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Microbial approaches in management and restoration of marginal lands
Chapter 20
Microbial approaches in management and restoration of marginal lands Umesh Pankaj, Geetu Singh and Rajesh Kumar Verma Divion of Agronomy and Soil Science, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India
Chapter Outline 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6
Introduction Problems associated with marginal lands Harmful effects of drought and salinity on plant Management of marginal land Phyto-restoration of marginal land Microbial approach for management of marginal lands 20.7 Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in management of marginal land
20.1
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20.8 Interaction among plant, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria under abiotic stressed environment 20.9 Use of microbes with organic fertilizer 20.10 Conclusion References Further reading
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Introduction
Available facts show that total lands have shrunk noticeably due to the severe struggle between different parts of economy for land use, unfortunate anthropogenic modifications, and salinization, leaving little scope for agricultural extension (Singh, 2013, 2015; Tiwari and Singh, 2017; Kumar et al., 2018). On the other hand the population of the world is continuously increasing at a shocking rate of around 1.09% per annum. To confirm food security for such a large population, countries needs to produce huge quantities of food grain, feedstuff, and fuel. Marginal lands have received great attention, which could help to address these food challenges. Literature suggests that large areas of marginal land are available in Asian countries, which may hold potential for the production of food crops. The available marginal lands in Asian countries are at about 4 million km2 or 6.5% of total land area. The term “marginal land” has been used quite loosely without a concrete definition. Marginal lands are defined as having poor physical characteristic, limited rainfall, high salt content, and poorly and imperfectly drained soils. Plants are vital for the survival of life on this planet. Plants are affected by different environmental stresses during their life cycle and the agricultural crop production is globally restricted by various abiotic and biotic stresses. Biotic factors include pathogenic microorganisms like plant viruses, bacteria, fungi, and some insects that damage the plants (Singh et al., 2018; Tiwari et al., 2018). There are numerous abiotic stresses engendered by different environmental conditions such as UV radiations, extreme temperatures, freezing, drought, salinity, acidity, flooding, and different heavy metals (Singh and Gupta, 2018; Vimal et al., 2018). Salinity is one of the major threats that affect plant growth and productivity worldwide (Mahajan and Tuteja, 2005; Mittler, 2006). So, this demands intensive effort on agro-technology-driven productivity enhancement in degraded lands like drought affected land and salt-affected soil (sodic and alkaline soil). Sodium chloride is the most soluble salt and most of the soil’s salinity is developed due to natural geological, hydrological, and pedological processes. Globally, 75 countries have been recognized to have large areas of salt-affected lands. Martinez-Beltran and Manzur (2005) estimated that nearly 831 million hectares of land are salt-affected worldwide. Across many countries, about 95 million
New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818258-1.00020-0 © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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hectares of soil are under primary salinization (salt accumulation through natural processes in soils and water) whereas 77 million hectares suffer from secondary salinization (as a result of human activities and ever-rising groundwater) (Metternicht and Zink, 2003; Munns, 2005). It is estimated that every day between 2000 and 4000 ha (Shabala and Cuin, 2008; Qadir et al., 2014) of irrigated land in arid and semiarid areas across the globe are degraded by salinity and become unsuitable for crop production. Salt accumulation in soil is a major threat to agricultural production and ecosystem sustainability because it reduces plant growth and increases the risk of soil erosion (Giri et al., 2003; Al-Karaki, 2006). The high salt concentration negatively affects soil microbial activity as well as soil chemical and physical properties, thus causing a decline in soil productivity. When exposed to biotic and abiotic stress plant metabolism is disrupted (Swarbrick et al., 2006; Massad et al., 2012), which leads to the reduction in proficiency and ultimately productivity (Shao et al., 2008). After recognition, the plant’s constitutive basal defense mechanisms (Andreasson and Ellis, 2010) lead to an activation of complex signaling cascades of defense varying from one stress to another (Abou Qamar et al., 2009; Chinnusamy et al., 2004).
20.2
Problems associated with marginal lands
Drought is a major problem in agriculture worldwide. For example, Europe experienced an extreme drought event in 2003, exacerbated by high summer temperatures, which led to a dramatic reduction in primary productivity (Olesen et al., 2011). With the predicted increase in reduced rainfall and heat events due to global warming, plant productivity in temperate regions is threatened; water scarcity may lead to reduced plant development, leaf wilting, unbalanced fruit composition, and seed maturation (Ciais et al., 2005). The second major threat in environment is salt-affectedness, which refers to soil that has higher concentration of various types of salts and has become saline or sodic (Szabolcs, 1989) in nature. A sodic soil has too much sodium associated with the negatively charged clay particles. Soil salinity occurs through natural or anthropogenic processes that lead to the accumulation of salts in the soil water to a high level that hinders plant growth. Natural salinity is a result of salt accumulation over a long period of time, and is the result of weathering of rocks with the release of soluble salts including chloride of sodium, calcium, and magnesium, and to a lesser level of sulfates and carbonates. In addition, deposition of oceanic salt carried by wind and rain also leads to salinity. Anthropogenic causes of salinity are (1) land clearing and the replacement of perennial vegetation with annual crops, and (2) irrigation of land with salt-rich water and insufficient drainage system (Munns and Tester, 2008). Soil salinization is a serious global environmental problem associated to agriculture. Excessive salts have negative impact on living organisms in a specific environment. Salts in soil can adversely affect the performance or individual physiology of the plants in a significant way. High salt concentrations like sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, carbonate, bicarbonate, and sulfate potentially affect the agricultural crops’ growth and yield. Abundance of soluble ions in soil solution can decrease the activity of essential nutrients in the soil and can lead to reduction in accessibility and uptake of some nutrients by the plants. It is known that salt stress causes reduction in phosphorus accumulation in plants, which developed P-deficiency symptoms. The direct effects of salts on plant growth are nutrient imbalance, which causes a decrease in the nutrient uptake and carriage to the shoot leading to ion deficiencies (Munns, 2002). Salt-affected soils are generally classified on the basis of electrical conductivity of the saturated extract (ECe), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), and pH (Rengasamy, 2010). On the basis of the above parameters salt-affected soils are classified as (1) saline soils, containing high levels of soluble salts (ECe . 4.0 dS m21); (2) sodic soils, having high levels of exchangeable sodium (SAR . 13.0 and ESP . 15.0); and (3) saline sodic soils, in which both soluble salts and exchangeable sodium are high (Ghasemi et al., 1995).
20.3
Harmful effects of drought and salinity on plant
Drought and salinity obstructs the photosynthetic pathway and increases photorespiration, changing the cells’ homeostasis with increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as super oxide radical, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radical (Das and Roychoudhury, 2014). Under optimal growth conditions, low levels of ROS are generated in cell organelles such as chloroplasts, peroxisomes, and mitochondria (Apel and Hirt, 2004). The increased production of ROS during stress induces the activation of stress-responsive and plant defense pathway genes (Pitzschke et al., 2006). Wide research has been done regarding stress tolerance of plants, mainly on water relations, photosynthesis, and accumulation of various inorganic ions and organic metabolites.
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Management of marginal land
To fulfill the needs of the rapidly multiplying population and to keep the land resources in good physical shape and increase the productivity for the future generations, it is imperative to closely look into the reasons for land degradation and development of salinity and adopt innovative measures to reverse these processes. Putting botanical means into practice depending upon the nature of the issue could be highly helpful for mitigating the abiotic stress.
