Marine litter from fishery activities in the Western Mediterranean sea: The impact of entanglement on marine animal forests

Accepted Manuscript Marine litter from fishery activities in the Western Mediterranean sea: The impact of entanglement on marine animal forests Pierpaolo Consoli, Teresa Romeo, Michela Angiolillo, Simonepietro Canese, Valentina Esposito, Eva Salvati, Gianfranco Scotti, Franco Andaloro, Leonardo Tunesi PII:

S0269-7491(18)35368-5

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.072

Reference:

ENPO 12344

To appear in:

Environmental Pollution

Received Date: 28 November 2018 Revised Date:

18 March 2019

Accepted Date: 18 March 2019

Please cite this article as: Consoli, P., Romeo, T., Angiolillo, M., Canese, S., Esposito, V., Salvati, E., Scotti, G., Andaloro, F., Tunesi, L., Marine litter from fishery activities in the Western Mediterranean sea: The impact of entanglement on marine animal forests, Environmental Pollution (2019), doi: https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.072. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

RI PT

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

SC

Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gears (ALDFG): the impact of entanglement on marine animal forests

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

Litter density ranged from 0.24 to 8.01 items/100 m2 (mean = 3.49 (±0.59) items/100m2 28.5% of litter entangled sessile suspension feeders 8 benthic species (all Anthozoa) were impacted

Plastics were by far the most abundant (84%) marine litter.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 1

Marine litter from fishery activities in the Western Mediterranean Sea: The impact of

2

entanglement on marine animal forests

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Pierpaolo Consoli1*, Teresa Romeo1, 2, Michela Angiolillo2, Simonepietro Canese2, Valentina Esposito3, Eva Salvati2, Gianfranco Scotti4, Franco Andaloro1, Leonardo Tunesi2

RI PT

Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Centro Interdipartimentale della Sicilia, Via dei Mille 46, 98057, Milazzo (ME) Italy 2 Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), BIO-DIR, Via Vitaliano Brancati 48, 00144, Rome, Italy 3 Istituto di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale, OCE, via Auguste Piccard 54, 34151, Trieste, Italy 4 Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), BIO-CIT, Via dei Mille, 46, 98057, Milazzo (ME), Italy

SC

14

1

*Corresponding author:

16

E-mail address: [email protected]

17

M AN U

15

Abstract

19

The anthropogenic marine debris, especially abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded Fishing Gear

20

(ALDFG), represents a rising concern, because of its potential harmful impact on the marine

21

animal forests. We carried out 13 km of video recordings, by means of a remotely operated vehicle,

22

from 10 to 210 m depth, in an anthropised area of the Tyrrhenian Sea (Mediterranean Sea). This

23

site, for its high ecological importance and biodiversity value, has been identified for the

24

establishment of a new marine protected area (MPA). The aim of this paper was to assess marine

25

litter abundance and its effects on the benthic fauna. The debris density, in the study area, ranged

26

from 0.24 to 8.01 items/100 m2, with an average of 3.49 (± 0.59) items/100 m2. The derelict fishing

27

gear, mainly fishing lines, were the main source of marine debris, contributing 77.9% to the overall

28

litter. The impacts of debris on the benthic fauna were frequently recorded, with 28.5% of the litter

29

entangling corals and impacting habitats of conservation concern. These impacts were exclusively

30

caused by the derelict fishing gear (91.2% by longlines), and the highest percentage (49.1%) of

31

ALDFG causing impacts was observed from 41 to 80 m depth, in the coralligenous biocenosis. The

32

results of the present study will help the fulfilment of “harm” monitoring, as recommended by the

AC C

EP

TE D

18

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) and the UN Environment/MAP Regional Plan on

34

the marine litter management in the Mediterranean Sea. Regarding the actions to reduce the derelict

35

fishing gear, preventive measures are usually preferred instead of the extensive removals based on

36

cost-effectiveness and sustainability. The establishment of a new MPA in the area could be a good

37

solution to reduce ALDFG, resulting in the improvement of the ecological status of this coastal

38

area.

RI PT

33

39

Keywords: Marine debris, Marine Protected Area, ALDFG, Milazzo, Plastics.

SC

40 41

Capsule

43

The derelict fishing gear, mostly fishing lines, were the main source of marine debris, contributing

44

77.9% to the overall litter observed in the Milazzo Marine Protected Area.

M AN U

42

45

49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

EP

48

AC C

47

TE D

46

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 59

1.

Introduction The anthropic influences on the oceans have significantly increased in the last decades,

61

negatively impacting the marine environment with the release of considerable amounts of litter and

62

raising concern about its conservation. As a result of improper human action and ineffective waste

63

management, the oceans now contain substantial quantities of marine litter (Andrady, 2011; Barnes

64

et al., 2009; UNEP, 2009) and its occurrence has been demonstrated worldwide. Globally, 4.8–12.7

65

million tons of debris annually end up in the marine ecosystem (Jambeck et al., 2015; Tubau et al.,

66

2015), floating on the sea surface or in the water column and finally sinking to the sea bottom (FAO

67

2010). The interaction between environmental (hydrodynamics, geomorphology, etc.) and anthropic

68

factors (sea and land based human activities, such as fisheries, tourism, marine traffic, aquaculture,

69

dumping, etc.) influences the wide distribution of marine debris everywhere, in time and space (Cau

70

et al., 2017, 2018; Galgani et al., 2015; Lopez-Lopez et al., 2017). The marine litter can reach the

71

sea through wind transport, river discharge or direct dumping. The floating debris can be carried

72

horizontally for long distances, and then due to the fouling, becomes heavier and sinks down to the

73

sea bottom—the final accumulation place for a large proportion of the global marine litter (Consoli

74

et al., 2018a). Once settled on the seafloor, marine litter may modify the surrounding habitat,

75

covering benthic communities (Saldanha et al., 2003), limiting gas exchange, providing an artificial

76

substrate and generally affecting life on the seabed (Ballesteros et al., 2018; Deudero and Alomar,

77

2015) through ingestion by organisms, entanglement of corals species, transfer of toxic compounds,

78

etc. Some type of litter, such as glass bottles, tires, cans and larger items (bins, pieces of boats, etc.)

79

can host diverse communities of encrusting or sessile organisms, and may be used as shelter by

80

several species (De Carvalho-Souza et al., 2018; Deudero and Alomar, 2015). In spite of this, most

81

of the marine debris causes serious impacts on the marine organisms.

