Mode of Action of Adenosine A2A Receptor Antagonists as Symptomatic Treatment for Parkinson's Disease

CHAPTER FOUR

Mode of Action of Adenosine A2A Receptor Antagonists as Symptomatic Treatment for Parkinson's Disease Akihisa Mori1 Strategic Product Portfolio Department, Kyowa Hakko Kirin Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan 1 Corresponding author: e-mail address: [email protected]

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction The Basal Ganglia–Thalamocortical Circuit and Pathophysiology of PD Striatal MSNs Localization of Adenosine A2A Receptors On/Around Striatal MSNs 4.1 Regional and cellular anatomy of adenosine A2A receptors 4.2 Ultrastructural aspect of adenosine A2A receptors 5. Proposed Mechanism of Adenosine A2A Receptor Function and Mode of Action of A2A Receptor Antagonists on Motor Control via the Basal Ganglia 5.1 A2A receptor-induced dual excitatory modulation of striatopallidal GABAergic system 5.2 Functional/physiological interaction hypotheses of adenosine A2A receptors with other receptors 6. New Aspect for the Pathophysiological Change to Striatopallidal MSNs in PD 7. Concluding Remarks References

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Abstract Adenosine A2A receptor antagonists are classified to be a recent new therapeutic strategy for the symptomatic treatment of Parkinson's disease, a hypokinetic movement disorder. First, this chapter addresses how adenosine A2A receptors are involved with brain motor control via the basal ganglia–thalamocortical circuit, considering anatomical and ultrastructural localization of the receptor in critical areas/neurons of the circuit. Then, based on the understanding of the functional significance of the receptor in the circuit, the mode of action of adenosine A2A receptor antagonists is explained by dynamism of the circuit and possible cellular mechanisms, highlighting the importance of the pathophysiological difference proposed between normal and disease state.

International Review of Neurobiology, Volume 119 ISSN 0074-7742 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801022-8.00004-0

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1. INTRODUCTION Among the many challenges for drug discovery related to adenosine receptor science, there is a growing body of evidence that adenosine A2A receptor antagonists have finally become a new treatment class for Parkinson’s disease (PD). The first-in-class adenosine A2A receptor antagonist Istradefylline (KW-6002) was launched in Japan in 2013. This innovation resulted not only from nonclinical studies with animal models (see Chapter 3 by Peter Jenner) but also from clinical studies (Hauser et al., 2008; LeWitt et al., 2008; Mizuno et al., 2010; Mizuno, Kondo, & the Japanese Istradefylline Study Group, 2013; Stacy et al., 2008). Recently, the major mechanism for adenosine A2A receptor function in motor control is considered to be in the basal ganglia–thalamocortical circuit in the brain, due to the high density of the receptor localization and also the physiological significance of the circuit for motor control. This chapter addresses several hypotheses proposed for the functional/anatomical role of the adenosine A2A receptors and describes how/why the blockade of the receptors by A2A antagonists brings motor improvement to PD patients, considering the pathophysiology of the disease.

2. THE BASAL GANGLIA–THALAMOCORTICAL CIRCUIT AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PD Over the past two decades, recent research has resulted in new insights into the structure and function of basal ganglia and into the pathophysiological basis of PD (DeLong, 1990; Wichmann & DeLong, 2003). Figure 4.1 shows a simplified diagram of the basal ganglia–thalamocortical circuitry. The striatum has two GABAergic output pathways, one of which is the striatopallidal pathway projecting to the external segment of globus pallidus (GPe), initiating the “indirect pathway,” which passes first to the GPe, then from the GPe to the subthalamic nucleus (STN), and finally to the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi) and the substantia nigra pars reticulata ([SNr], the GPi/SNr complex); and the other of which is the striatonigral pathway projecting to the GPi/SNr complex, the “direct pathway.” One of the key points to remember is that the nigrostriatal dopaminergic projection from the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) onto the striatum provides two opposite influences on those striatal two output pathways. The striatopallidal pathway receives an inhibitory influence via dopamine D2

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Figure 4.1 Simplified schematic diagram of the basal ganglia–thalamocortical circuit for three states with a proposed mechanism of adenosine A2A receptor antagonist as symptomatic treatment for Parkinson's disease. (A) Normal state. (B) Parkinson's disease state (PD state). Excessive activation of the striatopallidal pathway induced by loss of D2 receptor-mediated inhibition, being followed by augmented excitatory output from STN, leads to exaggerated activation of the SNr/GPi, which translates as increased inhibition of the thalamus. (C) Treatment for Parkinson's disease with adenosine A2A receptor antagonist (PD + A2A therapy). Reduced activity of the striatopallidal pathway by A2A receptor antagonists can recover an entire coordination of the circuit, via decreased inhibition of the thalamus, toward normal control. GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid; D1, dopamine D1 receptors; D2, dopamine D2 receptors; ENK, enkephalin; SP, substance P. Adapted from Alexander and Crutcher (1990), DeLong (1990), Kase, Mori, and Jenner (2004), and Xu, Batia, and Schwarzchild (2005).

receptors, and the striatonigral pathway receives an excitatory influence via dopamine D1 receptors (see Fig. 4.1A). Therefore, once nigral dopaminergic neurons are degenerated (like in PD), the inhibitory and excitatory regulation of the striatum mediated via dopamine receptors becomes lost, resulting in both an increased excitation of the striatopallidal pathway and a decreased activity of the striatonigral pathway. Such an imbalance in activity between the two major striatal output pathways causes an excessive inhibition of the thalamocortical pathway, partly via the GPe reducing GABAergic inhibition of the STN and then via the STN inducing an increased glutamatergic input onto the GPi/SNr complex. Subsequently, the thalamocortical activity, suppressed by GABAergic inhibition from the GPi/SNr complex, drives an abnormal output from the cortex

