Mount Cook, New Zealand

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jort

Implications of a changing alpine environment for geotourism: A case study from Aoraki/Mount Cook, New Zealand

T

Heather Purdiea,∗, Jessica Hughes Huttonb, Emma Stewartc, Stephen Espinerc a

Department of Geography, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand Planning, Monitoring and Reporting Team, Department of Conservation, Christchurch, New Zealand c Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, Lincoln University, Christchurch, New Zealand b

ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Keywords: Alpine Climate change Glacial recession Geotourism Adaptation Visitor experience

Aoraki Mount Cook National Park in the New Zealand Southern Alps attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors annually. However, this iconic alpine destination is changing due to rapid glacial recession. To explore the implications of environmental change on visitor experience, this study adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining geophysical measurement with visitor surveys (n = 400) and semi-structured interviews with key informants (n = 12) to explore the implications of environmental change on visitor experience. We found the key drawcard to the park is Aoraki the mountain, with the glaciers playing a secondary role. Visitors had a strong awareness of climate change, but somewhat ironically, one of the key adaptive strategies to maintaining mountain access has been an increase in the use of aircraft. Opportunities exist for a strengthening of geointerpretation in the park that not only educates but also encourages people towards more sustainable life choices. Management Implications: This study has highlighted some key issues important to future management decisions in alpine regions experiencing climate-related change: recession is presenting significant challenges to alpine access for tourists and recreationists. • Glacier reliance on aircraft as one strategy to address reduced access to the glaciers in itself requires • Increased careful management. interpretation that not only explicitly addresses environmental change, but also encourages in• Visitor dividuals to reflect on their own lifestyles should be further explored.

1. Introduction People choose to visit mountain regions for many reasons including climbing, sight-seeing, or simply to rejuvenate from busy urban lives (Richins, Johnsen, & Hull, 2016), so it is not surprising that alpine environments have long been key destinations for tourism (Anderson, 2016; Nepal, 2011). However, alpine regions around the world are rapidly changing (Orlove, Wiegandt, & Luckman, 2008; Pröbstl-Haider, Dabrowska, & Haider, 2016) and in particular, glaciers are receding at unprecedented rates (Zemp et al., 2015) in response to anthropogenic forcing of surface temperatures (IPCC, 2013). Glacier retreat presents challenges to alpine access (Purdie & Kerr, 2018), and the implications of reduced snow and ice volume extends beyond immediate ice margins, with changes to slope stability and rockfall activity (Deline et al., 2015; Purdie, Gomez, & Espiner, 2015; Ritter, Fiebig, & Muhar, 2012). The characteristics of alpine environments make them ideal

∗

geotourism destinations (Reynard & Coratza, 2016). Geotourism has previously been defined as a sub-set of natural area tourism, focusing primarily on geology and geomorphology; tourism activities based around landscapes and landscape components, for example, mountains and glaciers (Dowling & Newsome, 2010). More recently, geotourism has been recognised as an approach to tourism; one which embraces interpretation, education, is locally beneficial, and fosters protection of geoheritage (Dowling & Newsome, 2018). Indeed landscape change can be a driver for increasing visitor interest, as people seek-out vanishing landscapes or disappearing natural features, a practice referred to as ‘last chance tourism’ (Lemelin, Dawson, & Stewart, 2012). New Zealand is witnessing rapidly increasing visitor numbers which is placing pressure on key geotourism locations (Littlewood, 2018). However tourism is also a significant contributor to the New Zealand economy, with particular benefit to those regions nestled amongst spectacular mountain scenery and natural features (Tourism New

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Purdie).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2019.100235 Received 3 April 2019; Received in revised form 28 June 2019; Accepted 30 June 2019 2213-0780/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

