Mariculture in SE Sulawesi, Indonesia: Culture practices and the socio economic aspects of the major commodities

Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 44e57

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Ocean & Coastal Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman

Mariculture in SE Sulawesi, Indonesia: Culture practices and the socio economic aspects of the major commodities La Ode M. Aslan a, Wa Iba a, La Ode Ridwan Bolu b, Brett A. Ingram c, *, Geoff. J. Gooley d, Sena S. de Silva e a

Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Halu Oleo University, Kendari, SE Sulawesi, Indonesia Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan, Kendari, SE Sulawesi, Indonesia Fisheries Victoria, Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, Private Bag 20, Alexandra, Victoria 3714, Australia d CSIRO, Aspendale, Victoria 3195, Australia e School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280, Australia b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 29 October 2014 Received in revised form 24 June 2015 Accepted 28 June 2015 Available online xxx

South East Sulawesi, Indonesia (120
450 e124
060 E: 3
e6
S) has a rapidly developing mariculture sector. The sector essentially consists of small scale farmer owned/leased, operated and managed systems located mainly in rural coastal villages. The study was aimed at evaluating the nature and the socioeconomics of the major culture practices in SE Sulawesi. The number of households engaged in mariculture in SE Sulawesi increased from 9929 in 2001 to 31,086 in 2012. Over the same time the culture area increased from 1193 ha to 26,950 ha and production from 9400 t to 640,226 t, with the main commodity, being the seaweed species Kappaphycus alvarezii (cottonii) and Eucheuma denticulatum (spinosum), accounting for more than 95% of the production, followed by grouper species. In addition farming of lobster, winged pearl oyster and sea cucumber, all based on seedstock collected form the wild, also occurs. In this paper the practices of the four major commodities cultured in SE Sulawesi, viz. seaweed, groupers, lobsters and winged pearl oyster are described and are based on information collected through a number of surveys conducted in the Buton and Muna Islands and in Kendari, in 2012 e2013. Accordingly, information on the farming communities, such as the average age of farmers, years of farming experiences, education level and other related aspects together with information on the culture cycle duration, yields, and costs involved for each commodity are presented. For example, in seaweed culture the annual production (by dry weight) per farm ranged from 0.4 to 42 t/yr (mean 6.1 t/ year) and the crop size ranged from 0.1 to 10.0 t/yr (mean 1.2 t/yr), and equates to around 1 t/ha and 6 t/ ha/yr (assuming 6 crops per year). Operating costs for seaweed culture ranged from IDR 0.01e10.7  106 (mean IDR 2.08  106), and were mainly for purchase of seed (63%), fuel (20%) and labour (16%). Cost of Production (CoP) ranged from IDR 1000e8000/kg (mean IDR 4900/kg). Policies, strategies and planning to further develop mariculture in SE Sulawesi will need on-going support of farmer clusters, along with training in business management and marketing that will help empower farmers and provide them with the ability to have more influence on the market chain. Environmental factors will also need to be taken into account when planning the development of new and expanding mariculture activities, particularly changing environmental conditions associated with monsoonal weather patterns, and ensuring impacts of farming activities on the environment are minimised. Crown Copyright © 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Aquaculture Seaweed Grouper Lobster Winged pearl oyster Farmer livelihood

1. Introduction In a previous publication (Sahrir et al., 2014) the importance and relevance of mariculture developments to the Island of Sulawesi, * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (B.A. Ingram). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.06.028 0964-5691/Crown Copyright © 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

and in particular the relatively improvised South East Sulawesi Province (120
450 e124
060 E: 3
e6
S) of the Island was highlighted. Furthermore, there is an indirect importance of this province, being at the centre of the coral triangle that imposes numerous challenges with regard to ensuring the region's biodiversity when embarking on mariculture development. Briefly, Indonesia is a major aquaculture producing nation globally, with a

L.O.M. Aslan et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 44e57

recorded production of 7,937,072 t in 2011, valued at US $ 7.485 billion, which approximates 9.5% and 10.4% of global and Asian production, respectively and in value of 5.5% and 7.0% (FAO, 2014b). On the other hand, mariculture in SE Sulawesi, as a commercial activity commenced around 2000 when the Provincial government and the associated regencies recognised mariculture development as a major strategy to provide livelihood opportunities, as well as contribute to the economy of the region (Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan, 2009). The number of households engaged in mariculture in SE Sulawesi increased from 9929 in 2001 to 31,086 in 2012 (Data Source: Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara). Over the same time the culture area increased from 1193 ha to 26,950 and production increased from 9400 t to 640,226 t (Sahrir et al., 2014). Mariculture production in SE Sulawesi is primarily dominated by small to medium scale, farmer owned/leased, operated and managed systems dominated in volume by production of seaweed (Kappaphycus alvarezii, “cottonii” and Eucheuma denticulatum, “spinosum”) and in monetary value by grouper species (e.g. Epinephelus fuscoguttatus, tiger grouper, Cromileptes altivelis, mouse or humpback grouper etc.). In 2012, for example, seaweed production accounted for more than 95% of total mariculture production in SE Sulawesi (Data Source: Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara). In addition to these two commodities, small scale aquaculture practices exist for spiny lobster, winged pearl oyster and sea cucumber. This paper attempts to describe the prevailing mariculture practices and related socio-economic factors of the respective farming communities, based on extensive surveys conducted between 2012 and 2013. Accordingly, the prevailing culture practices on seaweeds, K. alvarezii and E. denticulatum, grouper species, lobster (Panulirus spp) and winged pearl oyster (Pteria penguin) are presented. In respect of each of the above commodities (a) production, (b) socio-economic aspects, and (c) disease occurrence are dealt with. It is expected that these data will provide useful information with regard to the farming practices that could be adopted in other regions in Indonesia and elsewhere, and also highlight the problems that are encountered by small scale mariculture farmers. The overall rapid development of mariculture practices in SE Sulawesi in relation to the prevailing policy milieu and the potential impacts on it from major developments on land are also highlighted.