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

60

82

Currently, several attractive organisms, such as seabirds, fish, turtles, pinnipeds and

83

cetaceans, strongly affected by the negative interaction with marine litter (i.e. by entanglement or

84

ingestion of items), are receiving more attention from the media and scientific research. However,

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 85

limited information is available about the impacts caused by seafloor marine debris to benthic

86

invertebrates, which can play a key role in marine ecosystems (Galgani et al., 2015), especially in

87

deep waters (Bo et al., 2014; Buhl-Mortensen et al., 2010; Orejas et al., 2009; Rossi, 2013). Almost three-quarter of marine litter is made up of plastics, because of their large use and

89

incredible persistence in the marine ecosystem (UNEP, 2017). Among the plastic litter, abandoned,

90

lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) represent one of the main causes of degradation

91

of the marine benthic habitat (Ballesteros et al., 2018; Consoli et al., 2018a,b; Deudero and Alomar,

92

2015). The impacts of fishing activities on the soft bottom species (e.g. reduction of habitat-forming

93

species, decrease of fish diversity and abundance, sediment re-suspension, habitat degradation) have

94

been extensively documented for a long time (Gage et al., 2005; Kaiser et al., 2002; Morato et al.,

95

2006). The fishing gear has deleterious effects, both when it is active and when it is on the

96

seafloor—the ghost-fishing gear doesn’t lose its ability to catch and trap a large variety of

97

organisms (Carr and Cooper, 1987; Consoli et al., 2018a, b; Matsuoka et al., 2005). Moreover,

98

benthic organisms can be directly entangled and damaged by lost anchors, lines and nets (Angiolillo

99

and Canese, 2017; Ballesteros et al., 2018; Donohue et al., 2001; Heifetz et al., 2009; Galgani et al.,

100

2018). Usually, ALDFG tends to remain entangled among rocks—causing damage, pulling,

101

breaking and covering sessile and structuring suspension feeders, such as sponges and corals. The

102

conglomerates of these habitat forming taxa, increasing biodiversity, have been called “animal

103

forests”, because they are able to form three-dimensional and arborescent structures, similar to the

104

terrestrial forests (Rossi et al., 2017). The abrasive action of derelict fishing gear, progressively can

105

remove the tissues of these sessile specimens (Angiolillo and Canese, 2017 and references therein).

106

Moreover, the non-biodegradable materials, of which the fishing gear is composed of, make it

107

highly persistent in the environment once lost (Carr and Cooper, 1987; Moore, 2008; Thompson et

108

al., 2004), increasing its potential impact on the habitats and species. Recently, several studies

109

carried out by remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) or other visual techniques (e.g. towed camera,

110

submergible, scuba diving) have documented the negative effect of derelict fishing gear on the

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

88

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 111

rocky habitats. The lost fishing gear may constitute up to 98% of the total litter in certain areas

112

(Angiolillo et al., 2015; Cau et al., 2017, Consoli et al., 2018a). In general, in the Mediterranean Sea, fishing and maritime traffic represent a main and

114

continuous source of marine litter (Melli et al., 2017; Tubau et al., 2015), and this is considered as

115

one of the main dangers for marine ecosystems by the European Marine Strategy Framework

116

Directive (MSFD, 2008/56/EC) and the Barcelona Convention. In particular, the latter has

117

implemented the regional plan on the management of marine litter in the Mediterranean

118

(UNEP/MAP, 2015) and the Integrated Monitoring and Assessment Programme of the

119

Mediterranean Sea and Coasts and related Assessment Criteria (IMAP; UNEP/MAP, 2016), with

120

the aim of monitoring the marine litter through agreed common and candidate indicators. Recently,

121

they are beginning to consider the entanglement in their future monitoring of “harm”, through the

122

IMAP candidate indicator 24 and the MSFD secondary candidate indicator D10.C4.

M AN U

SC

RI PT

113

In light of this, monitoring marine litter within new or forthcoming marine protected areas

124

(MPAs) could provide a useful baseline to assess the long-term impact of entanglement on animal

125

forests, and to enforce management actions aimed to reduce marine debris in these sensible habitats.

126

According to Galgani et al. (2018), the sessile suspension feeders forming forests have a strong

127

potential to monitor the temporal and spatial trends of entanglement by the marine litter, especially

128

the fishing gear. With this aim, we carried out our study in Milazzo Cape (Sicily, Italy - South-

129

Eastern Tyrrhenian Sea), a site identified by the Italian Government for the establishment of a new

130

MPA—thanks to its high ecological importance and biodiversity. In this respect, the Italian

131

Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), funded by the Italian Government,

132

has accomplished a series of studies to sustain the establishment of this new MPA. The rocky

133

outcrops of this area host coralligenous biocenosis, with rich assemblages of large structuring

134

suspension-feeders, and represent valuable fishing areas for professional, recreational and illegal

135

fishing. Even though intensely exploited since the ancient times, the data on fishing pressure in this

136

area is very scanty, because fishing activities (especially illegal ones) are very difficult to monitor

AC C

EP

TE D

123

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (Battaglia et al., 2017). Moreover, it is well known that this zone represents an accumulation point

138

of anthropogenic marine debris, especially ALDFG (Battaglia, pers. comm.). The present study is

139

aiming to assess occurrence, spatial distribution and abundance of seafloor marine debris in this site

140

of high ecological importance, focusing the attention on derelict fishing gear and its impact on the

141

protected species, benthic fauna and habitats. The results will constitute a baseline useful to define

142

future management activities.

RI PT

137

2.

Materials and methods

145

2.1

Study area

M AN U

144

SC

143

The research was conducted in the coastal waters of Cape Milazzo, a little promontory

147

located in the north-eastern coast of Sicily (Italy, Western Mediterranean; Fig. 1), and extending

148

northward for about 6 km. The city of Milazzo is characterised by a highly anthropised area with

149

several human activities, such as a commercial and tourist harbour, an oil refinery, steelworks,

150

several thermal power plants and shipbuilding industries (D’Alessandro et al., 2016).

TE D

146

The seafloor is characterised by Posidonia oceanica beds and patchy areas distributed with

152

unvegetated soft bottoms and rocky reefs. In particular, the infralittoral zone, down to 10–15 m

153

depth, is dominated by medium to steep sloping rocky habitats, with huge blocks or pebbles and

154

wide patches of P. oceanica meadows. At greater depths, rocky outcrops are characterised by

155

coralligenous biocenosis. The Northern and Western parts of the Cape are characterised by a high

156

hydro dynamism, because of the prevailing winds which blow from the NW quadrant (Consoli et

157

al., 2008). The professional fishery sector is typically a small scale fishery (artisanal), with 96% of

158

vessels less than 12 m LOA (Length Overall), mainly operating with set nets, longlines, pots, seines

159

and small driftnets. The eastern and northern sides of the promontory are strongly exploited by

160

recreational fishing, including line and spearfishing (Battaglia et al., 2017).

161

AC C

EP

151

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 162

2.2

Field sampling methods The information on the marine debris composition and density were collected during an

164

expedition carried out in 2014, on board the research vessel ISPRA (Institute for Environmental

165

Protection and Research) “Astrea”, within the framework of a project funded by the Italian Ministry

166

for the Environment, Land and Sea to ISPRA. In particular, these activities were focusing on the

167

benthic habitat mapping to sustain the establishment of the new MPA.

RI PT

163

The sea bottom area was firstly mapped through a multibeam (Kongsberg EM2040,

169

Norway), then video recordings were conducted by using an ROV along 15 transects, perpendicular

170

to the coast, from 10 to 207 m depth. The ROV (“Pollux III” Global Electric Italiana) was equipped

171

with several instruments, as already described by Consoli et al. (2018a).

172 173

2.3

Video and data analysis

M AN U

SC

168

The ROV tracks’ information were post-processed: all XY points were converted to lines,

175

and these were smoothed by PAEK (Polynomial Approximation with Exponential Kernel)

176

algorithm using ArcGIS 10.3 software to simplify track lines. This algorithm also removed

177

extraneous bends as a result of the navigation and/or turbulences, while preserving essential shape.

178

For each dive, all debris items of the anthropic origin, were identified by the examination of photo

179

and video footage.