H. Purdie, et al.

Zealand, 2016). Significant and ongoing growth in global tourism (Gössling, Scott, & Hall, 2013), combined with shrinking ice in alpine regions (Bolch et al., 2012; Rabatel et al., 2013; Radić & Hock, 2011), makes it timely for research to focus on the implications of climate change on visitor experience in alpine environments. Already the impact of climate change is being felt on tourism and recreation in mountain regions with changes to glacier access (Luckman & Kavanagh, 2000; Pröbstl-Haider et al., 2016; Purdie, Espiner, & Gomez, 2018) and reduced snow depth and snow-cover at ski resorts (Dawson & Scott, 2013; Gilaberte-Búrdalo, López-Martín, Pino-Otín, & López-Moreno, 2014). Predicted spatial and temporal shifts in temperature and precipitation in alpine regions is expected to have a flowon effect to mountain tourism and recreation (Gobiet et al., 2014), in particular, the timing and duration of snow-related activities versus summer activities (Scott, Gössling, & Hall, 2012). In addition it is postulated that changing seasonality and increased temperatures during the shoulder seasons may increase visitor numbers (Hewer, Scott, & Fenech, 2016). Although research in the European Alps by PröbstlHaider, Haider, Wirth, and Beardmore (2015) found that this was not so relevant for nature-oriented tourism. Understanding how climate-related change is perceived by visitors and stakeholders is important for future adaptation, and critical for garnering support for agency efforts in mitigating climate change effects (De Urioste-Stone, Scaccia, & Howe-Poteet, 2015). The ski industry has taken a lead with climate adaptation strategies, investing in snowmaking technologies (Hopkins, 2014), developing higher elevation terrain (Bürki, Elsasser, Abegg, & Koenig, 2005), and using textile covers to reduce snow and ice melt (Fischer, Olefs, & Abermann, 2011). In addition, research into the behavioural adaptation of skiers found that experienced skiers are more likely to engage in spatial substitution (Rutty et al., 2015). Reflecting the rapid rate of change, glacier tourism operators have tended to take a more reactive approach, extending access roads (Luckman & Kavanagh, 2000) and increasing the use of helicopters to access glaciers (Purdie, 2013; Stewart et al., 2016). Glacier tourism is still an emerging field of research, but one that is gaining momentum (Welling, Árnason, & ÓlasfsdottÍr, 2015). In this contribution we add to the small but growing body of literature exploring the implications of climate driven change on visitor experience using a case study of an iconic New Zealand alpine destination – Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park (AMCNP). We take a mixed methods approach, combining geophysical data of change in the alpine environment with visitor surveys and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders. Our aims are to: 1. Quantify geophysical change associated with glacier recession in AMCNP; 2. Learn more about the nature of glacier tourism and recreation and the current visitor experience; 3. Identify implications of climate change for tourism and recreation; and 4. Explore how people working or recreating in the Park are adapting to geophysical change.