45

2. Materials and methods Production and revenue statistics were obtained from the Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan (Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries) (Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan) for 2003e2010, and Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara (Department of Marine and Fisheries of South East Sulawesi) (DKP), the governmental authority responsible for provincial agriculture and fisheries developments, for 2011e2013. The primary data on the farming activities were collected through a structured questionnaire, farm visits and famer interviews. This questionnaire(s) was initially tested with randomly selected stakeholders (farmers, village farm cooperative leaders, collectors, wholesalers), and suitably modified based on the responses received, before the revised version was used in the main survey. In this regard the experiences gained in the past on, for example, surveys of catfish farming practices in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam (Phan et al., 2009) by some of the researchers in the group, were used to improve the questionnaire and make it more user friendly. The interviewers were trained in the interviewing process, and two interviewers were always involved in each farmer interview. Villages and commodities to be the focus of the survey were selected by general consensus of DKP regional and district staff, staff of the Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Halu Oleo University who have been involved in mariculture research and development activities in the past, and district representatives from the mariculture industry who participated at an initial consultation convened for the purpose (Kendari, September 2012). Mariculture farmers to be surveyed were drawn from villages in the Regencies of Kendari, Muna Island and Buton Island, SE Sulawesi (Fig. 1). Although mariculture is developing along almost all of the coastline of SE-Sulawesi, these areas are where a larger acreage of farms operate (Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan, 2009). The commodities selected were seaweed, lobster, grouper and winged pearl oyster, which are the dominant species cultured in these areas (Aslan et al., 2008; Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan, 2009). A total of 104 farmers from Kendari (Purirano and Tondonggeu villages), Muna Island (Bahari, Renda and Napabalano villages) and Buton Island (Palabusa village) were surveyed (Table 1). Renda and Palabusa had been part of an earlier study (Albasri et al., 2010). Each farmer was asked a series of questions that covered general

Fig. 1. SE Sulawesi showing location of villages where farmers were surveyed (inset: Indonesia showing location of SE Sulawesi).

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information regarding education and training, commodities farmed, farming and husbandry practices used, disease issues, costs and income, and social aspects of farming. Some questions in the surveys were tailored to the commodities farmed, for example questions about feeding rates for lobsters and grouper, and longevity of seaweed culture ropes etc. The responses at the interviews were primarily based on the records maintained by farmers or their recollections. Not surprisingly, however, most answers, where relevant, conformed to those that have been provided in our earlier informal discussions during prior visits to these sites. The survey results were inputted into a customised electronic database (MS Excel 2010; Microsoft Corporation, USA), in which data manipulation and relevant statistical analyses were undertaken. In addition, relevant information on the mariculture in SE Sulawesi was obtained from regional and district DKP offices. It became apparent during the course of the survey, and on the basis of anecdotal evidence, that mariculture activities were impacted by rainfall pattern, particularly because most of the practices were located in shallow bays. As such rainfall data for the Province were obtained from the Bureau of Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics (Kendari, Indonesia).

total production, and grouper, followed by several other commodities as mentioned previously. Apart from a major drop in 2009, production has been on an upward trend for all the major commodities. Based on the survey results, the production cycles for these commodities were derived and are schematically presented in Fig. 3. A more detailed description of the market chains for these commodities are provided in MoreLink Asia Pacific (2008) and Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan (2009). Farmers surveyed were between 21 and 81 years old (mean 43 ± 12 se). Major differences between districts and commodities were not evident from the survey. Forty nine percent of farmers had primary school education, 40% secondary (high school) and just 8% college/university education. Farming skills were acquired mainly from family members (family tradition) (38%), other farmers and associated cluster activities (33%), and from extension officers and organised training courses (21%) conducted by governmental organisations. On average, farmers had been farming for 4.3 years, though some, such as seaweed farmers in Muna Island, had been farming for up to 25 years. Seaweed (mean 5.9 years) and grouper (mean 4.4 years), had been farming longer than oyster (mean 2.6 years) and lobster farmers (mean 1.6 years). Although the study focused on the commodities seaweed, lobster, grouper and winged pearl oyster, some farmers also cultured sea cucumber (e.g. sandfish, Holothuria scabra), crab (mangrove and/or mud crab, Scylla spp.) and Caranx spp. (e.g. trevally). In all these instances the seed were wild caught, locally. Most (77%) farmed only one commodity, while 21% farmed two commodities and just two farmer farmed 3e4 commodities. Most farmers (86%) also obtained income from other sources, mainly by fishing (79%) and as traders/wholesalers (7%). This appears to be a general trend for farmers in the region. In Laikang Bay (South Sulawesi) for example, 37% of seaweed farmers were also involved with fishing (Zamroni and Yamao, 2011). Higher production levels and sale prices offered for grouper and lobster in particular often corresponded with key market driven events, such as the Chinese New Year and Eid fest (the festival celebrating the end of Ramadan).

3. Results and discussion

3.2. Social aspects

3.1. General aspects

Labour on grouper and lobsters farms were mainly family members while more non-family labour was used in seaweed and oyster farming. Grouper and lobster farming was dominated by males (females: males ¼ 1: 3), whereas female: male ration was nearly equal in seaweed (1: 0.95) and pearl oyster (1: 1.33) farming (Tables 2e5). Both genders were involved in all aspects of farming. Fifty-two percent of farmers were a member of a farming cluster that were commodity specific. Cluster membership was highest in Kendari (81%) followed by Muna Island (52%), whilst in Buton Island farmers were not organised into clusters. Cluster groups usually had up to 20 members, though some had up to 60 members. Membership in clusters ranged from 1 to 12 years (mean 4.8 years). Seaweed cluster groups (mean 5.9 years membership) appear to have been operating longer than lobster and grouper clusters (mean 3.6 years membership), which reflects the longer history of seaweed farming in the region. The government of Indonesia considers aquaculture as an important sector that has the potential to contribute significantly to national economic growth, food security and livelihoods in rural communities, and in 2009 the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries announced a strategic plan to increase production by 353% by 2015 (Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan, 2010). A number of government strategies were enacted to support this increase (Rimmer et al., 2013), which included encouraging the

Table 1 Summary of core data from famers surveyed in Kendari, and Muna and Buton islands. Parameter

Number villages Number farmers interviewed Farmers by commodity Lobster Grouper Seaweed Winged pearl oyster Trevally (Caranx) Crab (Scylla spp.) Sea cucumber

Regency

Total

Buton Is.

Kendari

Muna Is.

1 16

2 30

3 58

6 104

9 4 24

23 23 27

32 27 59 8 2 1 1

8 8

2 1 1

The trends in mariculture production from 2000 onwards in SE Sulawesi is shown in Fig. 2. It is evident that mariculture in the region is dominated by seaweed, which accounted for >95% of the

Fig. 2. Trends in mariculture production of the major commodities in SE Sulawesi. (data source: Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan, 2012, and Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara).

L.O.M. Aslan et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 44e57

47

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the production chain for seaweed, grouper, lobster and winged pearl oyster in SE Sulawesi. The pie diagrams show the extent (%) of seed obtained from different sources for seaweed, grouper and lobster farming in SE Sulawesi.

Table 2 Seaweed production data (values represent mean with range in parentheses). Parameter 2

Farm size (m ) Distance from Village (km) Years farming Rope length (m) Distance between ties (m) Distance between ropes (m) Cost of production (IDR/kg) Crops per year Annual production (tonne/year/farm) Production per crop (tonnes/crop) Sale price (IDR/kg) E. denticulatum K. alvarezii Labour Family members Non-family members Gender balance (female: male) Cluster membership (% of farmers)

Buton Is.

Kendari

Muna Is.