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(see Fig. 4.1B), resulting in hypokinetic movement. The indirect pathway including the striatopallidal pathway has been considered to be more significant, than the direct pathway, in the expression of motor disability in PD (Obeso et al., 2004). In fact, clinically used dopamine D2 receptor agonists for PD therapy are considered to work on the indirect pathway. Furthermore, with recent advances in understanding of the basal ganglia– thalamocortical circuit, high-frequency deep brain stimulation (DBS) targeting the STN (STN–DBS), resulting in neuronal inhibition of subthalamic output, has been introduced as a popular neurosurgical treatment of PD (Krack, Hariz, Baunez, Guridi, & Obeso, 2010). Adenosine A2A receptors are known to strictly express in the striatopallidal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) (Section 3). Since the MSNs are the primary neuronal target of adenosine A2A receptors and considering that the proposed PD pathophysiology is the striatopallidal pathway, it is expected that the A2A receptor may regulate the activity of the pathway.

3. STRIATAL MSNs One of the key anatomical structures of the basal ganglia is the stratum (caudate nucleus and putamen). Prior to presenting the detailed anatomical and ultrastructural discussion for adenosine A2A receptor localization in the basal ganglia (Section 4), this section briefly introduces the striatal neuronal population. The principal neurons in the striatum are the GABAergic MSNs, constituting roughly 90% of all striatal neurons in most mammals (Kawaguchi, 1997). The remaining interneurons are classified into large cholinergic neurons and three distinct GABAergic interneurons (Tapper, Koo´s, & Wilson, 2004). These striatal MSNs receive massive glutamatergic inputs from the cerebral cortex and thalamus, and various intrastriatal input from interneurons. MSNs as principal neurons are further divided into striatopallidal and striatonigral MSNs, based on which area of the brain they pass through as striatal outputs. The striatopallidal MSNs pass through the GPe from the striatum, initiating the “indirect pathway.” The MSNs have specific markers which are dopamine D2 receptors and enkephalin. The striatonigral MSNs themselves compose the “direct pathway” in the basal ganglia– thalamocortical circuit, and their specific markers are dopamine D1 receptors and dynorphin/substance P (SP) (Alexander & Crutcher, 1990; Ge¨rfen, 2004; Ge¨rfen et al., 1990; Graybiel, 1990). Recently, it has further been

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confirmed that D1 and D2 MSNs differ in their intrinsic excitability and dendritic morphology (Surmeier et al., 2010).

4. LOCALIZATION OF ADENOSINE A2A RECEPTORS ON/AROUND STRIATAL MSNs 4.1. Regional and cellular anatomy of adenosine A2A receptors A2A receptor messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) has been richly detected in the caudate nucleus, putamen, nucleus accumbens, and olfactory tubercles in rodents, primates, and humans (Augood & Emson, 1994; Dixon, Gubitz, Sirinathsinghji, Richardson, & Freeman, 1996; Fink et al., 1992; Johansson, Georgiev, Parkinson, & Fredholm, 1993; Schiffmann, Jacobs, & Vanderhaeghen, 1991; Schiffmann, Libert, Vassart, & Vanderhaeghen, 1991; Svenningsson et al., 1998, 1997; Xu et al., 2005) and has further been demonstrated to be expressed in the cortex (Lee et al., 2003), hippocampus (Cunha et al., 1994; Lee et al., 2003), cerebellar Purkinje cells (Svenningsson, Le Moine, et al., 1997), and olfactory bulb (Kaelin-Lang, Lauterburg, & Burgunder, 1999) as well. Recent consensus is that the brain regions expressing high levels of the adenosine A2A receptor molecule are the caudate nucleus, putamen, nucleus accumbens, olfactory tubercles, and GPe and have been reported in the rat and human brains (DeMet & Chicz-DeMet, 2002; Fredholm, Lindstrom, Dionisotti, & Ongini, 1998; Jarvis & Williams, 1989; Martinez-Mir, Probst, & Palacios, 1991; Nonaka et al., 1994; Parkinson & Fredholm, 1990; Svenningsson, Hall, Sedvall, & Fredholm, 1997). Low levels of immunoreactivity of the receptor have been found in cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, and cerebellum (Lee et al., 2003; Rosin, Robeva, Woodard, Guyenet, & Linden, 1998). Although in the globus pallidus, A2A receptor transcript is not detected (Augood & Emson, 1994; Fink et al., 1992; Schiffmann, Jacobs, et al., 1991), immunohistochemical study in the rat brain revealed that nerve terminals located in the region had the A2A receptor molecule, which was estimated at the axon terminal of the striatopallidal neurons (Rosin, Hettinger, Lee, & Linden, 2003). Triggered by PD pathophysiology drawn with the basal ganglia–thalamocortical circuit, there has been a growing body of interest in A2A receptors in the striatum and GPe, both of which are very crucial portions in the circuit for constructing the striatopallidal pathway. It has been revealed that the A2A receptor mRNA is highly and specifically expressed in the GABAergic striatopallidal MSNs, but not in

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the striatonigral MSNs; the A2A receptor mRNA colocalizes with the D2 receptor mRNA (Fink et al., 1992; Schiffmann & Vanderhaeghen, 1993; Svenningsson et al., 1998) as well as with the preproenkephalin mRNA, although the A2A mRNA (Schiffmann, Jacobs, et al., 1991; Svenningsson et al., 1998) had very little coexpression with D1 receptor and SP mRNA (Svenningsson et al., 1998).