a number of other large valley glaciers located in AMCNP including the Murchison, Hooker, Mueller and Godley Glaciers (Fig. 1), and more than 170 smaller glaciers located on the flanks and summits of the surrounding mountains (Chinn, 2001). In keeping with the global trend, the glaciers in AMCNP and elsewhere are currently receding rapidly (Mackintosh et al., 2017; Purdie et al., 2014), with an estimated 30% loss in ice volume since the late 1970s (Chinn, Salinger, Fitzharris, & Willsman, 2012; Willsman, 2017). Shrinking ice volume has wider environmental implications beyond shortening of glacier length, although it is this characteristic that is most observable, and hence historically recorded (WGMS, 2017). As glaciers lose volume they not only get shorter but also thinner. Thinning ice masses expose new highly fractured rock surfaces (Deline et al., 2015), and moraines (ridges comprised of loose rock and gravel that mark the historic advances of the glacier). Under the recessionary conditions described, these moraine areas become steep, crumbly barriers, making foot access to glaciers and mountains beyond more difficult (Purdie & Kerr, 2018; Ritter et al., 2012). Around the world, shrinking ice masses and loss of alpine permafrost is being associated with increased rockfall activity (e.g. Fischer, Huggel, Kääb, & Haeberli, 2013; Purdie et al., 2015; Ritter et al., 2012). In addition, the surface of a retreating glacier tends to become increasingly ‘dirty’ as high rates of ice melt expose rocks, previously contained within the ice, on the glacier's surface, adding to the rock debris accumulating from the valley sides. At low-angled valley glaciers, receding ice tongues leave behind depressions that collect melt water forming terminal lakes. Referred to as proglacial lakes, the number of glaciers with lakes at their termini are increasing globally as ice masses waste (Carrivick & Tweed, 2013). Consequently, people engaging in mountain recreation and tourism are likely to find that routes are becoming more challenging, requiring more time and a higher level of experience (Pröbstl-Haider et al., 2016). Although not formally gazetted as a national park until 1953 (Pearson, 1986), the Aoraki Mount Cook region has a long history of tourism, with the building of the initial Hermitage Hotel in 1884, the same year that guiding services were advertised for the first time in a local newspaper (Pearce, 1980). As in other alpine settings around the world, tourism activities in AMCNP have evolved as the landscape has changed over time (Purdie, 2013; Smiraglia et al., 2008; ThompsonCarr, 2015). For example, guided glacier-hiking on the Tasman Glacier was a very popular activity in the early 1900s, but by the mid-1950s ongoing ice thinning had made public access onto the glacier increasingly difficult and dangerous, so these tours stopped (Bowie, 1969). But ongoing ice thinning resulted in the development of a proglacial lake, and so in the early 1990s a new company, Glacier Explorers, started running boat tours on the newly formed lake (Purdie, 2013). Substantial ice thinning and rapid glacial retreat at other iconic locations (e.g. Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers) resulted in an increase in helicopter assisted glacier-hiking (heli-hiking) in 2012–2014 (Stewart et al., 2016), which in turn saw the reestablishment of guided glacier-hiking, via helicopter access on the Tasman Glacier (Hughes Hutton, 2017). The special nature of AMCNP was recognised in 1986 as part of the UNESCO Te Wāhipounamu South West New Zealand World Heritage Area. According to the Draft National Park Management Plan (2018: 25) this recognises “Aoraki, his relations, and their home as an outstanding example of the major stages of the earth's evolutionary history, significant ongoing geological processes, biological evolution, and humanity's interaction with our natural environment; a place containing superlative natural phenomena, formations or features, such as outstanding examples of important ecosystems or areas of exceptional beauty; and important and significant natural habitats where threatened species or plants of outstanding universal value still survive”. The Park provides a diversity of recreational experiences for both domestic and international visitors including walking, camping, boating, scenic flights and air access into the higher alpine and glacial environments for more adventurous pursuits such as climbing, heli-

2. Background and study site Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park (AMCNP) is home to many of New Zealand's highest mountains and largest glaciers, bounded in the west by the central portion of the Southern Alps mountain range (Fig. 1). Spanning over 720 km2 of rugged alpine terrain, 40% of the Park is covered by glaciers, and 19 of the mountain summits in the Park exceed 3000 m (Pearson, 1986). Aoraki/Mount Cook (hereafter Aoraki), is the highest peak in New Zealand at 3724 m a.s.l. This iconic mountain used to be higher, but in late 1991 a major rock fall lowered the highest peak, initially by 10 m (Chinn, McSaveney, & McSaveney, 1992), with a further 20 m reduction overtime due to erosion and settling of the summit ice cap (Sirguey, Cullen, Hager, & Vivero, 2014). New Zealand has over 3100 glaciers, with a combined ice volume of approximately 41 km3 (Baumann et al., 2017; Willsman, 2017). The Tasman Glacier, containing one-third of the country's total ice volume (Chinn, 2001) is by far the largest glacier in New Zealand, but there are 2

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

H. Purdie, et al.

Fig. 1. Location map. A. Location of the Aoraki Mount Cook National Park (AMCNP) in the South Island of New Zealand. B. AMCNP boundary (red), including some of the large valley glaciers within and adjacent to the Park. C. Aoraki Mount Cook (the mountain) and the three main glaciers associated with tourism activities within the park: Tasman, Hooker and Mueller. Circled numbers correspond to survey sites listed in Table 1. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

10 m respectively. In general, error increases as lake size increases and so varies between glaciers and between years.