Overall

8475 (45e60,000) 0.7 (0.4e1) 4.9 (0.3e10) 32 (15e100) 0.19 (0.1e0.2) 0.27 (0.2e0.5) 5800 (3000e8000) 7 (2e10) 1.6 (0.8e4) 0.4 (0.1e2)

12,904 (280e45000) 0.8 (0.03e3) 6.9 (1e15) 102 (5e300) 0.8 (0.1e2.5) 1.4 (0.3e2) 5800 (1000e8000) 3 (1e8) 5.6 (0.5e35) 1.6 (0.2e10)

14,200 (2800e40,000) 1.9 (0e5) 5.5 (0.08e25) 60 (40e100) 0.2 (0.15e0.3) 1.5 (0.3e5) 3800 (1000e8000) 7(3e14) 8.2 (0.4e42) 1.2 (0.1e10)

12,62 (45e60,000) 1.2 (0e5) 4.3 (0.08e25) 72 (5e300) 0.45 (0.1e2.5) 1.3 (0.2e5.0) 4900 (1000e8000) 6 (1e10) 6.1 (0.4e42) 1.2 (0.1e10)

No data 6,90 (5000e8000)

7000 (3500e21,000) 7000 (2500e25,000)

2400 (1500e27,000) 5800 (2500e10,000)

2700 (1500e27,000) 6600 (2500e10,000)

2.5 (1e4) 0 1:1.2 0

3.5 (2e7) 9.8 (6e15) 1:1 71

4.2 (2e10) 4 (3e5) 1:0.83 68

3.6 (1e10) 6.3 (3e15) 1:0.95 57

development of farmer groups or associations, commonly referred to as clusters. Prior to this, farmer clusters were formed on farmer initiatives, but more recently, since 2010, cluster formation was facilitated by the central government of Indonesia through a scheme that provided subsidies to farmers grouped into clusters to

encourage improvement in farming practices. This subsidy was provided for through the project, “Village-Based Aquaculture Development” executed by the Government of Indonesia through Aquaculture Development Directorate Task Force in 2012, funded by the World Bank.

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L.O.M. Aslan et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 44e57

Table 3 Grouper production data (values represent mean with range in parentheses). Parameter

Kendari

Muna Is.

Overall

Farm size (m2) Distance from village (km) Years farming No. cages Cage size (m3) Cage size (m2) Stocking density (no./m3) Stocking density (no./m2) Stocking density (g/m3) Stocking density (g/m2) Size at stocking (cm) Size at stocking (g) No. stocked per cage Size at harvest (kg)a No. sold/year/farma Total annual production (kg/year/farm)a Cost of production (IDR/kg)a Sale price (IDR/kg)a Minimum Maximum Mean Labour Family members Non-family members Gender balance (female: male) Cluster membership (% of farmers)

147 (18e360) 0.6 (0.2e1) 4.3 (3e5) 2.3 (1e4) 74 (27e140) 13 (9e20) 4.3(3.6e5.6) 23(11e33) No data No data 10 (5e20)

184 (16e800) 1.2 (0e10) 4.4 (0.25e16) 2 (1e12) 207 (27e560) 51 (9e144) 3.0 (0.1e15.6) 8(0.4e44) 679 (13e5926) 1986 (40e17,778) 10.4 (8e15) 296 (10e1000) 193 (25e500)

178 (16e800) 1.1 (0e10) 4.4 (0.25e16) 2.1(1e12) 188 (27e560) 45 (9e144) 3.2(0.1e15.6) 10(0.4e44) 679 (13e5926) 1986 (40e17,778) 10.3 (5e20) 296 (10e1000) 207 (25e500) 1.4 (0.5e5.0) 178 (50e500) 228 (50e500) 58,100 (10,000e115,000)

a

300 (100e500)

62,200 (15,000e95,000) 111,400 (40,000e300,000) 76,400 (15,000e105,000) 3.7 (3e5) 2 1:3 100

3.4 (1e9) 0 1:3 28

3.4 (1.9) 0 1:3 35

Insufficient data to separate by district.

Farmers expressed the view that clusters assisted cooperation among them through regular (every 1e3 months) meetings to discuss and make decisions about farming issues associated with, for example, practices, skills, labour, finances, seed purchase and sales. The importance and the gains from organisation of small scale farmers into “clusters” have been reported for many comparable situations elsewhere. These gains include increased profitability, reduced disease occurrence, less environmental perturbations, access to markets, facilitating group certification and insurance (thereby reducing the cost to individual farmers) and many other aspects that facilitate economic viability and sustainability (Ababouch, 2006; Hatanaka, 2010;

Padiyar et al., 2012; Vandergeest, 2007). Many farmers (65%) expressed the view that living standards had improved since taking up mariculture. Farmers were generally optimistic with regard to the potential of mariculture, and thought that technical assistance on improving farming practices, capital aid to support and improve market demands will assist future prospects. Some farmers were of the view that there was a role for government in providing a much more structured and consistent extension support. Some lobster and seaweed farmers indicated that diseases issues need to be addressed in a more concerted and a comprehensive way.

Table 4 Lobster production data (values represent mean with range in parentheses). Parameter 2

Farm size (m ) Distance from village (km) Years farming No. cages Cage size (M3) Cage size (M2) Stocking density (no./m3) Stocking density (no./m2) Stocking density (g/m3) Stocking density (g/m2) Size at stocking (cm) Size at stocking (g) No. stocked per cage Size at harvest (kg)a No. sold/year/farma Total annual production (kg/year/farm)a Cost of production (IDR/kg)a Sale price (IDR/kg)a Labour Family members Non-family members Gender balance (female: male) Cluster membership (% of farmers) a

Insufficient data to separate by district.

Kendari

Muna Is.

Overall

155 (40e576) 0.8 (0.2e3) 1.2 (0.5e3) 2.6 (1e10) 693 (27e2304) 189 (9e576) 0.6 (0.02e1.3) 3.2 (0.1e8) 181 (78e400) 1005 (312e2400)

40 (8e100) 1.1 (0e5) 1.8 (0.5e6) 1.3 (1e4) 132 (28e288) 33 (12e54) 1.3 (0.2e3.3) 4.7 (0.7e12) 231 (9e1744) 791 (37e5233)

200 (100e300) 112 (50e200)

137 (10e600) 139 (30e300)

66 (8576) 1.0 (0e5) 1.6 (0.5e6) 1.7 (1e10) 272 (28e2304) 72 (9e576) 1.2 (0.02e3.3) 4.4 (0.1e12) 222 (9e1744) 831 (37e5233) 7.75 (7e10) 153 (10e600) 133 (30e300) 0.9 (0.4e2.0) 79 (15e400) 149 (14e1500) 324,500 (80,000e500,000) 539,400 (200,000e950,000)

4 (2e7) 3 (2e3) 1:3.5 100

3.4 (1e9) 3.2 (1e8) 1:2.86 57

3.5 (1e9) 3.1 (1.8) 1:3 35

L.O.M. Aslan et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 116 (2015) 44e57 Table 5 Oyster production data (values represent mean with range in parentheses). Parameter

Mean

Range

Farm size (m2) Distance from village (km) Years farming Raft size (m2) Labour Family members Non-family members Gender balance (female: male) Cluster membership (% of farmers)

2585 1.3 2.6 111

(100e1500) (0.1e3) (2e3) (33e147)

3 2.8 1:1.33 0

(1e7) (2e7)

3.3. Seaweed farming practices Indonesia is one of the largest producers of seaweed in the world with 6.514  106 t produced in 2012 (FAO, 2014a), and SE Sulawesi accounts for < 10% of this production, despite having an extensive coastline.