EP

TE D

174

Overall 15 transects, ranging from 62 to 1756 m length, were carried out for a total length of

181

12,896 m (Fig. 1). The abundance of marine litter was standardised to 100 m2 (debris items/100 m2)

182

to obtain the density values. The investigated surface was estimated by multiplying the transect

183

length by a width of 2 m. The length was estimated through a GIS (Geographic Information

184

System) software (ESRI ArcMAP 10.1), applied on the data of ROV tracks. The width,

185

corresponding to the visual field of the ROV at 1.5 m above the seafloor, was calculated by using

186

laser pointers as a metric scale. Only marine litter objects inside this surface were analysed.

AC C

180

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT According to Melli et al. (2017) and Consoli et al. (2018a), density and/or percentage of

187 188

marine debris were determined for the following variables: •

189

Litter category - the litter was divided in two main groups: ‘fishing gear’ (fishing lines, rope, set net, trawl net, trap, wire, other) and ‘general waste’ (plastic objects, metal, rubber,

191

glass/ceramic, paper/cardboard, textile, other). •

192

Seabed coverage - litter size, in terms of seafloor coverage, was visually estimated as ‘Class 1’ (< 1 m2), ‘Class 2’ (1–10 m2) and ‘Class 3’ (> 10 m2).

•

194

Depth and substrate - depth was registered for each marine litter item, and at the same time,

SC

193

RI PT

190

the nature of substrate (rocky vs soft) was visually evaluated. Then, the number of debris

196

items was separately calculated for the rocky and soft bottoms, and was standardised on the

197

basis of the total square meters explored for each substratum—these were extrapolated by

198

means of the GIS software. •

199

M AN U

195

The placement (rolled or outstretched) of fishing gear on the seafloor and the degree of epibiosis (higher or lower than 50% of the litter surface) were also recorded. A fishing gear

201

(line or net) was considered outstretched, when it was under tension (absolutely straight) or

202

loosely lying on bottom with some little meandering; whereas, it was considered rolled

203

when it was all tangled up.

Litter-fauna interactions were categorised as “No impact” (none interaction) or “Impact”

AC C

•

204

EP

TE D

200

(when specimens were covered or entangled by debris).

205 206 207

3.

Results

208

3.1

Abundance and composition of marine litter

209

A total of 793 debris items were counted analysing 18:45 hours of ROV footages, for a total

210

area of 25,792 m2 (Annex 1). The density of marine debris ranged from 0.24 to 8.01 items/100 m2

211

(Dive 14 and Dive 5, respectively) with mean density (± standard error, SE) of 3.49 (± 0.59)

212

items/100 m2. The derelict fishing gear represented the major sources of litter, comprising 77.9% of

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the total debris (Annex 1), whereas “general wastes” constituted the remaining part. The percentage

214

contribution of the derelict fishing gear to the overall debris ranged from 0 (Dive 13) to 100 (Dive

215

8; Annex 1). Among ALDFG, longlines were the most abundant (60.5%), followed by set net

216

(5.9%), ropes (4.4%) and traps (3.2%; Table 1). The “general waste” was mainly constituted of

217

plastic objects (9.6%), such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, single-use plastics and

218

fragments; although glass bottles represented the most abundant “general waste” items, contributing

219

3.9% to the total number of litter items (Table 1). In general, taking into account all the artificial

220

synthetic materials, such as plastic objects and fishing gear, the marine litter was mainly made up

221

by plastic (84.0%).

SC

RI PT

213

The marine litter consisted almost exclusively of fishing related items also in all bathymetric

223

layers except the deepest bathymetric layer, where they represented about 30% of the overall

224

marine litter (Fig. 2). The highest values of debris were recorded at the depth ranges of 41–80 m

225

(298 items) and 81–120 m (234 items). Moreover, also fishing related litter causing impacts showed

226

the highest percentages at these ranges (49.1% and 39.6%, respectively; Fig. 2).

TE D

M AN U

222

A total of 496 and 297 litter items were counted on the rocky and soft bottoms, respectively

228

(Fig. 3). The most of marine litter (62.5%) was found on the rocky habitats (Fig. 3). Then, litter was

229

standardised to the proportions of the explored habitat (8,769.28 m2 and 17,022.72 m2, respectively,

230

explored on the rocky and soft bottom), so that the observed densities were 5.66 and 1.75 items/100

231

m2, respectively.

AC C

EP

227

232

Regarding the litter size in terms of seafloor coverage, Class 1 (< 1m2), mainly consisting of

233

outstretched fishing lines, was the most commonly observed dimensional class (88.4%; Fig. 3). The

234

classes of largest items (2 and 3), were mainly represented by rolled longlines, ropes, set nets and

235

rows of traps.

236

The colonisation of the debris by the sessile and encrusting epibionts was quite moderate,

237

because only 39.1% of debris objects showed fouling levels > 50%. The habitual specimens

238

colonising litter objects were hydroids, algae, bryozoans (Turbicellaria avicularia, Schizomavella

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 239

spp.), encrusting sponges, bivalve mollusks (Neopycnodonte cochlear), sea urchins (Cydaris spp.)

240

and polychaete worms (Filograna/Salmacina).

241 242

3.2

Litter-fauna interactions The litter-fauna interactions were frequently recorded, with 28.5% of debris items producing

244

impacts to the sessile fauna. This percentage reached the highest values on transect 15 (52.9%) and

245

11 (72.8%; Annex 1). It is noteworthy that these impacts were exclusively caused by derelict

246

fishing gear (91.1% by longlines, 4.5% by ropes and 4.4% by set nets).

SC

RI PT

243

A total number of 226 impacts on eight benthic species (all Anthozoa) were recorded. The

248

sea fan Eunicella cavolinii (35.4%), followed by Paramuricea clavata (32.3%) and the black coral

249

Antipathella subpinnata (22.6%), represented the most affected species (Annex 2; Fig. 4).

M AN U

247

Almost 70% of the observed ALDFG were outstretched on the bottom: this type of

250 251

disposition generated 198 impacts (87.6%).

253

4.

TE D

252

Discussion

The research, carried out on the seafloors of the promontory of Cape Milazzo, highlighted a

255

massive and extensive occurrence of marine litter. The observed mean litter density (3.49 items/100

256

m2) results to be one of the highest value recorded, by means of visual surveys, in the

257

Mediterranean (Table 2).

AC C

EP

254

258

Most of the debris identified during this study is represented by fishing gear (77.9%; Fig. 4

259

and 5), as generally observed at comparable depths in sites, where fishing represents as an

260

important economic sector (Angiolillo et al., 2015; Bo et al., 2014; Consoli et al., 2018a). At

261

shallower depths, except for the Italian Adriatic coasts (Melli et al., 2017), the percentage of the

262

derelict fishing gear is generally lower (Vlachogianni et al., 2017; Table 2).