20.5
Phyto-restoration of marginal land
During drought, unbalanced uptake of macro- and micronutrients that may precipitate due to lack of water availability (Vassilev et al., 2012; Qi and Zhao, 2013) can dramatically exacerbate the already compromised health status of plants. Agricultural fields are generally used for cultivation of food crops and thus, to meet the current demand of food security, it would be sensible to restore marginal land that is generally not suited for most of the agricultural crops. Drought and salinity tolerant plants are widely used for the restoration of marginal lands in a sustainable manner. Plants respond to dry conditions in several ways, including modification of root architecture (shallow versus deep rooting) and leaf shape. Such responses can differ between perennial trees and annual plants, such as cereals. Although drought is an increasing problem in agriculture, the contribution of the root-associated bacterial microbiome to plant adaptation to water stress is poorly studied. Nowadays, medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have drawn the attention of researchers for the cultivation on marginal land due to not only their aroma, flavor/taste, and clinical use but also they are proven to be good cash crops and a boon for improving the income of farmers. MAPs are cultivated for a wide variety of products derived from plant crude materials and processed for their use as pharmaceuticals, herbal remedies, cosmetics, sweets, dietary supplements, polishes, insecticides, and the aroma industry (Lange, 2004). Earlier, studies indicated that grasses have a unique capability to cope with drought as well salt stress conditions especially aromatic grasses (family Poaceae) such as palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii), lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus), and vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) (Patra and Singh, 1998; Tomar and Minhas, 2004).
20.6
Microbial approach for management of marginal lands
Drought imposes adaptive constraints on both plants and their associated microorganisms. The microbes have the ability to show resistance to abiotic stresses typically associated with drought, such as resistance to salinization, osmotic stress, and growth at high and low temperatures. Interestingly, some microbes are osmotolerant and showed the ability to grow under low moisture conditions and are of great benefit to plants. PGP bacteria can directly enhance micronutrient uptake and affect phytohormone homeostasis, or indirectly stimulate the plant immune system against phytopathogens (Balloi et al., 2010) and improve soil texture and structure (Mapelli et al., 2012). Various types of beneficial properties of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are shown in Fig. 20.1. For instance, some PGP bacteria are able with the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase enzyme (Glick et al., 2007) to cleave the plant ethylene precursor ACC, thereby lowering the level of ethylene in developing or stressed plants (Glick, 2004). The majority of FIGURE 20.1 Beneficial and effective role of plant growthpromoting rhizobacteria under salt-affected soil for a sustainable agriculture.
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PGPRs had the potential to contribute to plant nutrition by siderophore release and solubilization of inorganic phosphate compounds. Furthermore, the PGP bacteria are able to secrete mucilaginous material, possibly positively affecting bacteria root adhesion and colonization. Such an exopolymeric matrix contributes to soil stabilization through (1) an increase in the amount of root adhering soil, (2) an improvement in water-holding capacity and reduced water loss during desiccation due to its hydrophilic properties, (3) a stimulation of root exudation, and (4) protection of roots from the mechanical effects of soil hardness (Rolli et al., 2015). Salinity is a major soil constraint that affects the physiological traits and yield of crops worldwide. Salt-affected soil reduces crop productivity and leads to abandonment of many agricultural areas. Deleterious effect of salinity includes nutrient imbalance, osmotic stress, and membrane destabilization contributing toward lowering of growth and yield of crops (Zhu, 2007). For sustainable crop production in salt-affected areas it has been vital to mitigate these deleterious effects of salts over the cultivated crops. Saline alkaline soil exhibits a specific type of extreme habitat for the adaptation of a halophilic microbial community that grows luxuriantly at high pH and high salt concentrations (Qin et al., 2016). A well-established fact is that rhizobacteria colonizing roots improve the growth and productivity of the plants and also can be useful to alleviate this worldwide problem. For successful performance of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in salt-affected soil, both abilities of salt-tolerant and plant growth promotion (phosphate solubilization, production of siderophore and auxin) are required for their better survival and performance in natural field conditions (Bharti et al., 2013). An indirect mechanism of plant growth promotion is protecting the plant against soil-borne diseases by producing hydrogen cyanide, particularly caused by pathogenic fungal spp. (Lugtenberg and Kamilova, 2009). Rhizobacteria inhabiting within the rhizosphere region may also enter into the root cortex (endoroot), found on the surface of root and endobacteria (found within the cortical cells). An efficient PGPR must possess properties like (1) capable to colonize on the surface the root, (2) capable to grow and proliferate within rhizosphere, and (3) compatible with other microbiota in the rhizosphere (Kloepper et al., 1991). PGPR promotes plant growth directly by providing essential nutrients to plants (nitrogen, phosphorus, and essential minerals) and modulating plant hormone levels. Earlier studies have reported various PGPR involved in drought and salinity amelioration activities are exemplified in Table 20.1.
TABLE 20.1 Some examples of PGPR and AMF inoculation for plant growth promotion under different environmental stress condition. Crops
Type of stress
Bacteria/AMF
Response
Reference
Retama (Retama sphaerocarpa)
Drought
Bacillus thuringiensis; Glomus intraradices
Marulanda et al. (2006)
Medicago spp. (M. nolana, M. rigidula, M. rotata)
Drought
Sinorhizobium meliloti (wild type and genetically modified derivative
Trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliate) Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)
Drought
Funneliformis mosseae
P-deficient environment
Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.)
Heavy metal
Pseudomonas putida, Azotobacter chroococcum; Azosprillum lipoferum; Glomus sp. Brevibacillus sp.
Enhanced root development, reduced water required to produce shoot biomass Plants inoculated with mycorrhiza and Sinorhizobium strains are less affected by water stress; mycorrhizal plants modulated by genetically modified Sinorhizobium proved better Greater root-hair growth and auxin synthesis Inoculation enhanced lycopene and antioxidant activity, shoot and fruit potassium content
Vivas et al. (2003)
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)
Salinity
Pseudomonas mendocina; Glomus mosseae
Maize (Zea mays L.)
Coastal saline soil
Massilia sp. RK4 & Rhizophagus intraradices
Single as well as dual inoculation caused positive effect under lead contamination Enhanced plant biomass; however, aggregate stability decreased under salinity even with inoculation Proline content was significantly reduced, which is a stress indicator produced by plants
PGPR, Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria; AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.