3.3.1. Production aspects The main species of seaweed farmed were K. alvarezii (“cottonii”) (40 farms) and E. denticulatum (“spinosum”) (17 farms), which were both used for the production of carrageenan. Culture of E. denticulatum has only recently been introduced to S.E. Sulawesi as K. alvarezii was the only species cultured in 2009 (Albasri et al., 2010). Most farms (61%) culture K. alvarezii followed by 21% E. denticulatum and 18% cultured both species. Substantially more farms in Kenadari and Buton Island produced more K. alvarezii than E. denticulatum, whereas, farms in Muna Island produced a mix of both species. General information pertaining to seaweed farming is provided in Table 2. Farmers bought seed from either collectors (66%), other farmers or cluster members (15%), or a trader (12%). Seaweed seed was mainly obtained locally, within 20 km of the village (and up to 100 km). Seed of both K. alvarezii and E. denticulatum may be obtained all-year-round, though December to May was the main period that K. alvarezii was obtained. Each farmer typically obtained seed 2e3 times/year (on rare instances up to 12 times/year). Most farmers (72%) placed new seed ropes directly into the sea while others acclimatised for a short period. Five famers (mainly from Buton Island) soaked seed in a fertiliser solution before putting in the sea. Fertilisers were used at sea at six farms growing K. alvarezii in Buton Is. and Kendari. Seaweed seed was purchased either by the kg or by rope. Purchase price ranged from IDR 500e7000/kg (mean IDR 3162/kg). K. alvarezii (IDR 1500e7000/kg, mean IDR 3292/kg) was generally more expensive than E. denticulatum (IDR 500e5000/kg, mean IDR 2850/kg). Seed price has increased slightly in recent years. In 2009, the cost of seed of K. alvarezii was IDR 1500e2000/kg (Albasri et al., 2010). Cost of seaweed seed was slightly cheaper at Muna Island (mean IDR 2500/kg) than Kendari (mean IDR 3588/kg) and Buton Island (mean IDR 3833/kg). The seaweed production cycle was 30e90 days (mean 44) and 30e50 days (mean 35) for K. alvarezii and E denticulatum, respectively. Farmers cultured 1e10 crops per year (mean 6), which may be harvested throughout the year for both species. The number of crops per year was fewer in Kendari (mean 3) than at Muna and Buton islands (mean 7). This may be due to the negative coastal environmental influences, such as freshwater and sediment run-off from rivers. For example severe flooding in the Kendari area in 2013 affected most seaweed farmers resulting in a 90% loss of production. In that year rainfall for the months of April and July was fourfold the average for the previous five years (Fig. 4). Indeed, for this reason, farmers in the Kendari area avoided planting seaweed

49

in the wet season. Based on the length of the production cycle and number crops per year for each farm, the number of days per year seaweed was farmed ranged from 84 to 360 days per year (mean 205 days). Harvesting of ropes was done by hand, taking on average 40 min per rope. Ropes were reused from 2 to 20 times (mean 7 times) until unusable. The number of harvests per year with possible production throughout the year makes seaweed farming relatively lucrative, and in this regard the low capital inputs needed facilitates this further. Annual production (by dry weight) per farm ranged from 0.4 to 42 t/yr (mean 6.1 t/year) (Fig. 5). Crop size ranged from 0.1 to 10.0 t/ yr (mean 1.2 t/yr). This equates to around 1 t/ha and 6 t/ha/yr (assuming 6 crops per year). The level of production per farm was higher at Muna Island and Kendari than at Buton Island. 3.3.2. Economic aspects Capital costs for seaweed farming ranged from IDR 0.25e50  106 (mean IDR 8.95  106), which were mainly for purchase of ropes, floats, ties and anchors (48%) followed by boat and motor (40%) (Fig. 6a). Often women of a farmer household play a major role in the preparation of the ropes, such as in preparing the ties, as well as daily monitoring of the ropes and harvesting. Operating costs, which ranged from IDR 0.01e10.7  106 (mean IDR 2.08  106), were mainly for seed purchase (63%), fuel (20%) and labour (16%) (Fig. 6b). Cost of Production (CoP) ranged from IDR 1000e8000/kg (mean IDR 4900/kg) (Table 2) and varied between districts. CoP of K. alvarezii was lower at Muna Island than in other districts surveyed (Fig. 7). Harvested seaweed was usually sold to a local trader or a wholesaler, though some farmers in Muna Island sold E. denticulatum through farmer clusters. The price was mainly decided by the buyer, though also negotiated with the buyer through the cluster. Sale price of K. alvarezii was IDR 2500e25,000/ kg (mean of mean IDR 6600/kg), which was substantially higher than for E. denticulatum (IDR 1500e27,000/kg, mean of mean IDR 2700/kg) (Fig. 7). Buyers may also charge a shipping cost when buying seaweed from more distant farmers. Prices for K. alvarezii in this study were similar to prices in 2009, which were between IDR 5800e8500/kg (Albasri et al., 2010), indicating that the farm gate price has not varied significantly over the four year period. This study also showed that the price paid for both seaweed types were highly variable which may reflect changes in market demands, and availability and quality of seaweed (Bixler and Porse, 2011). A key factor affecting the amount and quality of seaweed produced by farmers was iceeice disease, which is described below. Iceeice disease has been a problem in Sulawesi since the early 2000's, which has not only affected prices and production in several areas but also a reduction in investment capital in the industry (Pollnac et al., 2002; Sievanen et al., 2005). Mean Profit Margin (profit as percentage of selling price) (PM) ranged from 78 % to 43 % (Fig. 7). The highly negative PM observed for E. denticulatum culture at Muna Island was attributed very high cost of production in several farms (i.e. >IDR 5000/kg). Processed seaweed, almost always sun-dried on wooden racks or on foot paths, was transported by small boats from individual farms or clusters to local wholesale depots. Generally, each wholesaler dealt with about 1500e2000 farms in SE Sulawesi province through collectors operating in each village. The wholesale depots sort the seaweed into one or more categories (grades), based on a subjective assessment of quality, and then packed in 25 kg units into polythene sacks. On average a wholesaler shipped ten container loads/month, approximating 500 t/month, to major regional ports, such as Surabaya, and from there to China for processing.

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Fig. 4. Monthly rainfall, rainfall days per month and average daily air temperature for BaueBau (Buton Is) (2008e2011), Kendari (2008e2012) and Kendari (2013). (Values represent mean and se) (data source: Bureau of Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics, Kendari, Indonesia).