263

According to Battaglia et al. (2017), in the area of Cape Milazzo, fishing lines (Fig. 4 and 5)

264

represent minor fishing gear, utilised by local fishermen mainly during the hot season, whereas

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 265

gillnets and seines are the most used. Notwithstanding, the analysis of marine litter composition

266

revealed that 60.5% of all ALDFG in the area are composed likely by long-lines, because they are

267

lost more easily than other the fishing gear, such as set nets (Battaglia, pers. comm.). Several factors, such as hydrographic and geomorphological features and anthropogenic

269

pressures may affect the amount, type, and distribution of seafloor litter (Cau et al., 2017; Consoli et

270

al., 2018a and reference herein; Koutsodendris et al., 2008; Strafella et al., 2015). The marine

271

debris, in particular ALDFG, tends to accumulate in rocky habitats, where the loss of fishing gear is

272

facilitated by the complex morphology of the substratum, and could also be enhanced by the

273

presence of large assemblages of the sessile fauna (e.g. sponges, cnidarians and others), that usually

274

colonise this type of bottoms. These macrofaunal aggregations give shelter to many valuable

275

alieutic resources (Angiolillo and Canese, 2017; Buhl-Mortensen et al., 2010; Rossi, 2013),

276

increasing the probability of gear loss. In the study area, the highest values of debris, and the

277

highest percentages of fishing gear causing impacts, were recorded at the depth range of 41–120 m.

278

These findings seem to be consistent with the bathymetric distribution of high value commercial

279

species, such as groupers, seabreams and scorpionfishes, usually living between 20 and 150 m

280

(www.fishbase.org), along with the presence of dense gorgonians colonies that may be responsible

281

for a major ALDFG density and impacts at these depth strata. Then, the presence of commercial

282

species, that depends on habitat characteristics, such as bathymetry, bottom morphology and

283

benthic communities, strongly affects the abundance of fishing-related litter (Bo et al., 2014).

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

268

284

The entanglement of sessile arborescent species was the principal impact of marine litter

285

items. In fact, 91.1% of the observed impacts on benthic fauna, in Cape Milazzo, were caused by

286

longlines entanglement. Because of their arborescent morphology, gorgonians and corals might be

287

easily vulnerable to this injury (Angiolillo and Canese, 2017; Consoli et al., 2018a; Galgani et al.,

288

2018; Rodríguez and Pham, 2017). The litter impacts on animal forests (sensu Rossi, 2013) have

289

been regularly observed worldwide at different depths, by means of visual techniques, such as

290

camera systems, SCUBA, submersibles and ROVs (Al-Jufaila et al., 1996; Angiolillo et al., 2015;

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Cau et al., 2017; Consoli et al., 2018a, b; Ferrigno et al., 2018; Melli et al., 2017; Sheehan et al.,

292

2017). According to Galgani et al. (2018), such epibenthic communities, like coral assemblages,

293

composed of sessile, slow-growing, and therefore, highly vulnerable organisms, in respect to

294

migrating or mobile organisms, consent to accurately track down for the entanglement events, and

295

could be used to assess the spatio-temporal patterns of entanglement by marine debris (Sheehan et

296

al., 2017). Moreover, the areas where fishing is forbidden (e.g. MPA), represent the most

297

appropriate sites to monitor this kind of impact, avoiding confusion between the active and lost

298

gear. The sessile organisms can also be entangled during the fishing activities, mainly when

299

longlines are retrieved (Galgani et al., 2018). However, different from the active gear, ALDFG

300

could have a long-term effect on the sessile fauna, even if the impact is not always visible. The

301

constant friction of lines and ropes on the benthic organisms may cause skin abrasion, tissue

302

damage and open wounds, then facilitating the infection and the successive colonisation (fouling),

303

by encrusting species (Angiolillo and Canese, 2017; Ballesteros et al., 2018; Galgani et al., 2018

304

and references therein). It is well known that the entanglement of a coral by a fishing line highly

305

enhances the death probability of the colony (Ballesteros et al., 2018).

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

291

In this study, the most common impacted organisms by lines entanglement were corals

307

(Octocorallia and Hexacorallia). In particular, impacts occurred on eight Anthozoans species or

308

facies considered to be of conservation interest (Annex 2), according to the following conditions: •

AC C

309

EP

306

are protected by international biodiversity agreements and/or directives: Convention on

310

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Berne

311

Convention, Habitats Directive, Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and

312

Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (SPA/BD Protocol);

313

•

314

SPA/BD Protocol;

315 316

•

form “priority habitats” (the conservation of which is mandatory), according to

are listed in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List Categories (near threatened, vulnerable, endangered and critically endangered).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT In some cases, the black coral specimens showed signs of damage caused by the friction of

318

derelict longlines with the chitinous ramifications, that were partially colonised by epibionts, such

319

as hydroids and sponges, as also observed by other researchers (Ballesteros et al., 2018; Bo et al.,

320

2014; Ferrigno et al., 2018). We also recorded many stumps of gorgonians, most likely broken and

321

pulled out by active fishing gear. Indeed, one of the effect of active gear on the sessile fauna is the

322

wrecking of many specimens from their natural habitat, with the consequent underestimation of the

323

number of colonies impacted or damaged by the fishing activity in a target area (Bo et al., 2014). A

324

small number of anthozoan colonies, usually living in dense populations (e.g. Mediterranean black

325

corals), could evidence that a coral forest disappeared (Bo et al., 2014).

SC

RI PT

317

No evidence of ghost fishing (when ALFDG continues involuntarily to catch animals) was

327

recorded in any of the observed derelict fishing gear (longlines and nets). On the other hand, the

328

derelict longlines do not represent a real problem, because they quickly lose their efficiency as a

329

result of the bait loss (Consoli et al., 2018a). Nevertheless, as previously stated, impacts of ALDFG

330

caused significant damage to the habitat and the associated benthic species—many of which are

331

protected.

TE D

M AN U

326

The increasing number of research on marine debris for the last ten years, carried out with

333

alternative instruments (ROVs), with respect to the most common trawling methods, have

334

highlighted different results (Angiolillo 2018). About 90% of litter caught on soft bottoms through

335

trawl nets is represented by plastic objects, such as bags, bottles, cups and fragments (Cau et al.,

336

2018; Galil et al., 1995; Pasquini et al., 2016), whereas on structurally complex rocky habitats,

337

particularly on fishing ground areas, the dominant litter is ALDFG (> 70% of items) (Angiolillo et

338

al., 2015; Consoli et al., 2018a) which can easily remain entangled in rocky outcrops. In general,

339

taking into account all synthetic items, marine litter, in term of abundance, was dominated by

340

plastics. Indeed, even if plastics exist for just over a century, they will represent most of the marine

341

litter in all the worldwide seas and oceans (Eriksen et al., 2014). The plastics had a world annual

342

production of 350 million tons for the year 2017 (PlasticsEurope, 2018).

AC C

EP

332

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Recently, the European Union (EU) MSFD and the United Nations (UN) Environment/MAP

344

Regional Plan on marine litter management in the Mediterranean have begun to take into account

345

the entanglement in their future monitoring of “harm”. In light of this, the future assessment plans

346

should also be organised to provide useful information for the enforcement of management actions

347

aimed to reduce marine debris. Moreover, all EU Member States must reach the good

348

environmental status (GES) for the marine environment by 2020, under the MSFD (2008/56/EC).

349

Considering that assessing the composition and sources of marine debris represents one of the

350

criteria for evaluating the good environmental status of European marine waters under the

351

descriptor 10, the results of the present study will contribute to improve the assessment of the

352

reference ecological status at the national level.

M AN U

SC

RI PT

343

In particular, the establishment of a new MPA in the area could represent a good solution to

354

protect this hotspot of biodiversity and to improve the ecological status of the whole ecosystem.

355

Moreover, the MPA will be established in an area, in which a local management plan is in force

356

(Battaglia et al., 2017), developed by a fishery consortium and a public research institute (Stazione

357

Zoologica Anton Dohrn), that also provides technical measures and activities to remove the derelict

358

fishing gear.