hiking, heli-skiing and hunting (Department of Conservation, 2018). According to recent figures, visitation to the Park has shown an increase of nearly 40% from 2015/16 to 2016/17, when annual visitor numbers exceeded 800,000. Visitor numbers are predicted to double (to over 1.5 million) by the late 2020s. Overseas visitors account for 64% of all people visiting AMCNP, compared to 36% of visits by New Zealanders. China was the primary origin of visitors over the last two years, followed by visitors from Australia (Department of Conservation, 2018). AMCNP has a unique relationship with aircraft and aviation. In 1955 Harry Wigely became the first person in the world to land a plane with a retractable ski, a feat he undertook on the Tasman Glacier (Department of Lands and Survey, 1986). Since those pioneering beginnings, ski-planes and helicopters have become common transport methods for people wanting to experience the Park, and today aircraft are used for scenic flights, snow landings, heli-skiing, heli-hiking and positioning recreationists, as well as supporting wild animal control and servicing park infrastructure (Department of Conservation, 2018).

3.2. Quantitative visitor surveys In order to learn about visitors’ experiences and perceptions of glaciers and climate change at AMCNP, a researcher-administered survey was used to gather data from a range of people accessing the Park. The sample included: 1. Visitors to front-country zones including the village area and surrounding walking tracks; 2. Visitors accessing the glaciers as clients on commercially guided tours; and 3. Backcountry recreationalists seeking more remote setting within the Park and/or who had undertaken outdoor activities in AMCNP over many years. In total, 400 surveys were completed with English-speaking visitors over two ten-day periods during the summer of 2016/17 (Table 1) (Hughes Hutton, 2017). Following the approach of Stewart et al. (2016) at nearby Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers (Fig. 1), these dates were chosen to ensure the inclusion of both domestic and international visitors by incorporating the New Zealand summer holiday period. These surveys collected information on demographic characteristics, activities undertaken, awareness and experience of AMCNP glaciers, expectation and satisfaction levels of various aspects of the Park and visitors’ general attitude towards climate change. Questions which sought responses about perceptions or opinions utilised standard 7-point Likert scales. Survey sites (Table 1) were selected in consultation with Department of Conservation (DOC), the government agency who regulate and manage people and activities within AMCNP. The visitor survey was also available online for respondents who did not want to complete it with the researcher on-site. However, this option was poorly utilised. Our on-site survey method is subject to several common limitations associated with conducting visitor surveys in dynamic outdoor settings with diverse visitor populations and activity types. For instance, surveying was limited to those visitors with sufficient English language fluency to complete the survey, thereby omitting some international visitors, including many Chinese visitors – the most common visitor origin for those visiting the Park. Inclement weather also disrupted surveying on walking tracks at times, although the DOC Visitor Centre provided a useful substitute on these occasions. Inevitably, some

3. Methods Following Stewart et al. (2016), a mixed methods approach is adopted, combining geophysical data, visitor surveys and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders. 3.1. Geophysical change relating to ice loss Focusing on the three large debris-covered valley glaciers that form a central hub around many of the visitor activities in AMCNP (namely the Tasman, Hooker and Mueller Glaciers), we combine previously published surveys of glacier thinning (Purdie & Kerr, 2018) with updated data of terminus retreat and proglacial lake development (this study). Historic aerial photographs and contemporary satellite imagery (Landsat and Sentinel) are combined in a Geographical Information System (GIS), from which rates of change are calculated. Ten images spanning 1976–2018 were used to digitise glacier lake area thereby creating a time series of lake expansion and terminus retreat. Following the method of Carisio (2012) we estimated the total lake area error as a combination of total measurable uncertainty and potential variability error. The spatial resolution for Landsat and Sentinel data are 30 m and 3