3.3.3. Disease occurrence Farmers indicated that seaweed mortality was generally low (<10%) in the first week after placing the ropes, though many farmers (47%) indicated that mortality of K. alvarezii was moderate

Fig. 5. Annual seaweed production per farm (tonnes/year) in different districts of SE Sulawesi (values ¼ mean ± se).

(10e20%) in the first week. Mortality throughout the year was highly variable, and usually associated with iceeice disease, which was reported by 80% of farmers. This study showed that all sizes of both K. alvarezii and E. denticulatum were affected by iceeice disease, though other studies have suggested that E. denticulatum is not as severely affected as K. alvarezii (Sievanen et al., 2005). Farmers also experienced problems with biofouling by epiphytic algae (58% of farms) and pest species (31%), especially herbivorous fish and crustaceans. Iceeice disease is thought to be caused by stress induced by both abiotic and biotic factors acting in combination. Factors that

Fig. 6. Breakdown of (a) capital costs and (b) operating costs for seaweed culture in SE Sulawesi. Percentages represent mean values for each component for all farms. IDR values are range (mean and ±se) for all farms.

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3.4. Farming of grouper species

Fig. 7. Comparison of average cost of production and average sale price of K. alvarezii and E. denticulatum farmed in different districts of SE Sulawesi (values ¼ mean ± se). Values in brackets ¼ mean profit margin.

may predispose seaweed to the disease, or even trigger the onset of the disease, include changes in light intensity, salinity, temperature and other environmental conditions (Largo, 2002; Largo et al., 1995b; Uyenco et al., 1981), as well as bacterial, fungal and epiphyte colonisation (Largo et al., 1995a; Solis and Draeger, 2010; Uyenco et al., 1981). Iceeice disease occurred in all months of the year, with peak occurrence in AugusteOctober (Fig. 8). This peak appeared to correspond with a fewer number of rainy days per month and increasing air temperature (see Fig. 4). However, the reasons for this apparent correlation was not easily discernible. Biofouling by epiphytic algae was more common in September to December. Most, if not all, stock were affected when Iceeice disease occurred, with medium to high levels of mortality. When the disease occurred, farmers either harvested and sold the seaweed (47%), discarded the seaweed (13%) or did nothing (26%). Farmers generally felt that both the incidence and severity of disease had increased over the last three years. Iceeice disease has not only reduced production, by as much as 50% in some years (Ridwan, DKP, pers comm.), but also affects the quality of carrageen extracted (Mendoza et al., 2002).

Fig. 8. Number of farmers from different districts reporting the occurrence of iceeice disease throughout the year.

Groupers are a very sought after finfish group, especially by the live food fish restaurant trade prevalent mostly in China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan (Kongkeo et al., 2010). Since wild caught groupers, often harvested using destructive fishing methods (McManus et al., 1997; Mous et al., 2000; Scales et al., 2007), are no longer in demand because of organised consumer resistance through many NGOs, cultured grouper is now preferred by the live fish restaurant trade (Ahmad, 1998; Pawiro, 2005). This trend has not only stimulated grouper culture to develop but also has contributed positively to conserve biodiversity of coral reef ecosystems (De Silva, 2012). As such cage cultured grouper, and related species such as snapper and wrasses, are transported live to wholesale markets in the above countries and consequently has become the only option available to a growing middle class that appears to have an insatiable appetite for live food fish. This demand has enabled the farmers to obtain reasonable farm gate prices for grouper, which also of course varies very widely from grouper species to species. 3.4.1. Culture aspects Production of grouper in Indonesia has risen sharply since 2009 (Rimmer et al., 2013). The main species of grouper farmed are tiger grouper (kerapu macan) (E. fuscoguttatus) (20 farms), followed by mouse (polka dot or humpback) grouper (Cromileptes altivelis) (11 farms), both of which are classed as high-valued species in Asian markets (Pawiro, 2005; Petersen and Muldoon, 2007). Other species cultured in SE Sulawesi include estuary cod or orange-spotted grouper (E. coiodes), malabar grouper (E. malabaricus), greasy grouper (E. tauvina), leopard coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) and spotted coral grouper (P. maculatus) (Albasri et al., 2010; Leong Tak Seng, 1998; Tupper and Sheriff, 2008). Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulates) was another species of note observed in cages at some farms. Four grouper farmers also grow other fish (Caranx) and crustaceans (lobster and crab). General information on farming of groupers is provided in Table 3. Grouper farm size ranged from 16 to 800 m2 (mean 178 m2). Some cages were built under the farmers’ watch house. Grouper cages were constructed of either timber or bamboo posts driven into the substrate and lined with netting, or floating net bags suspended from buoyed timber or bamboo rafts. Farmers operated up to 12 cages, which is classed as a small-scale operation (Kongkeo et al., 2010). Seedstock were obtained by farmers all-year-round and may be obtained typically twice per year (up to 5 time/year). Half of farmers (50%) purchased grouper seedstock from collectors, at a price of IDR 3000e15,000/fish (mean IDR 8300/fish), or IDR 50,000e140,000/kg (mean IDR 88,000/kg), while 39% self-collected seedstock. Size of seedstock was highly variable, ranging from 10 to 500 g (mean 245 g) and 5e20 cm (mean 10 cm). Fish were generally caught within 10 km of the farm. Although hatchery-production of grouper seedstock is well-established, and there are more than 125 marine finfish hatcheries operating in Bali, Lampung and East Java (Kongkeo et al., 2010; Rimmer et al., 2013), seedstock from these sources may not be readily available in SE Sulawesi as only just two farmers (7%) bought seedstock from hatcheries in Bali at around IDR 3500/fish (5 cm). Possibly the transportation costs and associated mortality being a deterrent for purchasing seedstock from Bali. Most farmers (57%) introduced new stock directly into cages without any acclimation or treatment. Some farmers acclimatised fish before release, and one farmer gave new stock a 5 min bath in freshwater. Grouper were stocked into cages at a low mean density of 3.2 no/m3 (range 0.1e15.6 no./m3). Culture period for grouper ranged