TE D

353

The specific actions to reduce ALDFG are also suggested by Food and Agriculture

360

Organisation (FAO) (2009); these can be generally classified in measures that prevent (gear

361

marking, on-board technology to locate gear, reception and/or payment for old/retrieved gear,

362

spatial management, reducing fishing effort), mitigate (use of biodegradable fishing gear) and cure

363

(removing ALDFG from the environment).

AC C

EP

359

364

Usually, the preventive measures are preferred instead of extensive removals based on the

365

cost-effectiveness and sustainability (Scheld et al., 2016). Indeed, very often, the derelict gear

366

location and removal may be cost prohibitive. Specifically, in the study area, the removal of

367

ALDFG could be economically feasible in shallow waters by underwater operators, but not in deep

368

environments, where recovery activities could be prohibitive for economic and safety reasons.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Moreover, even in shallow waters, the recovery of longlines entangled between the sea fans could

370

cause further damage to their delicate assemblages. Over the years, hydroids, encrusting sponges

371

and other pioneering species will completely colonise these artificial substrates, incorporating

372

debris items into the habitat matrix (Ardizzone et al., 1989), at least in the coralligenous

373

biocoenosis, where the highest litter densities and the greatest number of impacts were observed

374

and where colonisation of ALDFG is certainly faster.

375

377

5.

SC

376

RI PT

369

Conclusions

This study showed evidence that the seafloor marine debris may present a harmful impact

379

for the coastal marine ecosystems. The composition of litter on the seabed of the investigated MPA

380

appeared to be strongly influenced by the local fishing activities. In fact, the derelict fishing gear,

381

mainly fishing lines, were the main source of marine debris in the area, and ROV, as the monitoring

382

device, was able to prove their deleterious effects on animal forests. Not only new investigations on

383

marine debris by means of underwater visual surveys, but also routine surveys, taking into account

384

the marine litter in reef monitoring plans, are strongly recommended (Carvalho-Souza et al., 2018).

385

Their implementation on a regular basis will support the long-term assessment of marine litter

386

increase and its impacts, such as the entanglement, and the actions that will be applied in the future

387

to reduce these. The establishment of a new MPA in the area could be a good solution to reduce

388

ALDFG, resulting in the improvement of the ecological status of this coastal area. One of the main

389

tasks of the new MPA will be the implementation of preventive measures aimed to reduce ALDFG

390

and then promote the habitat restoration, the reduction in mortality of non-commercial, protected or

391

endangered species and the pollution reduction. Moreover, the MPA will have to oppose the

392

phenomenon of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (IUUF) in the area. Nevertheless, our

393

data constitute the baseline information for the implementation of future management measures.

394

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

378

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 395

Funding

396

ISPRA has accomplished a series of studies, funded by the Italian Ministry for the Environment,

397

Land and Sea, to support the establishment of a new marine protected area.

398

References

400

Al-Jufaila, S., AL-Jabria, M., Baluchia, A., Baldwin, R., Wilson, S., West, F., Matthews, A., 1996.

401

Human impacts on coral reefs in the sultanate of Oman. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 49, 65-74.

402

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7714(99)80010-9

405 406

SC

404

Andrady, A.L., 2011. Microplastics in the marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 62, 1596-1605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.030

M AN U

403

RI PT

399

Angiolillo, M., 2018. Debris in Deep Water. In Sheppard, C. (Ed), World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation, Vol III: Ecological Issues and Environmental Impacts, Elsevier, pp. 251–268. Angiolillo, M., Canese, S., 2017. Deep Gorgonians and Corals of the Mediterranean Sea. In Beltran,

408

C.D., Camacho, E.T. (Eds), Corals in a Changing World. Intechopen, pp. 29-49.

409

https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69686

TE D

407

Angiolillo, M., di Lorenzo, B., Farcomeni, A., Bo, M., Bavestrello, G., Santangelo, G., Cau, A.,

411

Mastascusa, V., Cau Aje, F., Canese, S., 2015. Distribution and assessment of marine debris in

412

the deep Tyrrhenian Sea (NW Mediterranean Sea, Italy). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 92, 149-159.

413

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.044

415

Ardizzone, G.D., Gravina, M.F., Belluscio, A., 1989. Temporal development of epibenthic communities on artificial reefs in the central Mediterranean Sea. Bull. Mar. Sci. 44, 592-608.

AC C

414

EP

410

416

Ballesteros, V.L., Matthews, J.L., Hoeksema, B.W., 2018. Pollution and coral damage caused by

417

derelict fishing gear on coral reefs around Koh Tao, Gulf of Thailand. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 135,

418

1107-1116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.08.033.

419

Barnes, D.K.A., Galgani, F., Thompson, R.C., Barlaz, M., 2009. Accumulation and fragmentation

420

of plastic debris in global environments. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 1985–1998.

421

https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0205

422

Battaglia, P., Andaloro, F., Consoli, P., Pedà, C., Raicevich, S., Spagnolo, M., Romeo, T., 2017.

423

Baseline data to characterize and manage the small-scale fishery (SSF) of an oncoming Marine

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 424

Protected Area (Cape Milazzo, Italy) in the western Mediterranean Sea. Ocean Coast. Manag.

425

148, 231-244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2017.08.014

426

Bo, M., Cerrano, C., Canese, S., Salvati, E., Angiolillo, M., Santangelo, G., Bavestrello, G., 2014.

427

The coral assemblages of an off-shore deep Mediterranean rocky bank (NW Sicily, Italy). Mar.

428

Ecol. 35, 332-342. https://doi.org/10.1111/maec.12089 Buhl-Mortensen, L., Vanreusel, A., Gooday, A.J., Levin, L.A., Priede, I.G., Buhl-Mortensen, P.,

430

Gheerardyn, H., King, N.J., Raes, M., 2010. Biological structures as a source of habitat

431

heterogeneity and biodiversity on the deep ocean margins. Mar. Ecol. 31, 21-50.

432

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0485.2010.00359.x

Carr, H.A, Cooper, R.A, 1987. Manned submersible and ROV assessment of ghost gillnets in the Gulf

of

Maine.

In:

OCEANS'87.

435

https://doi.org/10.1109/OCEANS.1987.1160764

IEEE,

1987.

pp.

622-624.

M AN U

434

SC

433

RI PT

429

436

Carvalho-Souza, G., Llope, M., Moacir, S., Medeiros, D., Rodrigo, M., Sampaio, C., 2018. Marine

437

litter disrupts ecological processes in reef systems. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 133, 464-471.

438

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.05.049.

Cau, A., Alvito, A., Moccia, D., Canese, S., Pusceddu, A., Rita, C., Angiolillo, M., Follesa, M.,

440

2017. Submarine canyons along the upper Sardinian slope (Central Western Mediterranean) as

441

repositories

442

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.010

TE D

439

for

derelict

fishing

gears.

Mar.

Pollut.

Bull.

123,

357-374.

Cau, A., Bellodi, A., Moccia, D., Mulas, A., Pesci, P., Cannas, R., Pusceddu, A., Follesa, M.C.,

444

2018. Dumping to the abyss: single-use marine litter invading bathyal plains of the Sardinian

445

margin

446

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.08.007

EP

443

Sea).

Mar.

