop producers. As human and livestock population grows and agriculture expands the nature and intensity of the conflict also increases. Conflicts between irrigators emerge when individuals competed to get the limited water for irrigation purposes. The study revealed that despite the existence of a water distribution mechanism, some individuals use various means to get water without following the laid down procedures especially during the dry season. This is because there is not enough water and people are not sure whether water will ever get to their fields. Over 20% of the respondents indicate water shortage to be the main cause of conflicts.
There are many problems that are associated with the non-availability of water for irrigation. The most pressing problems are summarized in Table 4. The data demonstrate that water shortage is the major problem followed by poor management of water. Information gathered from group and in-depth discussions suggested that water shortage is not only caused by lack of rainfall and increased users, but also because of poorly Table 4 List of problems associated with scarcity of water for irrigation Problem
Frequency
Water shortage Erosion Poor management of water Misunderstanding among people All above No response
220 7 33 3 4 4
Percentage 81.2 2.6 4.8 1.1 1.5 8.9
Total
271
100.0
Table 5 StakeholdersÕ assessment of the severity of various causes of water scarcity Causes of irrigation water scarcity
Clearing of water sources and river banks Uncontrolled tree felling (deforestation) Clearing of catchments forests Non-sustainable resource use Poor management and allocation of water to the village Population pressure Farming on steep slopes Collection of firewood Charcoal making Unplanned settlements
Importance of various causes of water scarcity
Total
Insignificant
Slightly significant
Very significant
No response
Percent
Number
12.2 19.9 24 32.8 20.3 19.6 33.6 36.2 36.2 39.9
26.2 19.6 19.6 14.4 26.6 29.2 22.9 20.7 23.6 24.7
57.9 57.2 51.2 49.8 49.8 48.4 40.2 38.7 35.1 31.8
3.7 3.3 5.2 3 3.3 3 3.3 4.4 5.2 3.7
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271 271
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Other sources of conflicts include weak leadership, unfair distribution of water, and non-members interference. Suggestions from the local stakeholders indicate that the conflicts over water resources could be resolved through improvement of canals to increase water volume, strengthening leadership by removing weak leaders and retaining the most capable, introducing water conflict resolution boards and protecting water sources. Discussions revealed that the most common practice used by people is to bribe the water distributors so that they allocate more water. Sometimes others steal water during the nights. The study also revealed that most of the by-laws are not enforced, and where they are enforced the culprits are rarely punished heavily. For example, in some furrows/canals, by-laws stated that persons destroying the furrows/canal were to be fined Tsh 500 or more (equivalent to 0.5 US$); and a person who steals water is fined Tsh 1000 (about 1 US$). But a person who steals water and irrigates his/her crops gets more when he sells his/her products and this means the fine is obviously not deterrent. A more serious and debilitating conflict observed was that between irrigators and pastoralists. In some of the villages, pastoralists and crop producers coexist and during water shortage they differ in terms of which should be given priority animals or crops. In Kirya village, for example, the situation is very serious because while there are by-laws guiding water use, these favoured agriculturalists. In fact the pastoralists claimed not to have been involved in the formulation of the by-laws. The common prejudice that sees pastoralism as a relic of the past was operative here. Discussions revealed that both leaders and the agriculturalists equated agriculture to progress and therefore by-laws to safeguard agriculture should be respected by all even if they did not participate in making them. Of course for the laws to be respected and hence effective, it is important that they are just to all parties. The pastoralists felt that he by-laws were prejudiced against them so they were not keen in respecting them. In this regard the process of formulating by-laws should as much as possible strive to safeguard the interests of all the stakeholders. The last major conflict concerns upstream and downstream users. This was identified as a serious problem in the study area. During the dry season when there is water shortage and in the absence of effective water sharing mechanism that binds all parties, the irrigators downstream go without water. This is the case even where they have valid water user rights. The upstream irrigators use water without recourse to those downstream. The problem is more complicated where the conflict involve people from two districts and hence beyond the jurisdiction of one district authority. The Kileo canal in Mwanga district, for example, is downstream of people in Moshi rural district who use water from the same river (Wona) for irrigation. During the dry season the Kileo irrigators hardly get water for irrigation. It is therefore important that an effective authority is established to ensure equitable use of water