4.2. Ultrastructural aspect of adenosine A2A receptors To identify morphological substrates for the integration of striatal function, an ultrastructural analysis of A2A receptors on/around striatal MSNs, using the vesicular glutamate transporters as makers of glutamatergic terminals, has been conducted by Rosin et al. (1998, 2003). The results are summarized below: – 83% of all A2A receptors containing synaptic contacts were postsynaptic A2A receptors forming asymmetric synapses, suggesting a site of excitatory input onto striatopallidal MSNs. – 12% of all A2A receptors containing synaptic contacts were presynaptic A2A receptors on excitatory terminals forming asymmetric synapses, suggesting glutamatergic synaptic contacts into MSNs. – A2A receptors were found postsynaptically to inhibitory symmetric input, suggesting synaptic contacts from GABAergic interneurons, cholinergic neurons, and local axon collaterals from MSNs. – 3% of all A2A receptors containing synaptic contacts were presynaptic A2A receptors found on terminals forming symmetric synapses with GABAlabeled or unlabeled soma or dendritic profiles, suggesting GABAergic terminals of recurrent axon collaterals. Also, Hettinger, Lee, Linden, and Rosin (2001) demonstrated that of the 714 A2A-immunoreactive profiles examined in rat striatum, 37% were apposed to GABA-labeled profiles. The most common appositions were A2A-labeled dendrites apposed to GABA-labeled dendrites (18%), axon terminal (4%), and soma (1%); and A2A-labeled axons apposed to GABAlabeled dendrites (8%), axon terminals (2%), and somata (1%) (Xu et al., 2005). Those A2A receptors are considered to be on spiny neurons, but not on GABAergic interneurons, since the A2A receptor mRNA has not been detected in GABAergic interneurons of rodents or primates (Augood & Emson, 1994; Schiffmann, Jacobs, et al., 1991; Schiffmann, Libert, et al., 1991) and there was little evidence for A2A receptor

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immunoreactivity in the soma of GABAergic interneurons in the striatum (Hettinger et al., 2001). Very interestingly, there were no striatal nerve terminals colabeling A2A receptor and tyrosine hydroxylase, suggesting less possibility that nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons have adenosine A2A receptors (Hettinger et al., 2001). Whether striatal cholinergic large aspiny interneurons express significant levels of A2A receptors is still a question. Although the A2A receptor mRNA was detected in these neurons using a modification of 30 end amplification polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Preston et al., 2000; Richardson et al., 2000) and a mouse immunofluorescence analysis showed that choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons were labeled by A2A receptors (Tozzi et al., 2011), most in situ hybridization studies did not detect the expression in cholinergic neurons in rodents or primates (Augood & Emson, 1994; Fink et al., 1992; Schiffmann, Jacobs, et al., 1991; Schiffmann, Libert, et al., 1991; Svenningsson et al., 1998). From those cellular and ultrastructural analysis results for adenosine A2A receptor localization in the striatum, the author attempted to make a schematic diagram of A2A receptors on/around striatopallidal MSNs (see Fig. 4.2A). Section 5 provides several insights/aspects regarding hypotheses of the mode of action in adenosine A2A receptor antagonist-induced antiparkinsonian and how A2A receptors contribute to the regulation of the striatopallidal pathway and other functions of the basal ganglia.

5. PROPOSED MECHANISM OF ADENOSINE A2A RECEPTOR FUNCTION AND MODE OF ACTION OF A2A RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS ON MOTOR CONTROL VIA THE BASAL GANGLIA 5.1. A2A receptor-induced dual excitatory modulation of striatopallidal GABAergic system Striatal and pallidal A2A receptor-mediated excitatory modulation of striatopallidal system has been proposed to be the physiological function of adenosine via A2A receptors in the basal ganglia (Mori & Shindou, 2003). The following sections summarize the intrastriatal and pallidal mechanisms of the modulation and an implication to the mode of action of A2A receptor antagonists as PD therapy.

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Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of a striatopallidal medium spiny neuron (MSN) possessing adenosine A2A receptors and neurons constituting synaptic circuits onto the cell. (A) A striatopallidal MSN in normal state. (B) A striatopallidal MSN in Parkinson's disease state exerting selective loss of dendritic spines, resulting in degeneration of some of adenosine A2A receptors localizing at spines (see text).

5.1.1 The A2A receptor-mediated modulation of MSNs in the striatum First, A2A receptor-mediated inhibition of GABAergic synaptic transmission onto the striatal MSN has been found in an in vitro electrophysiological study using a whole-cell patch clamp method applied to striatal spiny neurons of rat striatal slices (Mori, Shindou, Ichimura, Nonaka, & Kase, 1996). In the

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study, inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) recorded from a spiny projection neuron, evoked by intrastriatal field stimulation, were investigated under conditions in which excitatory inputs were blocked. The average amplitude of IPSCs was significantly suppressed by A2A agonist CGS21680, and the suppression was subsequently antagonized by A2A antagonist KF17837. Also, through analysis of spontaneous miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs), the A2A receptor-mediated suppression of IPSCs was found to be attributable to presynaptic mechanism. These results demonstrated the existence of presynaptic A2A receptor-mediated suppression of striatal GABAergic synaptic transmission onto spiny projection neurons. These electrophysiological findings were reproduced by Chergui, Bouron, Normand, and Mulle (2000). The results were consistent with neurochemical studies, using striatal synaptosomal preparation, showing that GABA release from striatal nerve terminals was reduced by A2A receptor stimulation, being blocked by the A2A antagonist KF17837 (Kirk & Richardson, 1994; Kurokawa, Kirk, Kirkpatrick, Kase, & Richardson, 1994). In the striatum, other than the glutamatergic components from the cortex, the other major factor to determine the membrane excitability of MSN is intrastriatal GABAergic input, which is divided into feedback inhibition via recurrent axon collaterals of spiny neurons themselves and feed-forward inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. Because the reversal potential of chloride operated by GABAA receptors is close to the spike threshold potentials driven by excitatory inputs, GABAergic inputs act mainly to shunt the glutamatergic inputs. Striatal A2A receptor modulation of either of both feedback and feed-forward inhibition systems could weaken the GABAergic shunting effects on excitatory inputs to spiny neurons, leading an excitation of the neurons, resulting in an increase of striatopallidal excitability (Mori & Shindou, 2003). 5.1.2 The A2A receptor-mediated modulation in the GP In contrast to the striatal modulation onto MSNs, pallidal A2A receptor activation has been found to facilitate GABAergic IPSCs onto GP neurons in the rat pallidal slice preparation (Shindou, Mori, Kase, & Ichimura, 2001). The facilitation of average amplitude of IPSCs onto GP neurons was dose dependently induced by the A2A agonist CGS21680, and the CGS21680-induced enhancement of IPSCs was completely antagonized by the A2A antagonists KF17837 and ZM241385. Paired-pulse facilitation and mIPSC analysis revealed that the A2A receptor-mediated facilitation was via the presynaptic mechanism, like striatal modulation. The results