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

H. Purdie, et al.

Table 1 Sites used for visitor surveys. Site

28 Dec- 6 Jan

8–17 Feb

Rational

1. Tasman Valley 2. Hooker Valley

26 25

18 23

3. Sealy Tarns

–

28

4. Mueller Hut

–

40

5. DOC Visitor Centre

143

84

6. Unwin Lodge

6

5

Online Totals

– 200

2 200

Tasman Glacier View Point. Location where visitors have taken a short walk (10 min) to view the Tasman Glacier End of the Hooker Valley Track on the shores of the Hooker Lake. This is one of the most popular walks in the Park, taking the average person approximately 2 h to reach the lake (4 h round trip) A spectacular alpine view point. With 2200 steps it is a more strenuous walk for day visitors and so likely to attract a different type of visitor compared to the Tasman and Hooker walks Usually done as an overnight hike this hut situated at 1800 m a.s.l., attracting those keen to climb up and spend more time in the mountains The key information site in AMCNP and where visitors complete intentions if travelling back-country. The centre contains a range of displays, a retail shop, and is well utilized - especially on rainy days. Accommodation lodge owned and operated by the New Zealand Alpine Club and generally utilised by mountaineers before/ after trips. A QR (quick-response) code and website was provided to give people the option of completing the survey at a later time.

that time. While the Hooker and Mueller Lake have undergone a relatively steady areal expansion over the years (Fig. 3), Tasman Lake went through a period of very rapid expansion in the mid to late 2000s, associated with periodic buoyancy of the glacier terminus due to increasing lake depth (Dykes, Brook, Robertson, & Fuller, 2011). The development of these lakes resulted in new visitor activities (e.g. boat tours and kayak tours), and visitors can also at times see impressive icebergs in the lakes. However, lake enlargement has also has meant that the terminus of the Hooker and Tasman Glacier are 2.5 and 5.5 km away from their respective (lake shore) visitor viewing points. In addition (and related) to the development of the terminal lakes is the ongoing downwasting or thinning of the ice along the lower glacier tongues. Repeat surveys of surface elevation, dating back to the early 1880s show that the Tasman Glacier has thinned by 200 m (Purdie & Kerr, 2018) (Fig. 3). This indicates significant loss of ice volume over time (Chinn et al., 2012). Similar rates of thinning have occurred at Mueller and Hooker Glaciers, and although these glaciers have not been subject to the same level of surface elevation analysis, the loss of ice volume is very apparent when comparing historic and contemporary photographs (Fig. 4A). The loss of ice volume has impacted some recreation access into the mountains of AMCNP (Purdie & Kerr, 2018). Climbers now need to descend the steep unstable moraine walls (as shown in Fig. 4B) in order to access the glaciers. Slope stability is also undermined by slumping moraine and incision of side streams, further compromising safe recreation access to these areas. In addition to the geophysical measurements of change in the Park, perceptions of geophysical change were also reported by key informants who reflected on their time living and working in AMCNP. Some, for example, remembered being able to go ice climbing on the Mueller Glacier near the first swing bridge (Fig. 4) (Alpinist 2). Another respondent (Alpinist 1) conveyed a sense of loss, describing how they took their children to see the glacier and wondered “if their kids will see the same stuff, because it is definitely different to when I came here twenty years ago”.

respondents’ visits coincided with very wet weather, limiting their experience to the Visitor Centre, and thereby compromising their ability to answer glacier-specific questions in the survey. Summarising key demographics of the survey participants revealed that one third of the visitors to AMCNP were aged 20–29 years (35%, n = 139), and a quarter were aged 50 years or older, with a relatively even split between female and male participants. As expected, the majority were international visitors (74%), and so consequently most (76%) were first-time visitors. More than half (59%) of visitors reported they were spending one day or less in AMCNP (Hughes Hutton, 2017). 3.3. Semi-structured interviews Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were undertaken with twelve key informants selected on the basis of their association with AMCNP or their involvement with tourism and recreation. This sample included planners and managers from DOC, scientists, tour operators and professional and recreational alpinists (Hughes Hutton, 2017). All but one informant had an association with AMCNP of at least 20 years duration, and seven had been associated with the park for 40 + years. Interviewees were asked questions about their connection to AMCNP, the importance of the Park (personally and professionally), their views on tourism/recreation and visitor experience, change over time, and their perspectives on future planning and management. Interviews generally took 30–60 min to complete. The interviews were digitally recorded and later transcribed in full. Interviews were analysed by searching for consistent emerging themes (Lofland & Lofland, 2006). To ensure anonymity, any quotations drawn from the key informant interviews were assigned to broad descriptors, for example, Tour Operator, Park Manager, Scientist, and Alpinist. 4. Results The research results first outline key geophysical change at AMCNP, before describing and discussing the effects of change on the visitor experience of the Park.