to various categories of water users. For this authority to be effective however it is important that there is good governance in place and this is hardly the case in the study area. 2.5. Observed changes over time Respondents were asked to report whether they have observed any changes during the past 15–20 years. The responses are summarized in Table 6. The data shows that climate change, irrigation, improved implements and environmental destruction are the main observations made during the past 20 years. In a way these changes are related to the water scarcity experienced today. The reasons for these changes include shortage of rainfall/drought, loss of fertility, increased farming knowledge, T.I.P. facilitation, extension services-MIFIPRO, human activities, and expansion of irrigation system. 2.6. Water for irrigation About 97% of the respondents indicated that they have been involved in irrigated agriculture. Table 7 below shows the periods when the respondents started irrigated agriculture. The data suggest that the majority of irrigators started during the 1990s. It is not surprising therefore that these irrigators are not familiar with the traditional irrigation systems and the guiding rules. This seems to be the influenced of the Traditional Irrigation Project (T.I.P.) and Table 6 Changes observed in the past 15–20 years Changes observed
Frequency
Climate changes Irrigation Improvement of implements Environmental destruction Increased production Introduction of fertilizer Insecticides All above None No response Total
Percentage
46 43 33 19 17 9 4 47 38 15
17.0 15.9 12.2 7.0 6.3 3.3 1.5 17.4 14.0 5.5
271
100.0
Table 7 Period of starting irrigated agriculture Period of starting irrigation
Frequency
Before 1960 1960–1980 1980–1990 1990–2000 2000+ Do not remember No response
19 24 58 111 26 14 19
Percentage 7.0 8.9 21.4 41.0 9.6 5.2 7.0
Total
271
100.0
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the MIFIPRO project. The two have been dealing with improvement of the declining traditional irrigation systems. When asked about the main sources of water for irrigation, about 92% indicated that they rely on rivers and only 2% rely on dams. The main problems experienced with regard to availability of water for irrigation include water shortage (81%), soil erosion (3%), poor management of water systems (5%), and misunderstanding among the irrigators (1%). All these problems create a conducive environment for water use conflicts, hence making it difficult for the traditional irrigation systems to flourish. When asked about the main causes of those problems, about 27% and 24% of the respondents indicated seasonal rainfall and increased number of water users, respectively, as the main causes of problems. Yet about 12% of the respondents identified lack of reservoir, 11% destruction and lack of maintenance of traditional canals, 8% mentioned climate change, and 7% ignorance among the farmers. If seasonal rainfall and climate change are combined together, they contribute about 34% of all respondents. The reliance on seasonal rainfall and non-use of other sources of water for irrigation reflects the poverty levels of the water users in the district. Overtime, new changes have been introduced in the management and maintenance of the traditional canals. The major changes observed in management systems of the tradition canal between past and now include improvement of the traditional canals (25%) as a result of the involvement of the T.I.P. and MIFIPRO projects, shortage of water and farm land (19%), User group formed (9%), ownership of canal from personal to communal (8%), and improvement of management is systems (6%). Despite the observed positive changes, there are some people who reported no change and poor management. All in all, the main reasons behind the positive changes observed include the T.I.P. facilitation (13%), improved irrigation technologies (14%) and support from MIFIPRO (16%). On the negative side, the main causes include lack of leadership seminars (6%), misunderstandings (5%), ignorance (4%), and increased water users (25%). Table 8 below summarizes the management related problems that were menTable 8 Problems facing management of traditional agriculture and hope they can be minimized Which problems do you see in the management of traditional irrigation canal?
How can these problems be minimized?