Vazquez et al. (2001)
Liu et al. (2018) Ordookhani et al. (2010)
Kohler et al. (2009)
Krishnamoorthy et al. (2016)
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Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in management of marginal land
In 1881 the Polish botanist, Franciszek Kamienski discovered a mutualistic association of fungus and Indian pine plant roots (Monotropa hypopitys L.). In 1885 Frank named the symbiotic process between the fungi and roots using the Greek word mykorrhizen, meaning “mycorhiza (fungus-root),” formerly also called endomycorrhiza, or endotrophic mycorrhizas. Amongst the mycorrhizal associations, the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) association is the most common one (Sjo¨berg, 2005; Tahat and Sijam, 2012). AMF reproduce asexually and there is no known sexual state yet. About 80% of plants on Earth are colonized with AMF. Various studies have shown that AMF are integral components of a natural ecosystem and have potential to survive in extreme environmental conditions like high salinity and drought prone environments (Giri et al., 2003; Evelin et al., 2009). AMF ameliorates the adverse effects of salinity and promotes plant growth by different mechanisms (Fig. 20.2). AMF colonized plants alleviate the detrimental effects of soil salinity (Abdel Latef et al., 2016). AMF symbiosis promotes plant growth under salt stress by enhancing the water and nutrient uptake (phosphorus and nitrogen) by plants (Al-Khaliel, 2010). AMF also helps in the seed germination and physiological traits of the plants (switch grass, Panicum virgatum L. and chili, Capsicum annuum L.) under abiotic stress (Rueda-Puente et al., 2010). AMF improves the salt and drought tolerant capacity of food crops like maize, tomato, lettuce, etc. (Jahromi et al., 2008; Ruiz-Lozano and Azco´n, 1995). AMF also protects plants from stress through the following processes: adjustment of cellular osmotic, detoxification of reactive oxygen species, maintenance of membrane integrity, and enzymes and proteins stabilization (Abdel Latef and Chaoxing, 2011). Furthermore, some of these solutes are called osmoprotectants because they protect cellular components from dehydration damage. These solutes include proline, soluble sugars, polyols, trehalose, and quaternary ammonium compounds such as proline, betaine, alaninebetaine, glycinebetaine, pipecolatebetaine, and hydroxyprolinebetaine (Hamdia et al., 2004). The mycorrhizosphere is a unique arena of plant microbe and microbe microbe interactions. It is found that AMF and PGPRs may interact synergistically or antagonistically in the mycorrhizosphere (Barea et al., 2002; Awasthi et al., 2011). These microbial interactions in the mycorrhizosphere may need to be studied and synergistic interactions between them could be exploited and employed for environmentally friendly low input agriculture (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2016). A better understanding of interactions among soil microorganisms with plants is a crucial step for the sustainable management of soil fertility and crop production (Johansson et al., 2004). The plant growth-promoting activities of microorganisms may also vary with soil type, strains, host plant, and cultivation practices. Besides, some extent of specificity also exists among plants and their associated microorganisms such that plants actively participate in selecting and promoting the particular microbial consortia to ameliorate the particular environmental stress (Mendes et al., 2011).
20.8 Interaction among plant, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria under abiotic stressed environment Plants can withstand different environmental stress by interacting with soil microorganisms including AMF and PGPR. Some previous studies conducted under different stress environments for crop improvement by coinoculation of different PGPR and AMF have been listed in Table 20.1. AMF ameliorates stress to plants by improving the rate of nutrient FIGURE 20.2 Schematic presentation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi role in plants and soil.
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uptake, water absorption, enhanced photosynthesis, and accumulation of compatible organic solutes (Abdel Latef and Chaoxing, 2011). The inoculation of Rhizophagus intraradices improved the tolerance levels of maize plant by improving the nutrients uptake and reducing stress levels evident by lower proline accumulation within mycorrhizae treated plants (Estrada et al., 2013). Iron is playing a measurable role in plant growth and development through participation in metabolic process such as DNA synthesis, respiration, and photosynthesis. Some graminaceous plants release iron specific chelating compounds called phytosiderophores. Additionally, other plants can exude organic acids that form complexes with iron ions. Under stressed soil, the presence has been shown of certain groups of PGPR that produce siderophores and promote iron scavenging, and the iron siderophores complexes are easily accessible to plants (Kloepper et al., 1980). Moreover, siderophores are effective in desorption of metal such as Cd and Pb from a kaolinite clay at a moderate pH (Hepinstall et al., 2005). The microbial consortium is defined as two or more groups of microorganisms that live symbiotically. It can be endosymbiotic or ectosymbiotic. The model of consortium was first developed by Johannes Reinke in 1872. Nowadays most of the research findings are focusing on consortium development to tackle the salinity or drought problems (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2016). An overview of the interactions between roots and associated microbes in environmental stress conditions is shown in Fig. 20.3 (Qin et al., 2016). In the mechanistic process shown in the image, the red arrows indicate the upregulation of plant genes or chemical signals or osmolytes under stress soil, while the blue arrows indicate the downregulation. Roots provide three distinctive compartments (endosphere, rhizoplane, and rhizosphere) for colonization by microbes. Both AMF fungi and bacteria can produce ACC-deaminase and a series of phytohormones to influence the plant endogenous hormone levels and ultimately reprogram the hormone signaling in plants. The ACCdeaminase producing microbes often reduce the excessive ethylene production in plants caused by different stress. To maintain ion homeostasis within plants subjected to stress conditions, bacterial exopolysaccharides bind the toxic Na1 in case of sodic soil and restrict Na1 influx into the roots. Volatile organic compounds produced by PGPR can trigger induction of high-affinity K1 transporter (HKT1) in shoots and reduction of HKT1 in roots, limiting Na1 entry into roots and facilitating shoot-to-root Na1 recirculation (Fig. 16.3). AMF increase the K1/Na1 ratio by selectively
FIGURE 20.3 Combined effects of PGPR and AMF for the alleviation of environmental stresses. Image showing interaction and mechanism of PGPR and AMF. ABA, Abscisic acid; GAs, gibberellic acids; HKT1, high-affinity K1 transporter; IAA, indole-3-acetic acid; MS, methionine synthase; Pro, proline; PIPs, plasma membrane intrinsic proteins; PGPR, Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria; AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Courtesy: Qin, Y., Druzhinina, I.S., Pan, X., Yuan, Z., 2016. Microbially mediated plant salt tolerance and microbiome-based solutions for saline agriculture. Biotechnol. Adv. 34, 1245 1259.
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enhancing K1 and Ca21 uptake and avoiding translocation of toxic N1 under salinity stress (Elhindi et al., 2016). PGPR and AMF generally positively regulate the expression of genes encoding the plasma membrane integral proteins to aquaporin activity for efficient water uptake in drought and salt-stressed plants. Almost all microbes are capable of increasing the antioxidative systems in plants for reactive oxygen species scavenging. Some important osmolytes (proline and polyamines) are also promoted in microbe-infected plants. Endophytes are proposed to produce some effectors (plant hormones, signaling molecules, and microRNAs) for activating the signaling pathways. Endophytes often significantly promote metabolic efficiency and alter the ratio of upregulation and downregulation (UR/DR) genes and they also produce some bioactive compounds (melanin, mannitol, and trehalose) in vitro and in plant to alleviate plant abiotic stress.