4.2. The nature of tourism, recreation, and visitor experience in AMCNP The most commonly reported reasons influencing decisions to visit AMCNP (Fig. 5) were ‘being close to nature’, ‘to witness Aoraki Mount Cook itself’, and to ‘experience a sense of discovery’. These visitor responses aligned well with the perceptions of the key informants, who expected that most front-country visitors came to the Park to see the mountainous landscape and in particular - Aoraki (e.g. Alpinist 1, Park Manager 2, Tour Operator 1). Indeed, when asked specifically about ‘the opportunity to witness Aoraki Mount Cook’, more than half of the visitors (56%) rated this as ‘very important’. Of the 400 visitors surveyed more than half (56%) indicated that the opportunity to witness a glacier was important or very important

4.1. Geophysical change relating to ice loss The most notable change to the Tasman, Hooker and Mueller Glaciers since the early 1980s has been the development and continual enlargement of the terminal (proglacial) lakes (Figs. 2 and 3). Proglacial lakes develop from an initial collection of surface melt ponds, which over time connect up into a single body of water. None of these glaciers had terminal lakes in the late 1970s, but rapid disintegration of ice in their terminal regions in the early 1980s (Hochstein et al., 1995, 1998) meant that by 1986, all three glaciers had developed proglacial lakes, although the Mueller Lake was very small and fragmentary at 4

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

H. Purdie, et al.

Fig. 2. Development and expansion of the Mueller, Hooker and Tasman Glacier lakes over time. Images are from Landsat with 1976 Landsat 2, 1990 Landsat 5 and 2018 Landsat 8 all available from the United States Geological Survey at http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/.

(Fig. 5), although many reported not being aware of glacial lakes and icebergs prior to their visit. The majority (80%) of visitors surveyed had seen a glacier before, with many having previously visited the Fox and/ or Franz Josef Glaciers. Although most visitors were aware of the glaciers in AMCNP prior to their trip, and more than half recalled seeing at least one glacier during their trip, some people who completed the survey at the Hooker Valley site (Table 1) were unaware that they had been looking at the Hooker Glacier at the head of the lake. When asked about whether or not they had seen any images of the glaciers, glacial lakes, and icebergs prior to their visit, more than half said they had not. The Hooker Valley Track was the most popular reported activity (62%) undertaken by respondents, which is not surprising as on a good weather day, this track provides sensational views of Aoraki. The next most popular track was the Tasman Glacier View point (43%). In addition to freedom walking, there are a number of commercial activities offered to visitors including; glacier lake tours (power boats and kayaks), scenic flights, glacier heli-hiking, 4WD/Argo vehicle tours, and guided hiking (Fig. 6). Commercial tourists proved to be the most difficult to survey, a factor influenced in part by the permitted survey locations. Of the 19 surveyed, nine had done a boat tour on Tasman Glacier Lake, five a scenic flight, and four a helicopter flight with a snow-landing or glacier hike.