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are consistent with neurochemical studies demonstrating that activation of the A2A receptor, which was stimulated by CGS21680 and blocked by the A2A antagonist KF17837, enhanced the electrically stimulated release of GABA from pallidal slices (Mayfield, Suzuki, & Zahniser, 1993). Shindou, Richardson, Mori, Kase, and Ichimura (2003) also revealed that the A2A receptor-mediated facilitation was caused by an action on the striatopallidal spiny neuron terminals, not on the GP neuron intranuclear axon collaterals (Kita, 1994; Nambu & Llinas, 1997) which were electrophysiologically (Kita, Chang, & Kitai, 1983; Nakanishi, Kita, & Kitai, 1987) and immunochemically (Oertel & Mugnaini, 1984; Smith, Parent, Seguela, & Descarries, 1987) identified as GABAergic neurons. Also, the facilitating modulation by A2A receptors on GABAergic transmission onto GP neurons involved the sequential activation of the A2A receptor, adenylyl cyclase, and then cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase (Shindou et al., 2002). Separated from the striatal A2A receptor modulation onto MSNs, the results provided evidence for the existence of isolated presynaptic A2A receptor-mediated modulation of GABA release from the pallidal terminal of striatopallidal spiny neurons. This facilitation of GABAergic transmission onto GP neurons is considered to directly suppress the excitability of GP neurons projecting to the STN, thus causing increased neuronal activity in the STN (Mori & Shindou, 2003). 5.1.3 The A2A receptor-mediated modulation of the output from the entire striatopallidal pathway The electrophysiological study to investigate GABAergic IPSCs, recorded from GP neurons evoked by striatal simulation (i.e., striatopallidal IPSCs) in rat striatopallidal slices (see Fig. 4.3A), demonstrated that the striatopallidal IPSCs were enhanced by adenosine (100 μM) and the A2A receptor agonist CGS21680. The enhancement of striatopallidal IPSCs was antagonized by A2A antagonists ZM241385 and KF17837 (Fig. 4.3B–D). Also, it has been shown that pallidal GABAergic transmission affected by A2A receptors had no contribution of axon collaterals of GP neurons. The single-cell RT-PCR analysis did not detect A2A receptor mRNA in GP cells by electrophysiologically methods (Shindou et al., 2003). This was the first evidence of A2A receptor-mediated modulation of the entire striatopallidal pathway, demonstrated by in vitro electrophysiological and gene expression studies. Also, the enhancement of averaged mean pallidal IPSC amplitude was approximately 30% higher than those observed in the isolated GP slice study (Section 5.1.2). Thus, the activation of A2A receptors in both the striatum

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Figure 4.3 Adenosine A2A receptor-mediated enhancement of striatopallidal IPSCs in the GP. (A) Oblique slice preparation includes the striatum and GP, and striatopallidal GABAergic projection fibers. Stimulation and recording electrodes are shown. (B) The time course of the amplitude of evoked IPSCs during the application of the A2A agonist, CGS21680 (1 μM). Inset: superimposed traces of an average of consecutive striatopallidal IPSCs (eight traces) before and during application of CGS21680, taken at indicated time points. (C) Enhancement of striatopallidal IPSCs by adenosine (100 μM) via A2A receptors. The A2A antagonist ZM241385 (1 μM) reversed the potentiation of the striatopallidal IPSCs caused by adenosine (n ¼ 5). Insets: superimposed traces taken at the indicated time points. Calibration in insets of B, C: x-axis, 20 ms; y-axis, 100 pA. (D) Summary of pharmacological characterization of the adenosine A2A receptor-mediated modulation. The selective A2A antagonists ZM241385 (1 μM) and KF17837 (1 μM) significantly blocked the adenosine-induced potentiation of striatopallidal IPSCs. *P < 0.01 by paired t-test. From Shindou et al. (2003).

and the GP is more effective than the sole activation of pallidal A2A receptors for the modulation of striatopallidal GABAergic outputs (Shindou et al., 2003). Also, Ochi et al. (2000) provided evidence of the modulation via both the striatum and GP, with an in vivo microdialysis study measuring pallidal GABA levels in free-moving rats. Either intrastriatal microinjection or intrapallidal infusion of the A2A antagonist CGS21680 showed significantly increased pallidal GABA levels (see Fig. 4.4A and B). The in vivo study examining pallidal GABA levels indicated an in vivo existence of dual modulation of A2A receptors via both the striatum and GP, which is leading upregulation of the striatopallidal pathway. Also, in a rat PD model (6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats), basal pallidal GABA levels were

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Figure 4.4 Adenosine A2A receptor-regulated pallidal GABA levels evaluated by in vivo microdialysis method in rats. (A) Effects of intrastriatal microinjection of the A2A agonist CGS21680 (0.05 μg/μL; n ¼ 9) or saline (n ¼ 10) on pallidal GABA levels of normal rats. (B) Effects of intrapallidal infusion of CGS21680 (10 μmol/L) via dialysis probe on pallidal GABA levels in normal rats. n ¼ 11 (control) or 13 (CGS21680). (C) Effects of KW-6002 (3 mg/kg, p.o.) on pallidal GABA levels in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. Data point represents vehicle (n ¼ 13) and KW-6002 (n ¼ 12). From Ochi et al. (2000).