20.9
Use of microbes with organic fertilizer
Organic matter content of soil promotes plant growth by improving soil water-holding capacity. Moreover, organic matter improves soil aeration, increases absorption and release of nutrients, and prevents soil erosion and leaching (Sekhon and Meelu, 1994; Reijntjes et al., 1992). Amendments of organic fertilizers with suitable bioinoculants (Fig. 20.4) improved the physicochemical and biological parameters of postharvest soil of different crops in field condition (Singh et al., 2013). Hussain et al. (2001) showed that amendments of salt-affected soil with farm yard manure (FYM) improved the physicochemical properties of soil including hydraulic conductivity, soil bulk density, and soil porosity. The ocimum (Ocimum basilicum) plant growth under salt stress soil was improved by application of bioinoculants like Dietzia natronolimnaea and Glomus intraradices along with organic manure, for example, vermicompost (Bharti et al., 2016). Similar report was published by Krishnamoorthy et al. (2016) in which the growth of maize was significantly improved by coinoculation of Massilia spp. and R. intraradices. The AMF play a vital role in the carbon cycling, consequently increasing carbon flow into soil and improving poor nutrient soil health (Cardoso and Kuyper, 2006). Interaction between host plant and AMF indirectly affects soil carbon storage (Zhu and Miller, 2003); in particular carbon flow from host to AMF can be lost into the mycorrhizosphere up to 70% as organic carbon (Jakobsen and Rosendahl, 1990). In addition, AMF produces glomalin (soil iron-containing glycoproteinaceous), which is helpful in soil aggregation and storage of soil carbon (Driver et al., 2005). Glomalin concentrations are also correlated with soil aggregate water stability in the soil system. Soil enzymes are considered as highly sensitive and make changes in soils, and have been anticipated as indicators to determine the degree of soil stresses (Schmidt et al., 2011). Enzymes play important roles in soil nutrient cycling, and their activity represents soil microbial activity or an indication of soil quality. The interactions between soil properties and enzyme activities under different amendment such as organic and inorganic fertilizers were investigated by several researchers. The soil enzymes like dehydrogenase, catalase, protease, urease, and acid and alkaline phosphatase are important parameters for accessing soil quality (Mariela et al., 2016). Alkaline phosphatase is the main enzyme involved in the cycling of P because it can transform organic P into inorganic P, which is available to the plants (Dick and Burns, 2011). Alkaline phosphatase is very sensitive to soil environmental conditions and an important indicator for the mineralization of the organic P and biological activity of soil (Zhang et al., 2014). Soil enzyme activity is FIGURE 20.4 Application of organic fertilizer with coinoculation of microbes (PGPR and AMF) for the management of marginal lands. PGPR, Plant growthpromoting rhizobacteria; AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.
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improved by application of various PGPR with organic fertilizers (FYM/vermicompost) under marginal lands (Lin-lin et al., 2017; Singh, 2016). AMF and PGPRs are also considered as a source of soil enzymes for biochemical reactions since they can increase the activity of soil enzymes under various environmental stress as well poor nutrient soils (Alguacil et al., 2009).
20.10
Conclusion
Microbes are being considered as environmentally friendly potential tools for the resolution to agro-environmental problems since valuable microorganisms have the capability to enhance plant growth, nutrient availability, and uptake, and support plant health under harsh conditions. PGPRs and AMF are able to alleviate environment stress in plants, and increase germination, growth, and yield of plants. Under high abiotic stress plant growth is improved through biological applications and this can significantly influence the plant enzymes activities and nutrients acquisition. Thus, PGPR and AMF with inoculation of organic manure (FYM/Vermicompost) can solve the problems of low productivity under marginal or avoided lands like drought-stressed and saline soil. It is clear that the amelioration of abiotic stress soils using biological means, including growing of salt/drought tolerant genotype, addition of organic matters, and development of integrated nutrients systems, will lead to the desired results and provide a greater profit.
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Biophys. 444 (2), 139 158. Mapelli, F., Marasco, R., Balloi, A., Rolli, E., Cappitelli, F., Daffonchio, D., et al., 2012. Mineral-microbe inter-actions: biotechnological potential of bioweathering. J. Biotechnol. 157, 473 481. Mariela, F.P., Iva´n Pa´vel, M.E., Luis Manuel, S.R., Marı´a Jesu´s, F.G., Reyes, L.O., 2016. Dehydrogenase and mycorrhizal colonization: tools for monitoring agrosystem soil quality. Appl. Soil Ecol. 100, 144 153. Martinez-Beltran, J., Manzur, C.L., 2005. Overview of salinity problems in the world and FAO strategies to address the problem. Paper Presented at the International Salinity Forum, Riverside. Marulanda, A., Barea, J.M., Azcon, R., 2006. An indigenous drought tolerant strain of Glomus intraradices associated with a native bacterium improves water transport and root development in Retama sphaerocarpa. Microb. Ecol. 52, 670 680. Massad, T.J., Dyer, L.A., Vega, C.G., 2012. Cost of defense and a test of the carbon-nutrient valance and growth-differentation balance hypotheses for two co-occurring classes of plant defense. PLoS One 7, e7554. Mendes, R., Kruijt, M., de Bruijn, I., et al., 2011. Deciphering the rhizosphere microbiome for disease-suppressive bacteria. Science 332, 1097 1100. Metternicht, G., Zink, J., 2003. Remote sensing of soil salinity: potentials and constraints. Remote Sens. Environ. 85, 1 20. Mittler, R., 2006. Abiotic stress, the field environment and stress combination. Trends Plant Sci. 11, 15 19. Munns, R., 2002. Comparative physiology of salt and water stress. Plant Cell Environ. 25 (2), 239 250. Munns, R., 2005. Salinity stress and its impact. In: Blum A, ed. Plant Stress. http://www.plantstress.com/Articles/index.asp. Munns, R., Tester, M., 2008. Mechanisms of salinity tolerance. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 59, 651 681. Olesen, J.E., Trnka, M., Kersebaum, K.C., Skjelvag, A.O., Seguin, B., Peltonen-Sainio, P., et al., 2011. Impacts and adaptation of European crop production systems to climate change. Eur. J. Agron. 34, 96 112. Ordookhani, K., Khavazi, K., Moezzi, A., Rejali, F., 2010. Influence of PGPR and AMF on antioxidant activity, lycopene and potassium contents in tomato. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 5, 1108 1116. Patra, P., Singh, D.V., 1998. Medicinal and aromatic crops. In: Tyagi, N.K., Minhas, P.S. (Eds.), Agricultural Salinity Management in India. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, pp. 499 506. Pitzschke, A., Fornazi, C., Hirt, H., 2006. Reactive oxygen species signalling in plants. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 8, 1757 1764.