Interviews with the key informants provided additional information on the historical significance of AMCNP in relation to tourism and recreation, especially in regards to it being the “pre-eminent climbing area of New Zealand” (Conservation Planner) and reflections on the role that mountaineering has played in the history of tourism and recreation in AMCNP. Key informants also noted the importance of the glaciers to backcountry and mountain access (Conservation planner, Park Manager 1), and how “commercial activities would be severely depleted without the glacier” (Alpinist 1). 4.3. Implications of climate change on tourism and recreation Although all the key informants were well aware of glacial change in the park, they were generally speculative about whether or not visitors would be aware of the changes, especially since many visitors were experiencing the Park for the first time. “Put it this way, the majority of them wouldn't [perceive change] because most of them are here for, at the most, a two-day experience and it may be the only time that they visit. People who are coming back here, who are regular uses, would be well aware of it” (Park Manager 1). Glacier recession was highlighted as a key factor in increasingly difficult mountain access, and an increase in the number of Fig. 3. Geophysical change at some debris-covered glaciers in AMCNP including: ice thinning as recorded by surface elevation transects 1880–2017 on Tasman Glacier (solid black line); and expanding area of proglacial lakes at Tasman (black dashed line), Hooker (grey dotted line) and Mueller (grey dashed line) glaciers 1980 to present. Data for the Tasman surface elevation transects from Purdie & Kerr (2018).

5

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

H. Purdie, et al.

Fig. 4. Changes in ice volume of large (Mueller) and small (Te Waewae/Stocking) glaciers in AMCNP between A: 1915 (photo Reference: 1/2-007550-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand,/records/23028552); and B: 2018 (photo H. Purdie).

mountaineers flying onto as opposed to walking into, the high alpine huts (Alpinist 1, Park Manager 1 and 3). However a cultural shift was also noted, with changing work patterns meaning people have less time (Park Manager 1) and so climbers are making “very short, quite targeted trips as opposed to the longer ones” (Conservation Planner), with more reliance on aircraft access. When asked for their views about what would happen to glaciers in AMCNP within the next 20 years, an expectation of ongoing recession with consequent expansion of the proglacial lakes was a common theme (e.g. Park Manager 1, 2, 3, Tour Operator 2). Despite not necessarily having a previous experience with which to compare, 70 per cent of visitors surveyed thought that the glaciers would recede significantly in the next two decades. Visitors also had a strong awareness of climate change with the majority associating it with human activity, but also identifying that natural processes contributed in some capacity. The 230 participants who reported having seen at least one glacier during their visit were asked to indicate their expectation and satisfaction of that experience ranking glacier size, appearance of the ice and how spectacular overall the glacier was using the 7-point Likert scale. Around 60 per cent of respondents noted that the glacier was not as big as they had expected, and half (50%) had expected the ice to look cleaner. Despite this, a majority of respondents (56%) were still satisfied with their experience. Reflecting on how visitors might perceive the glaciers, key informants highlighted differences between the iconic Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers in Westland Tai Poutini National Park with those in AMCNP, noting that visitors to AMCNP may be disappointed that they cannot get as close to the ice and in many cases the ice is not

as white (Conservation Planner, Park Manager 2). Importantly, of the survey respondents who indicated that they had seen images of the glacier(s) or glacial lake icebergs prior to their visit (n = 166) over half (59%) thought that the images accurately portrayed the current condition of the glacier(s). In addition to retreating glaciers, the issue of reduced snowfall was highlighted by some interviewees, with the notion that reduced snowfall could shorten the climbing season for both recreational and professional climbers (Alpinist 1). Less snow also impacts snow-landing sites for helicopters and especially ski-planes, with one informant noting that “Landing options have been severely limited at times because of the warmer years …. landing on snow away from the glaciers has got narrower as the snow has disappeared more quickly and earlier” (Tour Operator 3). 4.4. Adaptation and response to change Two key climate-related challenges currently facing park managers at AMCNP are the pressure on infrastructure and the increase in helicopter activity. For example, Hooker Hut became inaccessible due to ongoing thinning of the Hooker Glacier and so was recently removed (Park Manager 1). Other huts have been destroyed by avalanche, and there is concern over ground stability at other some hut sites (Alpinist 2). As already highlighted, deteriorating foot-access has seen an increase in the use of helicopters to access high-alpine areas, adding to the already high demand for scenic flights. It was noted that previous aircraft landing numbers were “the point at which we were starting to

Fig. 5. The reasons that survey participants identified as important in their decision to visit AMCNP (n = 400). 6

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

H. Purdie, et al.

Fig. 6. Selection of commercial activities offered in Aoraki Mount Cook National Park. A. Scenic flight with snow landings, B. Argo tours Tasman Valley, C. Tasman Glacier lake boat tours, D. Helihiking on the Tasman Glacier. Photos A-C courtesy of Aoraki Mount Cook Alpine Village (AMCAV) Ltd, and D Southern Alps Guiding Ltd.