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from 3 to 48 months (mean 13 months), depending on the species and initial size at stocking. For example, mouse grouper was harvested after about 18 months, whereas tiger grouper was harvested after 12 months, weighing approximately 400e750 g and 600e1 kg, respectively. Grouper were fed mostly trash/low valued fish and to a lesser extent live fish and other prey such as crabs. In most of Asia, which predominates the culture of groupers and other related species globally, the main feed used was trash/low valued fish (Bunlipatanon et al., 2014; De Silva and Turchinni, 2009; Hasan and Halwart, 2009). Commercial pelleted grouper feeds are currently not readily available in SE Sulawesi and regardless, may not be an economically viable alternative to trash/low valued fish (Kongkeo et al., 2010). In SE Sulawesi grouper culture practices, as elsewhere, feed was purchased mainly from local collectors and traders (65% of farmers) at a price of IDR 5000e45,000/kg (mean IDR 10,100/kg), or self-collected within 10 km of the farm. Feeding rates ranged from 1 to 10 kg/day, and did not change appreciably with size of fish. Using data presented in Table 3, a mean feed rate of 2.9 kg/day for small fish equates to approximately 2.25%/day. Grouper were usually fed twice per day (around 07:00e8:00 and 16:00e17:00), though 4 farms gave a third feed in the middle of the day. Annual farm production ranged from 50 to 500 kg/year (mean 178 kg/year). Harvesting depended on fish size, and market demand. Generally, grouper were harvested at a size of 0.5e5.0 kg (mean 1.4 kg). Grouper were harvested in all months of the year but mainly in the months of October, November and December. In general, mortality was low (<10%) in the first week after stocking, and was generally nil to moderate thereafter. There were no major diseases that caused mortality in farmed grouper. The most common disease issue reported by farmers was sea lice (56%) followed by whitespot (21%). Both diseases were commonly encountered at Muna Is., but not at Kendari. Sea lice, most likely crustacean ectoparasites, such as Caligus and Argulus (Nagasawa and Cruz-Lacierda, 2004), infested a small proportion of fish of all sizes. When sick grouper were observed, either nothing was done, or sick fish were removed from the cages and consumed or sold locally. Water quality was not identified by farmers as an issue affecting the health of grouper, however, severe flooding in the Kendari region in April and July of 2013 (Fig. 4), resulted in substantial losses of grouper held in the area (Ridwan, DKP, pers comm.). 3.4.2. Economic aspects Capital costs for commencing a grouper farm ranged from IDR 1.0e32.4  106 (mean IDR 11.14  106), with main costs being for purchase of boat and motor (40%), cage construction (37%) and nets (18%) (Fig. 9). Operating costs, which ranged from IDR 0.41e27.7  106 (mean IDR 7.13  106), were mainly for purchase of seed (38%), feed (27%) and fuel (22%) (Fig. 9). Information from 14 farms indicated that CoP ranged from IDR 10,000e115,000/kg (mean IDR 58,100/kg). Grouper were sold for IDR 15,000e300,000/kg (mean of mean ¼ IDR 76,400/kg). Farmers indicated that sale price depended on species, from IDR 40,000/kg for “kerapu lumpur” to IDR 90,000/ kg for tiger grouper. In comparison, in 2009 prices for market size tiger grouper, estuary grouper and mouse grouper were IDR 50,000e70,000/kg, 40.000e60.000/kg and 100.000e200.000/kg, respectively (Albasri et al., 2010). CoP and sale price both declined slightly with increasing size at harvest. Around half of farmers (53%) indicated that the sale price was decided by the buyer, and this price was apparently influenced by market demand for the commodity. Other farmers indicated that the price was decided by negotiation with the buyer. The selling price of grouper over the last

Fig. 9. Breakdown of (a) capital costs and (b) operating costs for grouper farming in SE Sulawesi. Percentages represent mean values for each component for all farms. IDR values are range (mean and ±se) for all farms.

3 years has been variable, though many farmers (40%) indicated the selling price has been increasing. Harvested fish were sold live directly to a wholesalers or traders, from Kendari, Makassar and even Hong Kong that visit the villages on a regular basis. Grouper marketing, as in the case of seaweed, was operated through wholesalers supported by collectors who operated in a given number of villages or clusters. Wholesalers may operate their own collecting boats, each approximating 30 m or 36 t gross capacity. Each wholesaler may collect and export 100 to 120 t/ yr. The wholesalers often keep the stock for a fortnight to three weeks, when live fish transportation vessels dock and collect the fish, with about 20 t being loaded each time. An analysis of grouper farms in the Riau Islands, Lampung, East Java and Bali (Indonesia) suggested negative economic indicators for small farms (<20 cages) growing tiger grouper, but positive indicators for all farms growing mouse grouper (Afero et al., 2010). Although a mean PM of 23% was estimated for grouper culture in SE Sulawesi, there insufficient information to discriminate species.

3.5. Lobster farming practices 3.5.1. Farming aspects The main species of lobster farmed were the ornate spiny lobster (Panulirus ornatus), also known as pearl lobster (“mutiara”), bamboo lobster (“bambu”) (P. versicolor) and pasir lobster (P. homarus). Small numbers of other species may also be cultured (Priyambodo and Sarifin, 2009; Priyambodo and Suastika Jaya, 2009). Six lobster farmers also grew fish (grouper and Caranx). General information farming is provided in Table 4. Access to a local and abundant supply of naturally settling puerulus is a pre-requisite to establishing a lobster farm (Jones et al., 2010; Jones, 2010). Most farmers (81%) interviewed bought lobster seedstock, which were mostly juvenile lobsters, weighing around 100 g, from collectors or traders at a prices of IDR 400,000e1,000,000/kg (mean IDR 584,000/kg). In addition, there were puerulus collectors (baby lobsters of 2e3 cm; 5e10 g) and this form of seedstock was sold at IDR 4000/piece. Puerulus collectors used hand-nets early in the morning to catch seedstock, which held then for up to one week before being sold to farmers. Other puerulus collection methods are described by Priyambodo and Sarifin (Priyambodo and Sarifin, 2009). Sixteen percent of farmers selfcollected seedstock, mainly close to the farm (<50 km), but some farmers obtained stock from Makassar (>500 km). Lobster seed were obtained throughout the year, with peak availability being from January to April. Each farmer, however, may obtain seedstock typically twice per year. Lobsters were cultured in cages typically constructed of timber or bamboo posts driven into the substrate and lined with netting.

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Floating net cages were less commonly used, even though these are the common culture method in other parts of Indonesia (Priyambodo and Suastika Jaya, 2009). Many farmers (40%) allowed the new lobster seed to adapt to local conditions (acclimation period) before placing in cages, and one farmer quarantined new stock for up to a week. Other farmers released lobsters directly into cages. Lobsters were fed trash/low valued fish (51% of farmers), mollusc, such as Telescopium and winged pearl oysters (Pteria penguin), or crabs. Since a commercial pelleted lobster diet is not available, use of trash/low valued fish for feeding lobster is typical in Indonesia (Priyambodo and Suastika Jaya, 2010) and other countries growing lobster (Irvin and Williams, 2009). Food was purchased from local collectors or traders (55% of farmers) or selfcollected (within 5 km of the farm). Food was purchased at IDR 5000e21,000/kg (mean IDR 10,800/kg) or IDR 20,000e30,000/sack (mean IDR 23,600/sack). The amount of food given to lobsters declined with increasing size. At an initial mean size of 200 g at stocking, for 1.7 cages at 133 lobster/cage, a mean feed rate of 2.37 kg/day for small lobster equates to an initial feed rate of 5.2%/day (for 45.22 kg of lobster). Lobsters were typically fed twice per day (around 07:00e8:00 and 16:00e17:00 h). Culture period for lobster was 7e24 months (mean 13 months), depending on initial size and species. Pasir lobsters can reach markets size in 6e9 months whereas ornate spiny lobster may take 18e22 months (Jones et al., 2009). The market size for lobster in Indonesia is 200e300 g and 300e500 g for pasir lobster and ornate spiny lobster, respectively (Priyambodo and Suastika Jaya, 2009). Lobster farmers in SE Sulawesi were harvesting lobsters at a larger size of 0.4e2.0 kg (mean 0.9 kg) according to market demands. For example, the markets size for ornate spiny lobster in Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong is 800 ge1.5 kg, 500 ge1.5 kg and 1 kgþ, respectively (Hart, 2009). Harvesting occurs throughout the year, especially February and December. Annual farm production ranged from 14 to 1500 kg/year (mean 149 kg/year).