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Qadir, M., Quille´rou, E., Nangia, V., Murtaza, G., Singh, M., Thomas, R.J., et al., 2014. Economics of salt-induced land degradation and restoration. Nat. Resour. Forum. 38 (4), 282 295. Qi, W.Z., Zhao, L., 2013. Study of the siderophore-producing Trichoderma asperellum Q1 on cucumber growth promotion under salt stress. J. Basic Microbiol. 53, 355 364. Qin, Y., Druzhinina, I.S., Pan, X., Yuan, Z., 2016. Microbially mediated plant salt tolerance and microbiome-based solutions for saline agriculture. Biotechnol. Adv. 34, 1245 1259. Reijntjes, C., Haverkort, B., Waters-Bayer, A., 1992. Farming for the Future: An Introduction to Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture. Macmillan Press L, London. Rengasamy, P., 2010. Soil processes affecting crop production in salt affected soils. Funct. Plant Biol. 37, 613 620. Rolli, E., Marasco, R., Vigani, G., Ettoumi, B., Mapelli, F., Deangelis, M.L., et al., 2015. Improved plant resistance to drought is promoted by the root-associated microbiome as a water stress-dependent trait. Environ. Microbiol. 17 (2), 316 331. Rueda-Puente, E.O., et al., 2010. Effect of plant growth promoting bacteria and mycorrhizal on Capsicum annuum L. var. aviculare ([Dierbach] D’Arcy and Eshbaugh) germination under stressing abiotic conditions. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 48, 724 730. Ruiz-Lozano, J.M., Azco´n, R., 1995. Hyphal contribution to water uptake in mycorrhizal plants as affected by the fungal species and water status. Physiol. Plant. 95, 472 478. Schmidt, M., Torn, W.I., Abiven, M.S., Dittmar, S., Guggenberger, T., Janssens, G., et al., 2011. Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature 478 (7367), 49 56. Sekhon, G.S., Meelu, O.P., 1994. Organic matter management in relation to crop production in stressed rainfed systems. In: Virmani, S.M., Katyal, J. C., Eswaran, H., Abrol, I.P. (Eds.), Stressed Ecosystems and Sustainable Agriculture. 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Technology for improving essential oil yield of Ocimum basilicum L. (sweet basil) by application of bioinoculant colonized seeds under organic field conditions. Ind. Crop Prod. 45, 335 342. Singh, C., Tiwari, S., Gupta, V.K., Singh, J.S., 2018. The effect of rice husk biochar on soil nutrient status, microbial biomass and paddy productivity of nutrient poor agriculture soils. Catena 171, 485 493. Sjo¨berg, J., 2005. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi-Occurrence in Sweden and Interaction With a Pathogenic Fungus in Barley (Ph.D. Thesis). Swedish Univ. Agri. Sci., Uppsala, pp. 1 5. Swarbrick, P.J., Schulze-Lefert, P., Scholes, J.D., 2006. Metabolic consequences of susceptibility and resistance in barley leaves challenged with powdery mildew. Plant Cell Environ. 29, 1061 1076. Szabolcs, I., 1989. Salt-Affected Soils. CRC Press Inc, Boca Raton, FL. Tahat, M.M., Sijam, K., 2012. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant root exudates bio-communications in the rhizosphere. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 6, 7295 7301. Tiwari, P., Singh, J.S., 2017. A plant growth promoting rhizospheric Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain inhibits seed germination in Triticum aestivum (L) and Zea mays (L). Microbiol. Res. 8, 1 7. Tiwari, S., Singh, C., Singh, J.S., 2018. Land use changes: a key ecological driver regulating methanotrophs abundance in upland soils. Energy Ecol. Environ. 3, 355 371. Tomar, O.S., Minhas, P.S., 2004. Relative performance of some aromatic grasses under saline irrigation. Ind. J. Agron. 49 (3), 207 208. Vassilev, N., Eichler-Lobermann, B., Vassileva, M., 2012. Stress-tolerant P-solubilizing microorganisms. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 95, 851 859. Vazquez, M.M., Azcon, R., Barea, J.M., 2001. Compatibility of a wild type and its genetically modified Sinorhizobium strain with two mycorrhizal fungi on Medicago species as affected by drought stress. Plant Sci. 161, 347 358. Vimal, S.R., Patel, V.K., Singh, J.S., 2018. Plant growth promoting Curtobacterium albidum strain SRV4: an agriculturally important microbe to alleviate salinity stress in paddy plants. Ecol Indic. in press. Vivas, A., Azcon, R., Biro, B., Barea, J.M., Ruiz-Lozano, J.M., 2003. Influence of bacterial strains isolated from lead-polluted soil and their interactions with arbuscular mycorrhizae on the growth of Trifolium pratense L. under lead toxicity. Can. J. Microbiol. 49, 577 588. Zhang, T.B., Kang, Y.H., Liu, S.H., Liu, S.P., 2014. Alkaline phosphatase activity and its relationship to soil properties in a saline-sodic soil reclaimed by cropping wolfberry (Lycium barbarum L.) with drip irrigation. Paddy Water Environ. 12, 309 317. Zhu, J.K., 2007. Plant salt stress. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, pp. 1 3. Zhu, Y.G., Miller, R.M., 2003. Carbon cycling by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in soil-plant systems. Trends Plant Sci. 8, 407 409.
Further reading Hamdia, M.A.E.S., Shaddad, M.A.K., Doaa, M.M., 2004. Mechanisms of salt tolerance and interactive effects of Azospirillum brasilense inoculation on maize cultivars grown under salt stress conditions. Plant Growth Regul. 44 (2), 165 174.
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Liu, A., Hamel, C., Hamilton, R.I., Smith, D.L., 2000. Mycorrhizae formation and nutrient uptake of new corn (Zea mays L.) hybrids with extreme canopy and leaf architecture as influenced by soil N and P levels. Plant Soil. 221, 157 166. Rengasamy, P., Greene, R.S.B., Ford, G.W., Mehanni, A.H., 1984. Identification of dispersive behaviour and management of red-brown earths. Aust. J. Soil Res. 22, 413 431.
Microbial approaches in management and restoration of marginal lands Umesh Pankaj, Geetu Singh and Rajesh Kumar Verma Divion of Agronomy and Soil Science, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India
Chapter Outline 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6
Introduction Problems associated with marginal lands Harmful effects of drought and salinity on plant Management of marginal land Phyto-restoration of marginal land Microbial approach for management of marginal lands 20.7 Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in management of marginal land
20.1
295 296 296 297 297 297
20.8 Interaction among plant, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria under abiotic stressed environment 20.9 Use of microbes with organic fertilizer 20.10 Conclusion References Further reading
299 301 302 302 304
299
Introduction
Available facts show that total lands have shrunk noticeably due to the severe struggle between different parts of economy for land use, unfortunate anthropogenic modifications, and salinization, leaving little scope for agricultural extension (Singh, 2013, 2015; Tiwari and Singh, 2017; Kumar et al., 2018). On the other hand the population of the world is continuously increasing at a shocking rate of around 1.09% per annum. To confirm food security for such a large population, countries needs to produce huge quantities of food grain, feedstuff, and fuel. Marginal lands have received great attention, which could help to address these food challenges. Literature suggests that large areas of marginal land are available in Asian countries, which may hold potential for the production of food crops. The available marginal lands in Asian countries are at about 4 million km2 or 6.5% of total land area. The term “marginal land” has been used quite loosely without a concrete definition. Marginal lands are defined as having poor physical characteristic, limited rainfall, high salt content, and poorly and imperfectly drained soils. Plants are vital for the survival of life on this planet. Plants are affected by different environmental stresses during their life cycle and the agricultural crop production is globally restricted by various abiotic and biotic stresses. Biotic factors include pathogenic microorganisms like plant viruses, bacteria, fungi, and some insects that damage the plants (Singh et al., 2018; Tiwari et al., 2018). There are numerous abiotic stresses engendered by different environmental conditions such as UV radiations, extreme temperatures, freezing, drought, salinity, acidity, flooding, and different heavy metals (Singh and Gupta, 2018; Vimal et al., 2018). Salinity is one of the major threats that affect plant growth and productivity worldwide (Mahajan and Tuteja, 2005; Mittler, 2006). So, this demands intensive effort on agro-technology-driven productivity enhancement in degraded lands like drought affected land and salt-affected soil (sodic and alkaline soil). Sodium chloride is the most soluble salt and most of the soil’s salinity is developed due to natural geological, hydrological, and pedological processes. Globally, 75 countries have been recognized to have large areas of salt-affected lands. Martinez-Beltran and Manzur (2005) estimated that nearly 831 million hectares of land are salt-affected worldwide. Across many countries, about 95 million
New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818258-1.00020-0 © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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hectares of soil are under primary salinization (salt accumulation through natural processes in soils and water) whereas 77 million hectares suffer from secondary salinization (as a result of human activities and ever-rising groundwater) (Metternicht and Zink, 2003; Munns, 2005). It is estimated that every day between 2000 and 4000 ha (Shabala and Cuin, 2008; Qadir et al., 2014) of irrigated land in arid and semiarid areas across the globe are degraded by salinity and become unsuitable for crop production. Salt accumulation in soil is a major threat to agricultural production and ecosystem sustainability because it reduces plant growth and increases the risk of soil erosion (Giri et al., 2003; Al-Karaki, 2006). The high salt concentration negatively affects soil microbial activity as well as soil chemical and physical properties, thus causing a decline in soil productivity. When exposed to biotic and abiotic stress plant metabolism is disrupted (Swarbrick et al., 2006; Massad et al., 2012), which leads to the reduction in proficiency and ultimately productivity (Shao et al., 2008). After recognition, the plant’s constitutive basal defense mechanisms (Andreasson and Ellis, 2010) lead to an activation of complex signaling cascades of defense varying from one stress to another (Abou Qamar et al., 2009; Chinnusamy et al., 2004).