significantly higher than those of nonlesioned rats, consistent with the pathophysiology of the activated striatopallidal pathway in PD. Interestingly, the upregulated pallidal GABA levels in the rat PD models were ameliorated by the A2A receptor antagonist KW-6002 (Istradefylline) (see Fig. 4.4C) at same dosages that achieved antiparkinsonian effects in the animals (Koga, Kuroawa, Ochi, Nakamura, & Kuwana, 2000). In vitro and in vivo studies on the entire striatopallidal system demonstrated existence of the dual modulation via A2A receptors located at both the striatum and GP. It is interpreted that when A2A receptors of either area are activated, the striatopallidal pathway excitability is driven to be

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Figure 4.5 Schematic diagram of the corticostriatal and striatopallidal pathways, representing the A2A receptor-mediated dual modulation of GABAergic synaptic transmission in the striatopallidal system. Adenosine via striatal A2A receptor causes disinhibitory modulation of the excitability of striatopallidal MSN via suppression of GABA input onto the MSNs. Adenosine via pallidal A2A receptors activates the nerve terminals of striatopallidal MSNs to increase GABA release. From Mori and Shindou (2003).

enhanced, which translates to excessive inhibition on the GP principal neurons projecting to the STN (see Fig. 4.5) (Mori & Shindou, 2003). 5.1.4 Models for the synaptic connection of MSNs affected by presynaptic A2A receptor modulation As described earlier, the proposed dual modulation by A2A receptors on the striatopallidal pathway includes opposite effects on GABA release by A2A receptors between the striatal and pallidal terminals of same spiny neurons. The pallidal modulation has shown consistent results among various studies, with a mechanism of second messenger cascade of A2A receptors. However, considering the complexity of the intrastriatal network, the following three models of intrastriatal synaptic contacts affected by A2A receptors have been proposed (Mori & Shindou, 2003; Xu et al., 2005) (see Fig. 4.6). In the first

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Figure 4.6 Three considerable models for inhibitory GABAergic synaptic contacts onto the striatopallidal MSNs, which can be affected by adenosine via presynaptic A2A receptors to induce disinhibition of MSNs. (A) Synaptic contact from interneurons onto MSNs. (B) Synaptic contact via recurrent axon collaterals. (C) Synaptic contact from interneurons onto MSNs, which presynaptically suppressed by increased GABAergic inputs via activation of A2A receptors of recurrent axon collaterals.

model, the A2A receptor-modulated feed-forward system via GABAergic interneurons (Fig. 4.6A) requires A2A receptor expression on these neurons, yet there has been little evidence of the receptors detected neither in situ nor in ultrastructural studies. Therefore, a presynaptic inhibitory model of recurrent axon collaterals is more reliable since the receptors have been conformed to express on the structure (see Fig. 4.6B). There are some arguments regarding if the recurrent feedback is critical or not to determine if a spiny neuron can be exited (Tapper et al., 2004; Wickens, Arbuthnott, & Shindou, 2007). One critical point of the model is if the opposite modulation on the same transmitter (i.e., GABA) via the same receptors at different locations on the same neuron can coexist. Therefore, Xu et al. (2005) described another model suggesting that facilitation of GABA release by A2A receptors (the same as pallidal modulation) can be generated at synapses contacted at presynaptic sites of a GABAergic interneuron (or other spiny neuron). The suppression of GABAergic contact from an interneuron (or other spiny neuron) onto a spiny neuron causes disinhibition on the neuron (see Fig. 4.6C). This model can partly be supported by the finding of double patch clamp recording between neighboring MSNs, demonstrating that A2A activation enhances recurrent inputs (Shindou, Arbuthnott, & Wickens, 2008). Interestingly, it has been reported that the transient potassium channel in medium spiny projection neurons received two opposite muscarinic

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modulations, depending upon two different resting membrane potentials range-driven by cortical input. This result suggests that acetylcholine (ACh) stabilizes the state of the neuron, rather than simply excite or inhibit it (Akins, Surmeier, & Kitai, 1990). Considering this dual modulation model for the potassium channel discovered in MSNs, the existence of A2A receptor-mediated opposite modulation of GABA release in MSNs at different nerve terminals located in the striatum and GPe cannot be excluded (see Fig. 4.6B). Concerning the complexity of the GABAergic network in the striatum and various modes of the excitability state of each neuron, a mixture of models is possible (see both Fig. 4.6B and C), including recurrent modulation, and may work for synaptic contacts affected by striatal A2A receptormediated modulation. The synaptic models for the striatal modulation via A2A receptors still remains to be investigated with future consideration/ understanding of the neuronal processing mechanism in the striatum. The interpretation of GABAergic circuits in the basal ganglia is especially challenging (Wickens et al., 2007). In summary, recent consensus confirmed by several studies is that A2A receptors regulate striatal GABAergic synapses onto MSNs, and the activation of striatal A2A receptors provides an increased GABAergic output from striatopallidal pathway in the GPe. 5.1.5 Physiological consideration of the A2A receptor-mediated dual excitatory modulation of the striatopallidal pathway for the basal ganglia circuit (see Figs. 4.1C and 4.7) How the modulation contributes to motor control and creates an aspect for the antiparkinsonian mechanism by adenosine A2A receptor antagonist is shown in Fig. 4.7, which is a schematic diagram focusing on the activity of the striatopallidal pathway as a key factor for the entire coordination of basal ganglia–thalamocortical circuit (Section 2). The functional significance of A2A receptors and the mode of action of the A2A antagonist can be explained in the following text. In the normal state, A2A receptor-mediated excitatory modulation onto the pathway is well balanced with dopamine D2 receptor-mediated inhibitory regulation on the striatopallidal pathway (see Fig. 4.7A). In the PD state, when the D2 receptor system is significantly damaged due to loss of dopamine, the A2A receptor-mediated modulation becomes at least relatively dominant to regulate the pathway, resulting in an increased excitation of the pathway (see Fig. 4.7B). This induces an entire disturbance of basal