Water leakage Lack of pipes Weak leadership Lack of cooperation Ping implement Erosion Drought Regular maintenance Low income Stilling of water Low capacity of ndiva
Improve leadership Extending canals Maintenance of canals Constructed cemented canals Change leadership Increasing funds Do not know Rain water harvest Improve ndiva capacity
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tioned by the respondents and strategies to minimize those problems. Evidence from the interviews with local people indicates that only 25% of the Water User Groups have actually obtained a Water Right and 58% of the User Groups were operating without official water right. Even under this circumstance different mechanisms are being used to distribute water to the water users. 2.7. Governance issues The diversity and nature of activities that depend on the same water resources is a big challenge to efficient management of water use. The very existence of conflicts discussed above calls for good governance in management of water to ensure that the different user groups enhance their opportunities to fulfill their water needs. Governance in the study area leaves much to be desired and this has adversely affected the efficient management of the traditional canals system as well as engendering the water user conflicts. Table 9 below summarizes the different strategies used to distribute water. The data shows that rationing is the most famous strategy used in distributing water. This is followed by leaders making a decision on how water should be distributed, daily allocations per family, and allocation according to application. These observations suggest that there is no systematic approach to water allocations. Such a situation can create chaos and conflicts. A number of these are discussed below. First the relationship between some village governments and the water user groups is reported as conflictual. To the extent that village governments tend to see issues concerned with irrigation to be the domain of the water user groups. In the circumstance, it becomes difficult for the by-laws that safeguard irrigation system to be effective. This is because it is the village government that should enforce the by-laws. This also indicates a weakness on the part of the village government because it is supposed to be the custodian/care-taker of all natural resources in the village. If the village government abdicates this responsibility then it means that there is no one to ensure that the policies are adhered to at the local level. Table 9 Strategies used to distribute water to various stakeholders How is the water distributed among water users Rotational Leaders decide Daily allocation per person Allocation according to application Depends on water available Homely allocation According to ward Do not know No response Total
Frequency
Percentage
68 62 44 38 21 12 10 2 14
25.1 22.9 16.2 14 7.7 4.4 3.7 0.7 5.2
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Secondly, people complained of the non-observing of the laid down regulations by official institutions. The Law for issuance of certificate of water right, for example, requires that the issuing office must satisfy itself that such action does not deny others access. Besides, the applying individual/ group should have the endorsement of villages that have stake in the watercourse. In some cases this is not observed. In Mikuyuni village, for example, one person claim to have been given a water user permit to construct a reservoir upstream of the irrigation facility which serves about 30 households. The built structure blocks all the water especially during the dry season and this has totally stopped irrigation activities for other farmers during the dry season. The culprit has apparently sought and obtained endorsement from only one village upstream and not the one down tream. Despite several complaints by the water user group downstream which has a water user certificate, the concerned authorities have not redressed the situation. This has bred mistrust among the water user group members and other villagers that some kind of corruption is involved. Thirdly and related to the foregoing, the study noted that most water user groups in the area have applied for water user rights and paid the required fees. However it is now about 2 years but they are yet to get the water user right certificates and the authorities have not provided any satisfactory explanation. Much as there might be justification for the delay, lack of transparency breeds speculations that are more often than not damning to the authorities. In the absence of an explanation the majority of irrigators are convinced that their money has been misused. Fourthly discussions with the leaders at the villages and hamlets level indicated that there was lack of coordination within the village leadership and between the village leadership, the ward executive secretary and the District authorities. It was pointed out that executive Officers at times failed to be effective because she/he does not get support from the village government which is comprised of elected persons from within the village. The village government tended to support the local people even where they were in the wrong. The tendency is to be sympathetic to the culprits instead of following the laid down by-laws that were made by the same government. The situation is more serious for the Ward executive Officer (WEO) who is a District Government employee. He is an outsider as far as the villagers and their elected leaders are concerned. In this regard his work too becomes difficult. Even where the WEO strives to see to it that set by-laws are followed, (s)he is frustrated by lack of support from the district authorities. The discussions, for example, indicate that people sent to the district for breaking laws are often let free to come and boast in the village including ridiculing the authorities. A notable observation was that apart from the fact that the National water policy emphasizes on involvement of the stakeholders, about 95% of the people interviewed were not clear on a number of policy issues. This was true for both the leaders (at the village level) and ordinary water users. This is a serious state of affairs. It means people were