20.2
Problems associated with marginal lands
Drought is a major problem in agriculture worldwide. For example, Europe experienced an extreme drought event in 2003, exacerbated by high summer temperatures, which led to a dramatic reduction in primary productivity (Olesen et al., 2011). With the predicted increase in reduced rainfall and heat events due to global warming, plant productivity in temperate regions is threatened; water scarcity may lead to reduced plant development, leaf wilting, unbalanced fruit composition, and seed maturation (Ciais et al., 2005). The second major threat in environment is salt-affectedness, which refers to soil that has higher concentration of various types of salts and has become saline or sodic (Szabolcs, 1989) in nature. A sodic soil has too much sodium associated with the negatively charged clay particles. Soil salinity occurs through natural or anthropogenic processes that lead to the accumulation of salts in the soil water to a high level that hinders plant growth. Natural salinity is a result of salt accumulation over a long period of time, and is the result of weathering of rocks with the release of soluble salts including chloride of sodium, calcium, and magnesium, and to a lesser level of sulfates and carbonates. In addition, deposition of oceanic salt carried by wind and rain also leads to salinity. Anthropogenic causes of salinity are (1) land clearing and the replacement of perennial vegetation with annual crops, and (2) irrigation of land with salt-rich water and insufficient drainage system (Munns and Tester, 2008). Soil salinization is a serious global environmental problem associated to agriculture. Excessive salts have negative impact on living organisms in a specific environment. Salts in soil can adversely affect the performance or individual physiology of the plants in a significant way. High salt concentrations like sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, carbonate, bicarbonate, and sulfate potentially affect the agricultural crops’ growth and yield. Abundance of soluble ions in soil solution can decrease the activity of essential nutrients in the soil and can lead to reduction in accessibility and uptake of some nutrients by the plants. It is known that salt stress causes reduction in phosphorus accumulation in plants, which developed P-deficiency symptoms. The direct effects of salts on plant growth are nutrient imbalance, which causes a decrease in the nutrient uptake and carriage to the shoot leading to ion deficiencies (Munns, 2002). Salt-affected soils are generally classified on the basis of electrical conductivity of the saturated extract (ECe), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), and pH (Rengasamy, 2010). On the basis of the above parameters salt-affected soils are classified as (1) saline soils, containing high levels of soluble salts (ECe . 4.0 dS m21); (2) sodic soils, having high levels of exchangeable sodium (SAR . 13.0 and ESP . 15.0); and (3) saline sodic soils, in which both soluble salts and exchangeable sodium are high (Ghasemi et al., 1995).
20.3
Harmful effects of drought and salinity on plant
Drought and salinity obstructs the photosynthetic pathway and increases photorespiration, changing the cells’ homeostasis with increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as super oxide radical, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radical (Das and Roychoudhury, 2014). Under optimal growth conditions, low levels of ROS are generated in cell organelles such as chloroplasts, peroxisomes, and mitochondria (Apel and Hirt, 2004). The increased production of ROS during stress induces the activation of stress-responsive and plant defense pathway genes (Pitzschke et al., 2006). Wide research has been done regarding stress tolerance of plants, mainly on water relations, photosynthesis, and accumulation of various inorganic ions and organic metabolites.
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Management of marginal land
To fulfill the needs of the rapidly multiplying population and to keep the land resources in good physical shape and increase the productivity for the future generations, it is imperative to closely look into the reasons for land degradation and development of salinity and adopt innovative measures to reverse these processes. Putting botanical means into practice depending upon the nature of the issue could be highly helpful for mitigating the abiotic stress.
20.5
Phyto-restoration of marginal land
During drought, unbalanced uptake of macro- and micronutrients that may precipitate due to lack of water availability (Vassilev et al., 2012; Qi and Zhao, 2013) can dramatically exacerbate the already compromised health status of plants. Agricultural fields are generally used for cultivation of food crops and thus, to meet the current demand of food security, it would be sensible to restore marginal land that is generally not suited for most of the agricultural crops. Drought and salinity tolerant plants are widely used for the restoration of marginal lands in a sustainable manner. Plants respond to dry conditions in several ways, including modification of root architecture (shallow versus deep rooting) and leaf shape. Such responses can differ between perennial trees and annual plants, such as cereals. Although drought is an increasing problem in agriculture, the contribution of the root-associated bacterial microbiome to plant adaptation to water stress is poorly studied. Nowadays, medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have drawn the attention of researchers for the cultivation on marginal land due to not only their aroma, flavor/taste, and clinical use but also they are proven to be good cash crops and a boon for improving the income of farmers. MAPs are cultivated for a wide variety of products derived from plant crude materials and processed for their use as pharmaceuticals, herbal remedies, cosmetics, sweets, dietary supplements, polishes, insecticides, and the aroma industry (Lange, 2004). Earlier, studies indicated that grasses have a unique capability to cope with drought as well salt stress conditions especially aromatic grasses (family Poaceae) such as palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii), lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus), and vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) (Patra and Singh, 1998; Tomar and Minhas, 2004).
20.6
Microbial approach for management of marginal lands
Drought imposes adaptive constraints on both plants and their associated microorganisms. The microbes have the ability to show resistance to abiotic stresses typically associated with drought, such as resistance to salinization, osmotic stress, and growth at high and low temperatures. Interestingly, some microbes are osmotolerant and showed the ability to grow under low moisture conditions and are of great benefit to plants. PGP bacteria can directly enhance micronutrient uptake and affect phytohormone homeostasis, or indirectly stimulate the plant immune system against phytopathogens (Balloi et al., 2010) and improve soil texture and structure (Mapelli et al., 2012). Various types of beneficial properties of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are shown in Fig. 20.1. For instance, some PGP bacteria are able with the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase enzyme (Glick et al., 2007) to cleave the plant ethylene precursor ACC, thereby lowering the level of ethylene in developing or stressed plants (Glick, 2004). The majority of FIGURE 20.1 Beneficial and effective role of plant growthpromoting rhizobacteria under salt-affected soil for a sustainable agriculture.