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Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram focusing on regulation of the excitability of the striatopallidal pathway in three states, based on the A2A receptor-mediated dual modulation of GABAergic synaptic transmission in the striatopallidal system (See Fig. 4.5). (A) Normal state. (B) Parkinson's disease state (PD state). (C) Treatment for Parkinson's disease with adenosine A2A receptor antagonist (PD + A2A therapy) (see text and Fig. 4.1).

ganglia–thalamocortical circuit as described in the PD state, which causes hypokinetic motor dysfunction (see Fig. 4.1B). Furthermore, recently, an increased density of A2A receptors in the basal ganglia has been reported in PD patients, in comparison with normal subjects (Calon et al., 2004; Mishina et al., 2011; Morelli et al., 2007; Ramlackhansingh et al., 2011). This suggests that in addition to decreased influence via D2 receptors, an increase of A2A receptor-mediated excitation may be occurred to drive the pathway overexcited in PD. Therefore, when the therapy with A2A antagonist for PD is applied to block the A2A receptor-mediated dual excitatory modulation in both the striatum and GPe on the striatopallidal pathway, the excessive excitation of the pathway is reduced, resulting in the entire basal ganglia–thalamocortical balance to shift toward normalization, even with the loss of dopamine (see Figs. 4.1C and 4.7C) (Kase et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2005).

5.2. Functional/physiological interaction hypotheses of adenosine A2A receptors with other receptors Several receptor–receptor interaction hypotheses between A2A receptors and other receptors have been proposed mainly to explain more precisely A2A receptor cellular and intermembrane mechanisms on neurons that directly or indirectly contribute to the regulation of the striatopallidal pathway.

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5.2.1 Interaction with dopamine D2 receptors The dopaminergic system seems to be a “center player” in PD. Thus, many investigations have been performed to learn how adenosine receptors work through or with dopamine receptors. In particular, dopamine D2 receptors (A2A–D2 interaction) have been studied, as adenosine A2A receptors colocalize with dopamine D2 receptors in the striatopallidal MSNs. Since the early 1990s, many studies and proposals have been made regarding the functional interaction between A2A and D2 receptors in the striatum. One of first evidences was that A2A receptor activation in the rat striatal membrane reduced the affinity of the D2 receptor for its agonist (Ferre´, von Euler, Johansson, Fredholm, & Fuxe, 1991), which was followed by the reduction of G-protein coupling of the D2 receptor (Ferre´, Snaprud, & Fuxe, 1993). As a result of those studies, the interaction has been interpreted as (i) A2A–D2 intramembrane receptor interaction and (ii) A2A–D2 receptor interaction at the second messenger level (Ferre´ et al., 2008; Xu et al., 2005). A2A–D2 receptor heterodimerization demonstrated in mammalian transfected cells (Canals et al., 2004, 2003; Kamiya, Saitoh, Yoshioka, & Nakamura, 2003) has supported the concept of the intramembrane interaction. The interaction is considered to determine A2A receptor-mediated regulation of the D2 receptor function. As A2A and D2 receptors couple with G proteins to stimulate or inhibit adenylyl cyclase and the cAMP-PKA signaling pathways, respectively, a reciprocal interaction of both receptors at the second messenger level has been proposed, demonstrating that A2A receptor-mediated signaling was antagonized by D2 receptor activation (Fuxe et al., 2001). Similar types of interactions have also been observed in several cells transfected with both receptors (Dasgupta et al., 1996; Kull et al., 1999; Salim et al., 2000), and human striatal sections (Dı´az-Cabiale et al., 2001). Hillion et al. (2002) have shown that D2 receptor activation suppressed cAMP production via A2A receptor stimulation in a human neuroblastoma cell line. From a striatal functional perspective, the electrophysiological study of spiny neurons in rat corticostriatal slices demonstrated that although spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) were affected neither by the A2A receptor antagonists nor by the D2 agonists, coapplication of both A2A antagonists and D2 agonists significantly reduced sEPCSs and is considered to be a presynaptic mechanism. This suggests that A2A and D2 receptors converge in the presynaptic control of corticostriatal glutamatergic transmission by exerting an opposite function; however, the precise mechanisms of action are less understood (Tozzi et al., 2007).

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Whether the A2A–D2 intramembrane interaction is the mode of action for adenosine A2A receptor antagonist resulting in symptomatic improvement of PD is still an open question. Motor dysfunction exerted in dopamine D2 receptor knockout (KO) mice was completely ameliorated by a single administration of the selective adenosine A2A receptor antagonist KW-6002 (Istradefylline), with reversed change in enkephalin and SP expression (Aoyama, Kase, & Borrelli, 2000). It has also been demonstrated that adenosine A2A receptor agonists reduced locomotor activity of D2 KO, as well as wild-type mice (Chen et al., 2001). These findings clearly indicate that there is a mechanism other than the receptor–receptor interaction to explain A2A receptor-related motor control and the antiparkinsonian mode of action seen with the use of adenosine A2A receptor antagonists. In some cases, rather than acute symptomatic phenomena in motor control, the interaction between A2A and D2 receptors may be related to a more chronic state via phosphorylation and other intercellular mechanisms for striatal neuronal plasticity, neurodegeneration, etc. 5.2.2 Synergistic interaction of A2A receptors with metabotropic glutamate receptors A functional/physical interaction between the A2A receptor and the metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor mGlu5 has been suggested to clarify modulation of striatopallidal MSNs. This is based on several findings: (i) the synergistic reduction of the affinity of dopamine receptors by A2A and mGlu5 receptor agonists (Ferre´ et al., 1999; Popoli et al., 2001); (ii) in vitro successful membrane preparation of both A2A and mGlu5 receptors with heteromeric receptor complexes (Ferre´ et al., 2002); (iii) the synergistic induction of c-fos level by coactivation of A2A and mGlu5 receptors (Ferre´ et al., 2002); (iv) activation of both receptors induced an increase of extracellular GABA levels in the ventral pallidum, indicating coactivation of striatopallidal pathway (Dı´az-Cabiale et al., 2002); (v) synergistic mGlu5 and A2A antagonist-induced motor stimulation; and (vii) attenuation of mGlu5 antagonist-induced motor stimulation in forebrain-conditioned A2A receptor KO mice (Kachroo et al., 2005). Most of the interactions noted in the preceding text have been proposed as postsynaptic interactions, which can be generated on dendritic spines/ spine heads receiving corticostriatal glutamatergic input onto striatal MSNs. Although a molecular basis for this functional interaction via the phosphorylation of DARPP-32 (dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa) has been suggested (Nishi et al., 2003; Shen et al., 2013), the