not effectively involved in the policy formulation process despite official claims to the contrary. One is tempted to argue for the need to train the local leaders and people on policy issues. But for purposes of empowering them, this is a non-starter because it is important that they are an organic part in the policy formulation process. The strength of this is that people and their leaders emerge from the process not only understanding the policies but also their responsibilities and that of others in the implementation of the policies. This helps also to ensure accountability on the parts of the leaders. If policies on water use are clear to people then transparency and accountability will reign and this will ensure efficiency in water use and distribution. 3. Conclusions It has been pointed out that the people of Mwanga are dependent on water for their twin activities of crop and animal production. Irrigation, for example, is the only means through which these people can obtain adequate produce. This notwithstanding the irrigation infrastructure is still very rudimentary. This coupled with shortage of water, the pressure on water resources as users increase, ineffective by-laws and weak governance at the local level is threatening the traditional canal system. The situation can be salvaged through better management and need based water distribution. Conflicts arise because there is no effective management system that takes into account the various and diverse interests as far as water uses are concerned. Given the importance of water to human needs and the fact that it is a common need and also that there is multiplicity of use, it is pertinent that there is a clear system of managing water to ensures that various interests are taken into account. In this regard the study recommended strengthening of governance at the local level and ensuring political support to ensure empowerment of the local leaders to take action as per the laid down by laws and regulations. In order to achieve this, the study suggested improved coordination and increased awareness about the water policy, the role of leaders and the general public, and relationship with other institutions in the village/district and with natural resources like water in the village/district. This should also ensure involving the diverse interests in making by-laws or any other regulation with regard to water use. A second recommendation is to establish watercourse boards that will oversee equitable allocation and distribution of water among different categories of water uses. This body will have to be given the requisite training but more important cooperation from all stakeholders, including village and district governments. There is also a need for the stakeholders to take stock on the needs of the water users and evolve with a needs assessment based distribution system. The last recommendation from this study is the introduction of water serving irrigation techniques that will ensure efficient use of water and environmental sustainability. Given the fact that Mwanga district receives inadequate
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rainfall, shortage of water for irrigation is eminent. Irrigators need to be encouraged to use low water consuming irrigation technologies like include drip irrigation and use of pipes to curtail seepage and wastage respectively. Related to this is the need to transform the irrigation infrastructure through reinforcement of the furrows and damming of the rivers. Yet, emphasis should be put on rainwater harvesting which is another important option to sustain irrigated agriculture in the district. All these efforts need to be supported by the indigenous knowledge and traditional management systems that are still relevant today. The study is aware that the recommended measures have cost implications and hence begs the question who should finance the changes. One positive fact is that the irrigators are committed to change and invest in some activities to ensure sustainable irrigation e.g., in terracing for purposes of conserving land. Besides, most crucial is the fact that the recommended changes need to be integrated into the broader efforts to eradicate poverty which include inter alia doing away with the structural constraints on peoples capacity to improve their livelihoods. One of the constraints is the absence of credit facilities at the grass root level that may enable the peasants to obtain loans to improve or transform their agricultural infrastructure in general and irrigation technology in particular. Besides, the Tanzanian Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) mentions research and extension in agriculture as one of the priority sectors where debt relief funds under Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) should be channeled. So if policies and strategies stay focused and committed to this course, resources should
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be available to facilitate changes at the grass root level that would ensure improvement of livelihoods. References Fungameza, D., 1992. Study on the indigenous land use system in the North Pare Mountains with special reference to the Wagweno and Wasangi ethnic groups in North and South respectively. GTZ/TFAP Mwanga, Mwanga. Kimambo, I.N., 1969. A Political History of the Pare of Tanzania 1500– 1900. East African Publishing House, Nairobi. Mashauri, A., 1985. The cultural dimension in water project. In: Ari Serkkola, Christine Mann (Eds). Cultural Dimension of Development Seminar Proceedings. Finnish National Commission for UNESCO, Publication No. 33, pp. 221–242. Mvungi, A.A.K., Mashauri, D., Madulu, N., Wahure, O., 2004. Social Economic Aspects of Traditional Canals in Mwanga District, Research Report to Water Research Fund for Southern Africa (WARFSA), Harare. Omari, C.K., 1969. Religion, Population and Land use in Pare: A Case Study in a Traditional Society Staff Seminar Paper, Department of Sociology, Dar es Salaam, August. Omari, C.K., 1990a. God and Worship in Traditional Asu Society. Verlagder Ev-Lutheran, Erlangen. Omari, C.K., 1990b. Traditional African land ethics. In: Ronald Engel, J., Gibb Engel, Joan (Eds.), Ethics of Environment and Development Global Challenge international Response. Belhaven Press, London, pp. 167–175. United Republic of Tanzania, 2002. The National Water Policy of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam. Yoshida, M., 1985. Traditional furrow irrigation system in the South Pare Mountains area of Tanzania. In: Mascarenhas et al. (Eds.), Opportunities for Irrigation Development in Tanzania. Institute of Developing, Tokyo.