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PGPRs had the potential to contribute to plant nutrition by siderophore release and solubilization of inorganic phosphate compounds. Furthermore, the PGP bacteria are able to secrete mucilaginous material, possibly positively affecting bacteria root adhesion and colonization. Such an exopolymeric matrix contributes to soil stabilization through (1) an increase in the amount of root adhering soil, (2) an improvement in water-holding capacity and reduced water loss during desiccation due to its hydrophilic properties, (3) a stimulation of root exudation, and (4) protection of roots from the mechanical effects of soil hardness (Rolli et al., 2015). Salinity is a major soil constraint that affects the physiological traits and yield of crops worldwide. Salt-affected soil reduces crop productivity and leads to abandonment of many agricultural areas. Deleterious effect of salinity includes nutrient imbalance, osmotic stress, and membrane destabilization contributing toward lowering of growth and yield of crops (Zhu, 2007). For sustainable crop production in salt-affected areas it has been vital to mitigate these deleterious effects of salts over the cultivated crops. Saline alkaline soil exhibits a specific type of extreme habitat for the adaptation of a halophilic microbial community that grows luxuriantly at high pH and high salt concentrations (Qin et al., 2016). A well-established fact is that rhizobacteria colonizing roots improve the growth and productivity of the plants and also can be useful to alleviate this worldwide problem. For successful performance of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in salt-affected soil, both abilities of salt-tolerant and plant growth promotion (phosphate solubilization, production of siderophore and auxin) are required for their better survival and performance in natural field conditions (Bharti et al., 2013). An indirect mechanism of plant growth promotion is protecting the plant against soil-borne diseases by producing hydrogen cyanide, particularly caused by pathogenic fungal spp. (Lugtenberg and Kamilova, 2009). Rhizobacteria inhabiting within the rhizosphere region may also enter into the root cortex (endoroot), found on the surface of root and endobacteria (found within the cortical cells). An efficient PGPR must possess properties like (1) capable to colonize on the surface the root, (2) capable to grow and proliferate within rhizosphere, and (3) compatible with other microbiota in the rhizosphere (Kloepper et al., 1991). PGPR promotes plant growth directly by providing essential nutrients to plants (nitrogen, phosphorus, and essential minerals) and modulating plant hormone levels. Earlier studies have reported various PGPR involved in drought and salinity amelioration activities are exemplified in Table 20.1.
TABLE 20.1 Some examples of PGPR and AMF inoculation for plant growth promotion under different environmental stress condition. Crops
Type of stress
Bacteria/AMF
Response
Reference
Retama (Retama sphaerocarpa)
Drought
Bacillus thuringiensis; Glomus intraradices
Marulanda et al. (2006)
Medicago spp. (M. nolana, M. rigidula, M. rotata)
Drought
Sinorhizobium meliloti (wild type and genetically modified derivative
Trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliate) Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)
Drought
Funneliformis mosseae
P-deficient environment
Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.)
Heavy metal
Pseudomonas putida, Azotobacter chroococcum; Azosprillum lipoferum; Glomus sp. Brevibacillus sp.
Enhanced root development, reduced water required to produce shoot biomass Plants inoculated with mycorrhiza and Sinorhizobium strains are less affected by water stress; mycorrhizal plants modulated by genetically modified Sinorhizobium proved better Greater root-hair growth and auxin synthesis Inoculation enhanced lycopene and antioxidant activity, shoot and fruit potassium content
Vivas et al. (2003)
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)
Salinity
Pseudomonas mendocina; Glomus mosseae
Maize (Zea mays L.)
Coastal saline soil
Massilia sp. RK4 & Rhizophagus intraradices
Single as well as dual inoculation caused positive effect under lead contamination Enhanced plant biomass; however, aggregate stability decreased under salinity even with inoculation Proline content was significantly reduced, which is a stress indicator produced by plants
PGPR, Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria; AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.
Vazquez et al. (2001)
Liu et al. (2018) Ordookhani et al. (2010)
Kohler et al. (2009)
Krishnamoorthy et al. (2016)
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Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in management of marginal land
In 1881 the Polish botanist, Franciszek Kamienski discovered a mutualistic association of fungus and Indian pine plant roots (Monotropa hypopitys L.). In 1885 Frank named the symbiotic process between the fungi and roots using the Greek word mykorrhizen, meaning “mycorhiza (fungus-root),” formerly also called endomycorrhiza, or endotrophic mycorrhizas. Amongst the mycorrhizal associations, the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) association is the most common one (Sjo¨berg, 2005; Tahat and Sijam, 2012). AMF reproduce asexually and there is no known sexual state yet. About 80% of plants on Earth are colonized with AMF. Various studies have shown that AMF are integral components of a natural ecosystem and have potential to survive in extreme environmental conditions like high salinity and drought prone environments (Giri et al., 2003; Evelin et al., 2009). AMF ameliorates the adverse effects of salinity and promotes plant growth by different mechanisms (Fig. 20.2). AMF colonized plants alleviate the detrimental effects of soil salinity (Abdel Latef et al., 2016). AMF symbiosis promotes plant growth under salt stress by enhancing the water and nutrient uptake (phosphorus and nitrogen) by plants (Al-Khaliel, 2010). AMF also helps in the seed germination and physiological traits of the plants (switch grass, Panicum virgatum L. and chili, Capsicum annuum L.) under abiotic stress (Rueda-Puente et al., 2010). AMF improves the salt and drought tolerant capacity of food crops like maize, tomato, lettuce, etc. (Jahromi et al., 2008; Ruiz-Lozano and Azco´n, 1995). AMF also protects plants from stress through the following processes: adjustment of cellular osmotic, detoxification of reactive oxygen species, maintenance of membrane integrity, and enzymes and proteins stabilization (Abdel Latef and Chaoxing, 2011). Furthermore, some of these solutes are called osmoprotectants because they protect cellular components from dehydration damage. These solutes include proline, soluble sugars, polyols, trehalose, and quaternary ammonium compounds such as proline, betaine, alaninebetaine, glycinebetaine, pipecolatebetaine, and hydroxyprolinebetaine (Hamdia et al., 2004). The mycorrhizosphere is a unique arena of plant microbe and microbe microbe interactions. It is found that AMF and PGPRs may interact synergistically or antagonistically in the mycorrhizosphere (Barea et al., 2002; Awasthi et al., 2011). These microbial interactions in the mycorrhizosphere may need to be studied and synergistic interactions between them could be exploited and employed for environmentally friendly low input agriculture (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2016). A better understanding of interactions among soil microorganisms with plants is a crucial step for the sustainable management of soil fertility and crop production (Johansson et al., 2004). The plant growth-promoting activities of microorganisms may also vary with soil type, strains, host plant, and cultivation practices. Besides, some extent of specificity also exists among plants and their associated microorganisms such that plants actively participate in selecting and promoting the particular microbial consortia to ameliorate the particular environmental stress (Mendes et al., 2011).
20.8 Interaction among plant, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria under abiotic stressed environment Plants can withstand different environmental stress by interacting with soil microorganisms including AMF and PGPR. Some previous studies conducted under different stress environments for crop improvement by coinoculation of different PGPR and AMF have been listed in Table 20.1. AMF ameliorates stress to plants by improving the rate of nutrient FIGURE 20.2 Schematic presentation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi role in plants and soil.