Pollut.

Bull.

135,

845-851.

AC C

(Tyrrhenian

447

Consoli, P., Andaloro, F., Altobelli, C., Battaglia, P., Campagnuolo, S., Canese, S., Castriota, L.,

448

Cillari, T., Falautano, M., Pedà, C., Perzia, P., Sinopoli, M., Vivona, P., Scotti, G., Esposito, V.,

449

Galgani, F., Romeo, T., 2018a. Marine litter in an EBSA (Ecologically or Biologically

450

Significant Area) of the Central Mediterranean Sea: abundance, composition, impact on benthic

451

species

452

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.01.097

and

basis

for

monitoring

entanglement.

Environ.

Pollut.

236,

405-415.

453

Consoli, P., Falautano, M., Sinopoli, M., Perzia, P., Canese, S., Esposito, V., Battaglia, P., Romeo,

454

T., Andaloro, F., Galgani, F., Castriota, L., 2018b. Composition and abundance of benthic

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 455

marine litter in a coastal area of the central Mediterranean sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 136, 243-247.

456

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.09.033 Consoli, P., Romeo, T., Giongrandi, U., Andalaro, F., 2008. Differences among fish assemblages

458

associated with a nearshore vermetid reef and other two rocky habitats along the shores of Cape

459

Milazzo (Northern Sicily, Central Mediterranean Sea). J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 88, 401-410.

460

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315408000489

RI PT

457

461

D’Alessandro, M., Esposito, V., Giacobbe, S., Renzi, M., Mangano, M.V., Vivona, P., Consoli, P.,

462

Scotti, G., Andaloro, F., Romeo, T. 2016. Ecological assessment of a heavily human-stressed

463

area in the Gulf of Milazzo, Central Mediterranean Sea: An integrated study of biological,

464

physical

465

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.021

chemical

indicators.

Mar.

Pollut.

Bull.

SC

and

106,

260-273.

De Carvalho-Souza, G.F., Llope, M., Tinôco, M. S., Medeiros, D.V., Maia-Nogueira, R., Sampaio,

467

C.L.S., 2018. Marine litter disrupts ecological processes in reef systems. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 133,

468

464-471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.05.049

469

M AN U

466

Deudero, S., Alomar, C., 2015. Mediterranean marine biodiversity under threat: Reviewing influence

of

marine

litter

on

species.

471

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.012

Mar.

Pollut.

Bull.

98,

58-68.

TE D

470

Donohue, M.J., Boland, R.C., Sramek, C.M., Antonelis, G.A., 2001. Derelict fishing gear in the

473

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: diving surveys and debris removal in 1999 confirm threat to

474

coral reef ecosystems. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 42, 1301-1312. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-

475

326X(01)00139-4

EP

472

Eriksen, M., Lebreton, L.C.M., Carson, H.S., Thiel, M., Moore, C.J., Borerro, J.C., Galgani, F.,

477

Ryan, P.G., Reisser, J., 2014. Plastic Pollution in the World’s Oceans: More than 5 Trillion

478

Plastic Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at Sea. PLoS ONE, 9(12), e111913.

479

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111913

480 481

AC C

476

FAO, 2010. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Rome, Italy.

482

Ferrigno, F., Appolloni, L., Russo, G.F, Sandulli, R., 2018. Impact of fishing activities on different

483

coralligenous assemblages of Gulf of Naples (Italy). J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 98, 41-50.

484

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315417001096

485

Gage, J.D., Roberts, J.M., Hartley, J.P., Humphery, J.D., 2005. Potential impacts of deep-sea

486

trawling on the benthic ecosystem along the Northern European continental margin: a review. In

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 487

Barnes P.W., Thomas J.P. (Eds.), Benthic habitats and the effects of fishing. American fisheries

488

society symposium 41, pp. 461-475.

491

https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2015.00087 Galgani, F., Pham, C.K., Claro, F., Consoli, P., 2018. Marine animal forests as useful indicators of

492

entanglement

493

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.08.004

litter.

Mar.

Pollut.

Bull.

135,

735-738.

Galil, B.S., Golik, A., Türkay, M., 1995. Litter at the bottom of the sea: A sea bed survey in the

495

Eastern

496

326X(94)00103-G

497

marine

Mediterranean.

Mar.

Pollut.

Bull.

30,

22-24.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-

Heifetz, J., Stone, R.P., Shotwell, S.K., 2009. Damage and disturbance to coral and sponge habitat

498

of

the

Aleutian

Archipelago.

499

https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08304

Mar.

Ecol.

Prog.

M AN U

494

by

RI PT

490

Galgani, F., 2015. Marine litter, future prospects for research. Front. Mar. Sci. 2, 87.

SC

489

Ser.

397,

295-303.

500

Jambeck, J.R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T.R., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., Narayan, R., Law,

501

K.L. 2015. Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science 347, 768-71.

502

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352

Kaiser, M.J., Collie, J.S., Hall, S.J., Jennings, S., Poiner, I.R., 2002. Modification of marine habitats trawling

TE D

503 504

by

activities:

prognosis

and

solutions.

505

https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-2979.2002.00079.x

Fish

Fish.

3,

114-136.

Koutsodendris, A., Papatheodorou, G., Kougiourouki, O., Georgiadis, M. 2008. Benthic marine

507

litter in four Gulfs in Greece, Eastern Mediterranean; abundance, composition and source

508

identification. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 77, 501-512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2007.10.011

509

Lopez-Lopez, L., González-Irusta, J.M., Punzón, A., Serrano, A. 2017. Benthic litter distribution

510

and deep sea bottoms of the southern Bay of Biscay: analysis of potential drivers. Cont. Shelf

511

Res. 144, 112-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2017.07.003

513 514

AC C

512

EP

506

Macic, V., Mandic, M., Pestoric, B., Gacic, Z., Paunovic, M., 2017. First assessment of marine litter in shallow south-east adriatic sea. Fresen. Environ. Bull. 26, 4834-4840. Matsuoka, K., Nakashima, T., Nagasawa, N., 2005. A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches

515

to

evaluation

and

516

2906.2005.01019.x

solutions.

Fish.

Sci.

71,

691-702.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1444-

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 517

Melli, V., Angiolillo, M., Ronchi, F., Canese, S., Giovanardi, O., Querin, S., Fortibuoni, T., 2017.

518

The first assessment of marine debris in a Site of Community Importance in the north-western

519

Adriatic

520

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.012

522 523 524

(Mediterranean

Sea).

Mar.

Pollut.

Bull.

114

(2),

821-830.

Moore, C.J., 2008. Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat. Environ. Res. 108, 131-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025

RI PT

521

Sea

Morato T., Watson R., Pitcher T.J., Pauly, D., 2006. Fishing down the deep. Fish Fish. 7, 2434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2006.00205.x

Orejas, C., Gori, A., Lo Iacono, C., Puig, P., Gili, J.-M., Dale, M.R.T., 2009. Cold-water corals in

526

the Cap de Creus canyon, northwestern Mediterranean: spatial distribution, density and

527

anthropogenic impact. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 397, 37-51. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08314

SC

525

Pasquini, G., Ronchi, F., Strafella, P., Scarcella, G., Fortibuoni, T., 2016. Seabed litter composition,

529

distribution and sources in the Northern and Central Adriatic Sea (Mediterranean). Waste

530

Manage. 58, 41-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.08.038

531 532

M AN U

528

PlasticsEurope, 2018. Plastics - the facts 2018: an analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data. PlasticsEurope Market Research Group, Brussels, Belgium. Rodríguez, Y., Pham, C., 2017. Marine litter on the seafloor of the Faial-Pico Passage, Azores

534

Archipelago. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 116, 448-453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.018.