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mechanism by which the receptors counteract one another on the neuronal surface must be further investigated. In addition, the presynaptic interaction between the A2A receptor and mGlu5 to facilitate the presynaptic glutamate release has recently been proposed (Pintor, Pezzola, Reggio, Quarta, & Popoli, 2000; Rodrigues, Alfaro, Rebola, Oliveria, & Cunha, 2005). Both receptors were found to be colocalized in corticostriatal glutamatergic nerve terminal, which also supports presynaptic interaction between the receptors (Rodrigues et al., 2005). However, considering that the expression of the A2A receptor mRNA is detected much less in the cortex than in other significant regions like the stratum, the contribution of these presynaptic A2A receptors in corticostriatal synapses associated with motor control via the basal ganglia remains to be further investigated and clarified. Significant immunoreactivity of one of the group III metabotropic glutamate receptors, the mGlu4 receptor mRNA, has also been found in the striatum and their localization is confirmed in the GPe (Bradley et al., 1999; Matsui & Kita, 2003). Hence, an interaction of the receptors with the A2A system in regulating inhibitory tone at the levels of the GPe has been proposed ( Jones et al., 2012). Valenti et al. (2003) reported that mGlu4 receptor activation could presynaptically inhibit striatopallidal transmission, evaluated by IPSCs in GP neurons. This was same target with opposite direction of the presynaptic A2A receptor-mediated excitatory action of the terminals of the striatopallidal pathway located in the GPe (Shindou et al., 2001, 2002, 2003). The emergence of correlated oscillatory activity in the subthalamopallidal circuit (not shown in Fig. 4.1) has been noted after the destruction of dopaminergic neurons in PD (Terman, Rubin, Yew, & Wiloson, 2002). In addition to the A2A receptor mechanism in the striatopallidal pathway, if the physiological interaction of A2A receptors with mGlu4 receptors occurs in this circuit, it is very important to take this into consideration in the symptomatic improvement of PD by A2A receptor antagonists. 5.2.3 A2A receptor-related modulations of ACh system in the striatum A2A receptor-mediated presynaptic regulation of striatal ACh release has been shown (Kurokawa et al., 1994; Kurokawa, Koga, Kase, Nakamura, & Kuwana, 1996). It has been documented by in vitro striatal synaptosome and in vivo microdialysis that the A2A receptor antagonist KF17837 blocked enhanced ACh release stimulated by the A2A receptor agonist CGS21680. This function is interesting to consider relative to the

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antiparkinsonian effect of A2A receptor antagonists. However, it is still questionable whether striatal cholinergic large spiny interneurons express significant levels of A2A receptors, as discussed in Section 4.2. Further investigation into this area is still needed. 5.2.4 Presynaptic A2A–A1 receptor interaction Adenosine A2A and A1 receptor heterodimer-induced reciprocal interaction has recently been discussed in the regulation of corticostriatal glutamatergic transmission onto MSNs (Schwarzchild, Agnati, Fuxe, Chen, & Morelli, 2006). This was suggested from data indicating A2A–A1 receptor heteromers in the cell surface of cotransfected cells, as well as colocalization of both receptors in the same striatal glutamatergic terminals (Ciruela et al., 2006; Ferre´, Aganati, et al., 2007; Ferre´, Ciruela, et al., 2007). Adenosine A2A and A1 receptors work in opposite directions to regulate the second messenger system via adenylyl cyclase activation by the difference in adenosine concentrations. The functional evidence and physiological necessity of the heteromer of two different adenosine-operated receptor subtypes, with an extracellular adenosine concentration-dependent switching mechanism, to regulate glutamate release are still unknown (Ciruela et al., 2006; Ferre´, Aganati, et al., 2007; Ferre´, Ciruela, et al., 2007). The selective adenosine A2A receptor antagonist KW-6002 (Istradefylline) was effective in postnatal forebrain-specific conditional A2A receptor KO mice in acute MPTP neurotoxicity (Yu et al., 2008). This may suggest that A2A receptors in the brain control motor activity independent of the A2A–A1 heteromer interaction mechanism. Further research will verify if such a receptor interaction using same endogenous ligand (i.e., adenosine) works physiologically, like the receptor conformational analysis of adenosine A2A receptors producing a cellular response (Hino et al., 2012).