3.5.2. Economic aspects Based on information from 16 farms, it was evident that the cost of production was highly variable, ranging from IDR 80,000e500,000/kg (mean IDR 324,500/kg). Capital costs, which ranged from IDR 0.83e305  106 (mean IDR 27.8  106), was mainly for cage construction (37%), boat and motor purchase (36%) and net purchase (19%) (Fig. 10). Operating costs ranged from IDR 0.5e62  106 (mean IDR 18.1  106), and was mainly for purchase of seed (67%), feed (20%) and fuel (9%) (Fig. 10). Lobsters were sold live directly to a wholesaler or traders that come to the village from as far away as Makassar. Sale prices ranged

Fig. 10. Breakdown of (a) capital costs and (b) operating costs for lobster farming in SE Sulawesi. Percentages represent mean values for each component for all farms. IDR values are range (mean and ±se) for all farms.

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from IDR 200,000e950,000/kg, while the average price was IDR 539,400/kg. This was substantially greater than reported in 2010 when sale price was IDR 250,000e300,000/kg (Albasri et al., 2010). Farmers indicated that ornate spiny lobster (“mutiara”) fetched a better sale price than other species, a trend that is seen in lobster markets throughout Asia (Hart, 2009; Priyambodo and Sarifin, 2009). For most farmers the sale price of lobsters was decided by the buyer. Only 19% of farmers indicated the price was negotiated. Over the last three years farmers indicated that the selling price has been stable to variable, though some farmers (25%) indicated the selling price has been increasing. Mean PM for lobster farming was 30%. 3.5.3. Disease occurrence Mortality in the first week after stocking was considered to be low (<10%), and generally low throughout the year, except when milky disease occurred. Milky disease, also known as Milky Haemolymph Disease (MHD), which causes significant deaths and financial losses in farmed tropical spiny lobsters (Panulirus spp.) throughout Asia (Hung and Tuan, 2009; OIE, 2007). The disease is caused by a rickettsia-like bacterium, which may be transmitted horizontally through direct contact with infected lobsters, or from infected food given to lobsters (Anon, 2012). When present milky disease affected a high proportion of stock of all sizes, especially medium to large lobsters, resulting in high mortality. Milky disease was not seen in SE Sulawesi prior to 2008 (Aslan et al., 2008), but since then the disease has caused up 100% mortality in some areas resulting in a dramatic fall (up to 80%) in lobster production in SE Sulawesi over the last 2 years (Mr. Laode Ridwan, pers comm). Milky disease, which was the most common disease reported by farmers (92%), occurred in the latter half of the year, especially in August (Fig. 11). The reasons for this peak were not clear, though it did correspond with lower air temperature and declining number of days of rain, as in the case of the occurrence of iceeice disease in seaweed (see Fig. 4). Despite there being an effective treatment method for milky disease (OIE, 2007), however this treatment, and qualified people to administer the treatment, are not available to farmers in SU Sulawesi. Instead, farmers either did nothing with sick lobsters, or they were removed and sold, consumed or discarded. 3.6. Winged pearl oyster farming practices Although Indonesia has had a long history of producing round pearls from pearl oysters (Pinctada maxima) (Poernomo, 2005),

Fig. 11. Number of farmers reporting the occurrence of milky disease in farmed lobsters (note: compare these trends with the seasonal rainfall pattern and temperature shown in Fig. 4).

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winged pearl oyster (Pteria penguin) farming is a relatively small and new industry. Winged pearls oysters are commonly used to
(half pearl or blister pearl) (Gervis and Sims, 1992; produce mabe Kripa et al., 2008; Liang et al., 2007). 3.6.1. Culture aspects The winged pearl oyster was cultured at Palabusa (Buton Island) as an alternative commodity to seaweed that was widely farmed in the area in the past. General information related to winged pearl oyster farming in SE Sulawesi is provided in Table 5. Oysters were cultured on ropes suspended from 6 m  6 m floating rafts that were anchored to the bottom at all four corners (Fig. 12). Approximately 20 oysters were tied 10 cm apart along each rope. A hole was bored into the shell in order to tie oysters onto the rope. Ropes were placed 30e50 cm apart on the raft. Each farmer normally maintained 1e7 rafts (mean 2.3) (33e147 m2) (Table 5), which were stocked with 1300e60,000 (mean 14,000) oysters/raft. Oyster farmers either purchased seedstock from collectors (75%), at a rate of IDR 500e650/oyster (size 3e10 cm), or selfcollected (25%). Each farmer received 3000e60,000 (mean 21,000) seed at a time, which were usually non-nucleated. Seed were obtained throughout the year, and new stock were usually cleaned and graded before tying onto culture rafts. Mortality in the first week after stocking was low (<10%) and remained so throughout the culture cycle. Mortality does occur following pearl nucleus implantation (Liang et al., 2007; Mao et al., 2003), though no data on this was provided by farmers. Spot disease, which was observed from January to May, was the only disease reported on oysters. Sick oysters were usually taken from the rafts and the pearl removed. All farmers also had problems with pest fish. The production cycle at Palabusa, following implantation of a pearl nucleus, was approximately 4 months long, though oysters may be grown for up to 12 months. 3.6.2. Economic aspects Capital costs, which ranged from IDR 13e49  106 (mean IDR 20.2  106), were mainly for raft construction (29%), drums (27%) and boat and motor purchase (21%) (Fig. 13). Operating costs ranged from IDR 5.4e20  106 (mean IDR 11.28  106), and were mainly for purchase of seed (51%), labour (29%) and chemicals (17%) (Fig. 13). Overall production cost ranged from IDR 8e32  106 (mean IDR 24.857  106).

Fig. 13. Breakdown of (a) capital costs and (b) operating costs for winged pearl oyster farming in SE Sulawesi. Percentages represent mean values for each component for all farms.