535

Rossi, S., 2013. The destruction of the “animal forests” in the oceans: towards an oversimplification of

537

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.07.004

ecosystems.

Ocean

Coast.

Manage.

84,

77-85.

Rossi, S., Bramanti, L., Gori, A., Orejas, C., 2017. Marine animal forests. In: The Ecology of

AC C

539

benthic

EP

536

538

the

TE D

533

Benthic Biodiversity Hotspots. Springer (978-3-319-21011-7).

540

Saldanha, H.J., Sancho, G., Santos, M.N., Puente, E., Gaspar, M.B., Bilbao, A., Monteiro, C.C.,

541

Gomez, E., Arregi L., 2003. The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study. Fish. Res.

542

64, 141-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-7836(03)00213-3

543 544

Scheld, A.M., Bilkovic, D.M. and Havens, K.J., 2016. The Dilemma of Derelict Gear. Sci. Rep. 6, 19671. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep19671

545

Sheehan, E., Rees, A., Bridger, D., Williams, T., Hall-Spencer, J.M., 2017. Strandings of NE

546

Atlantic gorgonians. Biol. Conserv. 209, 482-487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.03.020

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 547

Strafella, P., Fabi, G., Spagnolo, A., Grati, F., Polidori, P., Punzo, E., Fortibuoni, T., Marceta, B.,

548

Raicevich, S., Cvitkovic, I., Despalatovic, M., Scarcella, G., 2015. Spatial pattern and weight of

549

seabed marine litter in the northern and central Adriatic Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 91, 120-127.

550

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.018 Thompson, R.C., Olsen, Y., Mitchell, R.P., Davis, A., Rowland, S.J., John, A.W. G., et al., 2004.

552

Lost

at

sea:

Where

is

all

553

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1094559

the

plastic?

Science,

304,

838-838.

RI PT

551

554

Tubau, X., Canals, M., Lastras, G., Rayo, X., Rivera, J., and Amblas, D., 2015. Marine litter on the

555

floor of deep submarine canyons of the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea: the role of

556

hydrodynamic

557

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2015.03.013

Oceanogr. 134,

SC

processes. Progr.

379-403.

UNEP, 2009. Marine Litter: A Global Challenge. Nairobi. 232 p.

559

UNEP, 2017. Management of marine debris. UNEP/CMS/COP12/Doc.24.4.1. 2 June 2017.

560

UNEP/MAP, 2015. Marine Litter Assessment in the Mediterranean. UNEP/MAP, Athens, Greece,

562 563

p. 86.

UNEP/MAP, 2016. Integrated Monitoring and Assessment Programme of the Mediterranean Sea and Coast and Related Assessment Criteria. UNEP/MAP, Athens, Greece, p. 27

TE D

561

M AN U

558

Vlachogianni, Th., Anastasopoulou, A., Fortibuoni, T., Ronchi, F., Zeri, Ch., 2017. Marine Litter

565

Assessment in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. IPA-Adriatic DeFishGear Project, MIO-ECSDE,

566

HCMR and ISPRA. pp. 168 (ISBN: 978-960-6793-25-7).

568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575

AC C

567

EP

564

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 576

Figure captions

577

Fig. 1. The study area located in Milazzo Cape (Sicily, Italy - South-Eastern Tyrrhenian Sea). Black

578

lines indicate ROV tracks carried out in 2004, the yellow dotted lines represent the MPA

579

proposed boundaries.

581

Fig. 2. Total number of litter items and fishing related debris for each bathymetric stratum. Black

RI PT

580

dots indicate the percentages of fishing gear causing impacts at each bathymetric range. Fig. 3. Fraction of total litter (%), individually calculated for each of the following variables:

583

bottom type, seabed covered, fishing gear disposition, degree of epibiosis and litter-fauna

584

interactions.

SC

582

Fig. 4. Impact of longlines on benthic invertebrates. a-b) Colonies of red coral (Corallium rubrum)

586

entangled and pulled by encrusted longlines (red arrow); c) Colonies of black coral

587

(Antipathella subpinnata) entangled by set nets and longlines; d) Dead branches (red arrow)

588

of A. subpinnata, covered by encrusting epibionts; e) A big colony of Dendrophyllia ramea

589

entangled by a line which caused a branch to break (red arrow); f) A small colony of D.

590

ramea has been detached from its native hard substrate by a longline.

TE D

M AN U

585

Fig. 5. Impact of longlines on benthic invertebrates. a) Paramuricea clavata entangled and pulled

592

by encrusted lost lines (red arrow); b) A lost set net stretched over colonies of Eunicella

593

cavolinii; c) Mass of lost lines entangling a gorgonians meadow (Eunicella cavolinii); d) A

594

hot spot of marine litter with glass bottles and a brick used as fishing weight (red arrow); e)

595

Rolled

596

(Filograna/Salmacina); g) Colonies of Acanthogorgia hirsuta entangled by lines; h) An

597

illegal longline, with plastic bottles used as floats, threatening colonies of Eunicella

598

singularis and P. clavata.

599 600 601

AC C

EP

591

longlines

and

pots;

f)

An

old

line

colonised

by

polychaete worms

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 602

Figures

604 605

Fig.1.

AC C

EP

606

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

603

607 608

Fig. 2.

RI PT

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

609

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

Fig. 3.

AC C

610 611

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

612 613

Fig. 4.

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

614 615 616 617 618 619

Fig. 5.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Tables

621

Table 1. Characterisation of total litter items (n = 793) per category, sub-category and percentage

622

contribution (%). In grey colour, top ten litter items found.

EP

AC C

623

SC

N. % 480 60.5 47 5.9 35 4.4 31 3.9 27 3.4 26 3.3 24 3.0 21 2.6 18 2.3 9 1.1 7 0.9 7 0.9 6 0.8 6 0.8 6 0.8 4 0.5 4 0.5 3 0.4 3 0.4 3 0.4 3 0.4 2 0.3 2 0.3 2 0.3 2 0.3 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1

M AN U

All litter items Fishing lines Set net Rope glass bottle plastic bottle Trap fishing weight single-use plastic undetermined plastic fragment beverage can plastic sheet engine oil filter motor oil can rubber cardboard spray can plastic bag anchor Trawl net undetermined tube plastic tank raincoat textile fragment plastic glove Wire ceramic fragment engine piece plastic box gangway mosquito net fishing lead ancient amphora sanitary napkin plastic packing band ball boat fender broom fishing lure

TE D

Litter category Litter sub-category Fishing gears Fishing lines Fishing gears Set net Fishing gears Rope General waste Glass/ceramic General waste Plastic objects Fishing gears Trap Fishing gears other General waste Plastic objects General waste other General waste Plastic objects General waste Metal General waste Plastic objects General waste other General waste Metal General waste Rubber General waste Paper/cardboard General waste Metal General waste Plastic objects General waste Metal Fishing gears Trawl net General waste Metal General waste Metal General waste Plastic objects General waste Textile General waste Textile General waste Plastic objects Fishing gears Wire General waste Glass/ceramic General waste Metal General waste Plastic objects General waste Metal General waste Plastic objects Fishing gears other General waste Glass/ceramic General waste other General waste Plastic objects General waste Plastic objects General waste Plastic objects General waste Plastic objects Fishing gears other

RI PT

620

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 2. Seafloor debris abundances (items/100 m2), percentage (%) of ALDFG and plastics, recorded by means of visual census techniques, from

625

several locations of the Mediterranean Sea.