6. NEW ASPECT FOR THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGE TO STRIATOPALLIDAL MSNs IN PD The significant pathophysiological change of striatopallidal MSNs, as distinguished from striatonigral neurons, has recently been discovered. Although the dopaminergic denervation and degeneration of nigrostriatal pathway to the striatum is well known, it has been very unclear how the loss of dopamine affects striatal neurons, leading to PD symptoms. Day et al. (2006) have demonstrated both anatomical and physiological evidence of a selective loss of glutamatergic synapses in striatopallidal neurons after

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dopamine depletion, more precisely in the speed, selectivity, and magnitude of the loss than reported in previous studies (Dunah et al., 2000; Ingham, Hood, Taggart, & Arbuthnott, 1998; Ingham, Hood, van Maldegem, Weenink, & Arbuthnott, 1993; McNeill, Sally, Rafols, & Shoulson, 1998; Stephens et al., 2005). Bacterial artificial chromosome transgenic mice, which enhanced green fluorescent protein to distinguish between striatopallidal and striatonigral neurons, were utilized to show that dopamine depletion by reserpine treatment caused a reduction in spine density and number of spines in D2 receptor expression, but not D1 receptor expression MSNs. Dendritic length and branching were also markedly reduced in dopamine-depleted striatopallidal neurons. In parallel with the loss of spines, miniature EPSC frequency in striatopallidal neurons was decreased, which indicates that presynaptic functional components of the glutamatergic synapse had been eliminated (Day et al., 2006). This selective degeneration of dendritic spines was also observed in spines of neurons that lacked D1 receptor labeling (indirectly meaning to be the MSNs expressing D2 receptors), in 6-hydroxydopamine-treated condition as another PD models. Even though dopamine presynaptically regulates glutamatergic synapses in MSNs (Bamford et al., 2004; Cepeda et al., 2001), there is no evidence that this regulation specifically affects the synapses that are formed on the striatopallidal neurons (Day et al., 2006). To clarify a part of the mechanism, it was revealed that dendrites of striatopallidal neurons were more excitable than those of striatonigral neurons. The subsequent dopamine depletion increased calcium entry through the dendritic voltage-dependent L-type calcium channels associated with the backpropagation of action potentials in striatopallidal neurons (Day, Wokosin, Plotkin, Tian, & Surmeier, 2008). Reserpine treatment results in depletion of dopamine and produces akinesia and muscle rigidity, which morphologically resemble the symptoms of PD (Davis et al., 1979). How and when during the progression of human PD the selective degeneration of dendritic structures of striatopallidal MSNs occurs is unknown. The method of dopamine depletion employed in Day’s studies (i.e., reserpine treatment) did not result in the loss of the dopamine neuron. This suggests that the phenomena may occur at a relatively early stage of PD. The author tried to adapt this new and interesting pathophysiological aspect into the schematic diagram shown in Fig. 4.2B. Although regarding A2A receptor ultrastructural localization on striatopallidal MSNs, a majority (about 80%) of all of A2A receptor density is condensed in the dendritic spines (see Section 4.2) in the normal state, and most of them are destroyed in PD due to the loss of dopamine resulting in the denervation of the

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dendritic spines of the striatopallidal MSNs. Therefore in the PD state, it is speculated that most prominent A2A receptors working on a striatopallidal MSN are those expressed in both the presynaptic GABAergic synapses and the postsynaptic site of the GABA synapses, not on the dendritic spines/spine heads. Those surviving A2A receptors in the PD state are considered to regulate intrastriatal GABAergic contacts, not coordinating the interaction with D2 and mGlu receptors. Therefore, the likely target of A2A receptor antagonists in PD therapy is interpreted to be those receptors controlling the GABAergic input onto MSNs. As described earlier, when any mechanism related to the A2A receptors on striatopallidal MSNs is considered, it is notable to distinguish between the normal state and the disease state (PD), with respect to depletion/denervation of dopamine/dopamine neurons. For example, a behavioral pharmacology study of D2 KO mice has shown that the A2A antagonist KW-6002 (Istradefylline) had the same degree of locomotor stimulant effect between wild-type mice and D2 KO mice (Aoyama et al., 2000). It is assumed that the mechanism of locomotor stimulant effect of the A2A antagonist in either wild-type mice or D2 KO mice may occur due to the action of A2A receptors including those on the dendritic spines of striatopallidal MSNs. Some of this may be due to an interaction with glutamate receptors, since D2 KO mice maintain their dopaminergic cells, which is different than the PD models used for Day’s pathophysiology study. However, KW-6002 (Istradefylline) attenuated motor dysfunction in a reserpine-induced catalepsy model (Shiozaki et al., 1999). The mechanism of action is via A2A receptors surviving on other cellular sites of the striatopallidal neurons, not via the A2A receptors of dendritic spines, which is different from the D2 KO mice model.

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS Recently, it has been reported from a clinical study in 21 PD patients with cerebral blood flow (CBF) imaging that the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist SYN115 has produced a highly significant decrease in thalamic CBF, consistent with reduced pallidothalamic inhibition via the indirect pathway (Black, Koller, Campbell, Gusnard, & Bandak, 2010). This is direct evidence that the mode of action of the A2A receptor antagonist occurred via deactivation of the indirect pathway as predicted by the hypothesis mentioned earlier in this chapter. Also, in a rat in vivo subthalamic DBS study, administration of the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist MSX-3 has reduced

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the frequency and intensity parameters of DBS needed to attenuate tremulous jaw movements, a pharmacological model of tremor in rodents. These results suggest that A2A receptor antagonism acts to enhance the suppressive effect of STN–DBS on tremor. Additional studies are needed to determine whether the ability of A2A receptor antagonists to enhance sensitivity to DBS occurs in human PD patients (Collins-Praino et al., 2013). The function and anatomical architecture of the basal ganglia– thalamocortical circuit has been providing great insights and ideas into exploration of the mode of action of adenosine A2A receptor antagonist in PD. Now, the target of A2A receptor antagonists is clearly the A2A receptor-mediated excitatory modulation of the striatopallidal pathway. However, the precise cellular and receptor level mechanism of the modulation and further insight into the intrastriatal network require investigation. Recent pathophysiological studies have revealed changes from and differences between the normal state and PD. This reveals a clear gap between the various states of PD. Any exploration of the mechanism of receptor function seeking new therapies, like that of adenosine A2A receptors, should consider the pathophysiological changes that occur with disease progression, as seen in PD.

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