Farmers sold processed pearls directly to a wholesaler or a trader, and the price was mostly set by the buyer. Farmers indicated that pearl quality (especially inconsistency in colour) affected the sale price. A number of factors related to culture techniques may
pearls, including the position where affect the quality of mabe nuclei are implanted within the shell and duration of the culture period (Kishore et al., 2013). However, farmers suggested that the type/quality of paint used to coat the inside of the pear blisters was a determining factor. Meat from harvested oysters was consumed by villages and the shells were discarded. 4. Conclusions and recommendations Mariculture activities of SE Sulawesi depicts which is typical of most Asian aquaculture (De Silva and Davy, 2010), in that the sector is dominated by small scale operations in rural areas that are farmer owned/leased, operated and managed. In addition, since many farmers supplement their income with other activities (e.g. agriculture and fishing), it has been demonstrated that such small scale aquaculture practices have the resilience to combat adversities (Kongkeo, 1997), such as being devastated by diseases for example, and also act as fulcra that facilitate development (Kongkeo and Davy, 2010; Kongkeo and New, 2008). Perhaps this is the reason that has enabled mariculture in SE Sulawesi to “pick up” again, and significantly and rapidly, after the major loss in production in seen 2009 (Fig. 2). Climate variability is predicted to impact on fisheries and aquaculture industries and communities in the coming decades (De Silva and Soto, 2009; Zamroni and Yamao, 2011). Factors associated

Fig. 12. A schematic representation of a typical winged pearl oyster culture raft (not to scale).

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with changing monsoonal patterns and extreme weather events (e.g. flooding) may represent a major factor in further development of mariculture in the region. The impact of extreme and unpredictable weather events was most recently demonstrated in the Kendari area in 2013 when two severe flooding events resulted in significant losses of both seaweed and grouper crops, presumably due to low salinity. At an industry workshop held in Kendari in 2014, farmers indicated that around 25% farmers were still growing seaweed in the area since the floods (Aslan, pers comm). There has been substantial loss of forested areas in South East Sulawesi from development activities such as mining, logging and plantations (Sau, 2013). Mining, for gold and nickel in particular has boomed since the late 1980's. These activities can affect the quality of water discharged from land (Islam and Tanaka, 2004; Todd et al., 2010) and consequently, impact on mariculture development in coastal areas. Policies, strategies and planning to further develop mariculture in SE Sulawesi will need to take into account changing environmental conditions particularly those associated with monsoonal weather patterns and on-land development activities. For example, new areas identified for seaweed culture will need to be located away from the influences of river discharge and land run-off. Equally, development of mariculture will also need consider impacts of aquaculture on the environment, which is been well documented (Black, 2001; Pillay, 2004; Primavera, 2006). Clearly there is a need to adopt an ecosystem services approach to managing mariculture development in SE Sulawesi. This approach will need to take into account a range of goods and services of economic, social, environmental and cultural value, derived by multiple users from the coastal marine environment and the adjacent terrestrial environment, to ensure industry sustainability (Atkins et al., 2011; Barbier, 2012; Beveridge et al., 1997; Primavera, 2006). In general there is an increasing trend in exploring an ecosystem services viewpoint to improve sustainability of aquaculture developments. In some instances, for example, successful attempts have been made to maintain economic value of ecosystem services whilst reducing environmental cost primarily to comply with governmental policy (e.g. Lin et al., 2015). In the case of mariculture in SE Sulawesi, which is a relatively new industry compromised of many small scale ventures, there is considerable scope to develop strategies that will ensure sustainable development. It is also evident that mariculture developments in SE Sulawesi have occurred without a major plan with regard to location of culture facilities, and without major governmental intervention, almost through individual household initiatives. Correspondingly, as development proceeded the links required to effectively market the produce evolved, again on the initiatives of individuals. The latter has resulted in seamlessly operating marketing channels. However, none of the cultured commodities are processed into a finished product within the region, and the farm gate prices tended to be mostly dictated by the handful of wholesalers who are specialised in dealing with a commodity. The Indonesian government has enacted a number of initiatives to support aquaculture growth (Rimmer et al., 2013; Stanford et al., 2014). Although aquaculture production in Indonesia continues to grow, the effectiveness of these initiatives in terms of improving the livelihoods of farmers needs to be monitored. Many farmers surveyed in the current study indicated that they had little knowledge of market forces and that buyers by and large dictated purchase price which may be disadvantageous to farmers. On this basis, it may be the buyers and wholesalers that are benefiting most from these government initiatives. On-going support of strategies that encourage the establishment and support of farmer clusters, along with training in business management and marketing, will

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help empower farmers and provide them with the ability to have more influence on the market chain. The culture of all commodities in SE Sulawesi is dependent on either seedstock collected from the wild or imported from elsewhere, even as far as the island of Bali (nearly 1200 km). As mariculture develops in this region the dependence on wild caught seed and on external sources will have to reduced, and hatchery facilities for the major commodities, such as for selected grouper species will have to be established and improved. Also, there will be a need for the government to intervene and plan the distribution of mariculture activities in the different regencies in order to minimise conflicts and as well ensure that environmental perturbations are kept to a minimum. In this regard the recent developments of onshore mining and the consequent discharge of effluent into the coastal bays in the region will have to be taken into account and allowances made accordingly to ensure that impacts on the mariculture activities are kept to a minimum. There are other urgent needs that are required if mariculture development in SE Sulawesi is to be sustained in the long term. Foremost among these is the need to establish an effective extension system providing farmers of knowledge on, for example, disease management and prophylactic measures, product quality. For example, even though treatment for milky disease of lobster is well documented (OIE, 2007) there is no mechanism in the region for farmers to treat the stock when the disease occurs, often leading to loss of substantial proportion of the stock. Farmers of all commodities recognise that product quality affects market price, but have limited information on how to improve this aspect of production. All in all SE Sulawesi offers a relatively pristine environment with marginal influences from developments on land. A wellplanned development strategy incorporating an integrated approach to managing natural resources could be evolved in this region to sustain mariculture development and improve livelihoods of farmers in coastal villages with minimal impacts on the coral reef environments and on biodiversity.

Acknowledgements This study was undertaken as a component of the Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) funded project, “Institutional Support for Sustainable Mariculture Development in South East Sulawesi” (PSPL Project No. 63116). The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support provided by DFAT and the logistical support provided the University of Halu Oleo, Kendari and Dinas Kelautan dan Perikanan, Kendari. Our special thanks are due to the university students, La Ode Abd. Rahman, Isman Septian Ismail, Narsi, Asjan, Moch, Alif Radityawarman, Dian Legit, Kukun Widiyanto, Syarwan Hamdu, Ardana Kurniaji, Ashar Julianto, Siti Hardiyanti Purnama, Armin and Siti Aminah for assisting in conducting the surveys and Katriani, La Ode Sairuddin, Abas Someng, Ahman Basarudin and Muh. Yamin Syafrin of the DKP for their assistance with filed visits. Finally, and most importantly, the authors wish to sincerely thank those farmers from the villages of Purirano and Tondonggeu (Kendari), Bahari, Renda and Napabalano (Muna Island) and Palabusa (Buton Island) for being willing to take part in the study and being forthcoming with information.

Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.06.028.

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