627 628 629 630 631 632

Mean abundance (n/100m2 )

ALDFG (%)

Plastics (%)

ROV scuba diving scuba diving ROV ROV ROV ROV ROV ROV scuba diving

mixed n.d. n.d. rocky rocky rocky rocky mixed soft mixed

20-240 9-24 3-17 21-23 30-300 30-300 30-300 20-200 5-30 0-40

3.49 4.61 0.68 3.3 0.95 1.49 0.44 2.13 0.11 0.25

78 5 9 69 91 93 82 98 32 -

84 36 36 2 3 11 96 73 54

M AN U

SC

Depth range (m)

TE D

626

Substrate

EP

Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Sicily Adriatic Sea, Montenegro Adriatic Sea, Slovenia Adriatic Sea, Italy Tyrrhenian Sea, Campania, Italy Sicily, Italy Sardinia, Italy Straits of Sicily, Italy Straits of Sicily, Italy Sud-east Adriatic Sea

Survey methods

AC C

Area

RI PT

624

REF. Present study Vlachogianni et al., 2017 Vlachogianni et al., 2017 Melli et al., 2017 Angiolillo et al., 2015 Angiolillo et al., 2015 Angiolillo et al., 2015 Consoli et al., 2018a Consoli et al., 2018b Macic et al., 2017

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

47 17 46 28 83 121 79 32 71 52 92 8 13 2 102 793

2600 2078 1040 1128 1036 2226 1460 1092 1840 2038 3512 124 2696 842 2080 25792

Litter density (n. items/100m2)

n. of litter items causing impacts

% of litter items causing impacts

n. of fishing gear

% of fishing gear

1.8 0.8 4.4 2.5 8.0 5.4 5.4 2.9 3.9 2.6 2.6 6.5 0.5 0.2 4.9

1 0 0 0 13 18 26 5 24 18 67 0 0 0 54 226

2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.7 14.9 32.9 15.6 33.8 34.6 72.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 52.9 28.5

44 4 10 15 80 70 61 32 68 46 84 7 0 1 96 618

93.6 23.5 21.7 53.6 96.4 57.9 77.2 100.0 95.8 88.5 91.3 87.5 0.0 50.0 94.1 77.9

SC

15-164 25-182 35-207 37-200 16-128 15-200 10-150 17-47 10-150 67-116 11-112 113- 117 25-103 135-176 50-80

Visual swept area (m2)

M AN U

1300 1039 520 564 518 1113 730 546 920 1019 1756 62 1348 421 1040 12896

Litter items (n)

TE D

Average depth (m)

EP

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total Mean

Transect length (m)

AC C

Dive

RI PT

Annex 1. Summary of the 15 transects carried out by ROV in Milazzo Cape (Sicily, Italy - South-Eastern Tyrrhenian Sea). Visual swept area per transect was calculated using the ROV track lengths and an estimated width visibility of 2 m.

3.5

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

CITES (Annex)

BERN (Annex)

HABITAT (Annex)

Acanthogorgia hirsuta B

Corallium rubrum Dendrophyllia ramea

3 3

5

B

Eunicella verrucosa Habitat

Facies with Paramuricea clavata

EP

Facies with Eunicella singularis

TE D

Coralligenous biocenosis Facies with Eunicella cavolini

SPA/BD Priority Habitat (Id Code)

2

M AN U

Antipathella subpinnata

SPA/BD (Annex)

SC

Species

RI PT

Annex 2. List of species and habitats affected by marine debris in the study area. For each species and habitat, the “conservation status”, according to the international directives and agreements (CITES, Berne Convention, Habitat Directive, SPA/BD Protocol), is reported. The IUCN Red Lists of Threatened Species were consulted at Global1, Mediterranean2 and Italian3 scale—the most restrictive category was used. Percentages of impact for each species/habitat to the total number of impacts (n=226) are reported. IUCN (Assessment)

Impacts (%)

LC2,3

3.1

LC

3

3

22.6

EN2,3

2.7

VU2

1.3

2

0.9

NT IV.3.1 IV.3.1.10

LC3

IV.3.1.11

VU

3

IV.3.1.13.

VU2

35.4 1.8 32.3

AC C

CITES: Annex B-Species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled. BERN: Annex 2-Strictly protected fauna species; Annex 3-Protected fauna species. HABITAT: Annex 5-Animal and plant species of community interest whose taking in the wild and exploitation may be subject to management measures. SPA/BD: Annex 2-List of endangered or threatened species; Annex 3- List of species whose exploitation is regulated. IUCN assessment: EN: Endangered; VU: Vulnerable; NT: Near threatened; LC: Least Concern; DD: Data Deficient.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Litter category Litter sub-category All litter items N. % Fishing gears Fishing lines Fishing lines 480 60.5 Fishing gears Set net Set net 47 5.9 Fishing gears Rope Rope 35 4.4 General waste Glass/ceramic glass bottle 31 3.9 General waste Plastic objects plastic bottle 27 3.4 Fishing gears Trap Trap 26 3.3 Fishing gears other fishing weight 24 3.0 General waste Plastic objects single-use plastic 21 2.6 General waste other undetermined 18 2.3 General waste Plastic objects plastic fragment 9 1.1 General waste Metal beverage can 7 0.9 General waste Plastic objects plastic sheet 7 0.9 General waste other engine oil filter 6 0.8 General waste Metal motor oil can 6 0.8 General waste Rubber rubber 6 0.8 General waste Paper/cardboard cardboard 4 0.5 General waste Metal spray can 4 0.5 General waste Plastic objects plastic bag 3 0.4 General waste Metal anchor 3 0.4 Fishing gears Trawl net Trawl net 3 0.4 General waste Metal undetermined 3 0.4 General waste Metal tube 2 0.3 General waste Plastic objects plastic tank 2 0.3 General waste Textile raincoat 2 0.3 General waste Textile textile fragment 2 0.3 General waste Plastic objects plastic glove 1 0.1 Fishing gears Wire Wire 1 0.1 General waste Glass/ceramic ceramic fragment 1 0.1 General waste Metal engine piece 1 0.1 General waste Plastic objects plastic box 1 0.1 General waste Metal gangway 1 0.1 General waste Plastic objects mosquito net 1 0.1 Fishing gears other fishing lead 1 0.1 General waste Glass/ceramic ancient amphora 1 0.1 General waste other sanitary napkin 1 0.1 General waste Plastic objects plastic packing band 1 0.1 General waste Plastic objects ball 1 0.1 General waste Plastic objects boat fender 1 0.1 General waste Plastic objects broom 1 0.1 Fishing gears other fishing lure 1 0.1

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Marine litter was quantified within a new Marine Protected Area.

•

Litter density ranged from 0.24 to 8.01 items/100 m2 (mean = 3.49 items/100 m2).

•

Derelict fishing gear represented 77.9% of the total litter items.

•

Fishing lines have been recognized as a cause of coral damage.

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

•