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uptake, water absorption, enhanced photosynthesis, and accumulation of compatible organic solutes (Abdel Latef and Chaoxing, 2011). The inoculation of Rhizophagus intraradices improved the tolerance levels of maize plant by improving the nutrients uptake and reducing stress levels evident by lower proline accumulation within mycorrhizae treated plants (Estrada et al., 2013). Iron is playing a measurable role in plant growth and development through participation in metabolic process such as DNA synthesis, respiration, and photosynthesis. Some graminaceous plants release iron specific chelating compounds called phytosiderophores. Additionally, other plants can exude organic acids that form complexes with iron ions. Under stressed soil, the presence has been shown of certain groups of PGPR that produce siderophores and promote iron scavenging, and the iron siderophores complexes are easily accessible to plants (Kloepper et al., 1980). Moreover, siderophores are effective in desorption of metal such as Cd and Pb from a kaolinite clay at a moderate pH (Hepinstall et al., 2005). The microbial consortium is defined as two or more groups of microorganisms that live symbiotically. It can be endosymbiotic or ectosymbiotic. The model of consortium was first developed by Johannes Reinke in 1872. Nowadays most of the research findings are focusing on consortium development to tackle the salinity or drought problems (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2016). An overview of the interactions between roots and associated microbes in environmental stress conditions is shown in Fig. 20.3 (Qin et al., 2016). In the mechanistic process shown in the image, the red arrows indicate the upregulation of plant genes or chemical signals or osmolytes under stress soil, while the blue arrows indicate the downregulation. Roots provide three distinctive compartments (endosphere, rhizoplane, and rhizosphere) for colonization by microbes. Both AMF fungi and bacteria can produce ACC-deaminase and a series of phytohormones to influence the plant endogenous hormone levels and ultimately reprogram the hormone signaling in plants. The ACCdeaminase producing microbes often reduce the excessive ethylene production in plants caused by different stress. To maintain ion homeostasis within plants subjected to stress conditions, bacterial exopolysaccharides bind the toxic Na1 in case of sodic soil and restrict Na1 influx into the roots. Volatile organic compounds produced by PGPR can trigger induction of high-affinity K1 transporter (HKT1) in shoots and reduction of HKT1 in roots, limiting Na1 entry into roots and facilitating shoot-to-root Na1 recirculation (Fig. 16.3). AMF increase the K1/Na1 ratio by selectively
FIGURE 20.3 Combined effects of PGPR and AMF for the alleviation of environmental stresses. Image showing interaction and mechanism of PGPR and AMF. ABA, Abscisic acid; GAs, gibberellic acids; HKT1, high-affinity K1 transporter; IAA, indole-3-acetic acid; MS, methionine synthase; Pro, proline; PIPs, plasma membrane intrinsic proteins; PGPR, Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria; AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Courtesy: Qin, Y., Druzhinina, I.S., Pan, X., Yuan, Z., 2016. Microbially mediated plant salt tolerance and microbiome-based solutions for saline agriculture. Biotechnol. Adv. 34, 1245 1259.
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enhancing K1 and Ca21 uptake and avoiding translocation of toxic N1 under salinity stress (Elhindi et al., 2016). PGPR and AMF generally positively regulate the expression of genes encoding the plasma membrane integral proteins to aquaporin activity for efficient water uptake in drought and salt-stressed plants. Almost all microbes are capable of increasing the antioxidative systems in plants for reactive oxygen species scavenging. Some important osmolytes (proline and polyamines) are also promoted in microbe-infected plants. Endophytes are proposed to produce some effectors (plant hormones, signaling molecules, and microRNAs) for activating the signaling pathways. Endophytes often significantly promote metabolic efficiency and alter the ratio of upregulation and downregulation (UR/DR) genes and they also produce some bioactive compounds (melanin, mannitol, and trehalose) in vitro and in plant to alleviate plant abiotic stress.
20.9
Use of microbes with organic fertilizer
Organic matter content of soil promotes plant growth by improving soil water-holding capacity. Moreover, organic matter improves soil aeration, increases absorption and release of nutrients, and prevents soil erosion and leaching (Sekhon and Meelu, 1994; Reijntjes et al., 1992). Amendments of organic fertilizers with suitable bioinoculants (Fig. 20.4) improved the physicochemical and biological parameters of postharvest soil of different crops in field condition (Singh et al., 2013). Hussain et al. (2001) showed that amendments of salt-affected soil with farm yard manure (FYM) improved the physicochemical properties of soil including hydraulic conductivity, soil bulk density, and soil porosity. The ocimum (Ocimum basilicum) plant growth under salt stress soil was improved by application of bioinoculants like Dietzia natronolimnaea and Glomus intraradices along with organic manure, for example, vermicompost (Bharti et al., 2016). Similar report was published by Krishnamoorthy et al. (2016) in which the growth of maize was significantly improved by coinoculation of Massilia spp. and R. intraradices. The AMF play a vital role in the carbon cycling, consequently increasing carbon flow into soil and improving poor nutrient soil health (Cardoso and Kuyper, 2006). Interaction between host plant and AMF indirectly affects soil carbon storage (Zhu and Miller, 2003); in particular carbon flow from host to AMF can be lost into the mycorrhizosphere up to 70% as organic carbon (Jakobsen and Rosendahl, 1990). In addition, AMF produces glomalin (soil iron-containing glycoproteinaceous), which is helpful in soil aggregation and storage of soil carbon (Driver et al., 2005). Glomalin concentrations are also correlated with soil aggregate water stability in the soil system. Soil enzymes are considered as highly sensitive and make changes in soils, and have been anticipated as indicators to determine the degree of soil stresses (Schmidt et al., 2011). Enzymes play important roles in soil nutrient cycling, and their activity represents soil microbial activity or an indication of soil quality. The interactions between soil properties and enzyme activities under different amendment such as organic and inorganic fertilizers were investigated by several researchers. The soil enzymes like dehydrogenase, catalase, protease, urease, and acid and alkaline phosphatase are important parameters for accessing soil quality (Mariela et al., 2016). Alkaline phosphatase is the main enzyme involved in the cycling of P because it can transform organic P into inorganic P, which is available to the plants (Dick and Burns, 2011). Alkaline phosphatase is very sensitive to soil environmental conditions and an important indicator for the mineralization of the organic P and biological activity of soil (Zhang et al., 2014). Soil enzyme activity is FIGURE 20.4 Application of organic fertilizer with coinoculation of microbes (PGPR and AMF) for the management of marginal lands. PGPR, Plant growthpromoting rhizobacteria; AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.
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improved by application of various PGPR with organic fertilizers (FYM/vermicompost) under marginal lands (Lin-lin et al., 2017; Singh, 2016). AMF and PGPRs are also considered as a source of soil enzymes for biochemical reactions since they can increase the activity of soil enzymes under various environmental stress as well poor nutrient soils (Alguacil et al., 2009).
20.10
Conclusion
Microbes are being considered as environmentally friendly potential tools for the resolution to agro-environmental problems since valuable microorganisms have the capability to enhance plant growth, nutrient availability, and uptake, and support plant health under harsh conditions. PGPRs and AMF are able to alleviate environment stress in plants, and increase germination, growth, and yield of plants. Under high abiotic stress plant growth is improved through biological applications and this can significantly influence the plant enzymes activities and nutrients acquisition. Thus, PGPR and AMF with inoculation of organic manure (FYM/Vermicompost) can solve the problems of low productivity under marginal or avoided lands like drought-stressed and saline soil. It is clear that the amelioration of abiotic stress soils using biological means, including growing of salt/drought tolerant genotype, addition of organic matters, and development of integrated nutrients systems, will lead to the desired results and provide a greater profit.
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Further reading Hamdia, M.A.E.S., Shaddad, M.A.K., Doaa, M.M., 2004. Mechanisms of salt tolerance and interactive effects of Azospirillum brasilense inoculation on maize cultivars grown under salt stress conditions. Plant Growth Regul. 44 (2), 165 174.
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Liu, A., Hamel, C., Hamilton, R.I., Smith, D.L., 2000. Mycorrhizae formation and nutrient uptake of new corn (Zea mays L.) hybrids with extreme canopy and leaf architecture as influenced by soil N and P levels. Plant Soil. 221, 157 166. Rengasamy, P., Greene, R.S.B., Ford, G.W., Mehanni, A.H., 1984. Identification of dispersive behaviour and management of red-brown earths. Aust. J. Soil Res. 22, 413 431.