5. Discussion

hit that annoyance level trigger” (Conservation Planner), but that in future “we might allow aircraft where we haven't before for climber access” (Park Manager 2), and that “air access is the key to still using the glacier” (Park Manager 3). As tourist numbers continue to grow there is an acknowledgement that there is no longer a low-season in the park (Park Manager 3), and that spatial boundaries are changing with front-country visitors now starting to seek more remote backcountry experiences, often without adequate experience: “we are starting to see more people flying into some of the other huts and doing overnighters there who aren't climbers and skiers” (Conservation Planner). The commercial glacier boat tours, developed in response to glacial retreat back in the early 1990s (Purdie, 2013), are now having to deal with “the lake getting bigger and bigger … and not as much ice in the lake” (Park Manager 2), as the expanding water body becomes warmer meaning that any icebergs in the lake tend to melt faster (Scientist 1). Of the 400 visitors surveyed, only around half (51%) indicated that the opportunity to learn about the impacts of climate change on glaciers was an important factor in their decision to visit the Park. Even so, the positive role of geotourism and school group education by DOC was highlighted during interviews, with a recognition that teaching people about the environment and how it is changing is becoming increasingly important (Conservation Planner, Alpinist 2). Interestingly, one respondent recognised the inherent paradox, “and we get a benefit by educating them, by getting them to see it, but we are using a huge carbon footprint to get them in there to do that” (Alpinist1). There was much discussion around the management strategies that need to be implemented in AMCNP in order to adapt to climate change and increasing tourist numbers, although it was noted that some strategies are incredibly difficult to put into practice. For example, when discussing the management of the glaciers a park manager highlighted the need to “deal with the numbers and … to deal with availability of access to a resource that may be shrinking in time” (Park Manager 1). The current (and ongoing) review of the AMCNP Management Plan (2018) was seen as a potential avenue for addressing many of the challenges: “it is all to do with the management plan review …. .we will have to be more flexible in the future and I think the plan has got to give us at an operational level to do stuff which the current plan hasn't been able to do” (Park Manager 2).

5.1. Change over time Aoraki the mountain is the key drawcard for visitors to the Park, and despite the lowering of the highest peak due to a rock avalanche in 1991 (Chinn et al., 1992), the classic ‘post-card’ view of Aoraki from the Hooker Valley has remained unchanged. Conversely, significant glacier thinning and the expansion of large pro-glacial lakes are striking features of change that are affecting visitor experience in AMCNP. The opportunity to see glaciers and glacial lakes with icebergs was identified as very important to visitors, but visitor view-points for the three large debris-covered valley glaciers are now at least 2 km further away from the glacier termini than they were in the 1980s. Two of these view-points (Mueller and Tasman) have interpretation panels (Fig. 7), which provide visitors with information and context about how the landscape has changed. Interpretation panels are noted as the most popular means of geo-interpretation providing they are well designed, well located and include concise clear text and simple diagrams (Migoń, 2018). The fact that no interpretation panel is present at the Hooker Valley view point may have contributed to some visitors being at that location but unaware they were actually looking at a glacier. Understandably, visitor satisfaction with the size and appearance of the glaciers in AMCNP is inherently linked to their expectations, and expectations are modulated by the various images and advertising material that people see prior to a trip (Wilson, Stewart, Espiner, & Purdie, 2014, pp. 1–118). Despite the increasing distance that visitors are from the glacier termini in AMCNP, just over half were still satisfied with their glacier experience. However, the majority of visitors were seeing the Park for the first time, meaning they would likely accept the conditions they encountered as normal (Shelby & Heberlein, 1987). This was in contrast to a study of visitor perception at Forni Glacier in the Italian Alps where many of the visitors returned to the site at least once per year, and so consequently were acutely aware that the glacier was getting thinner and shorter (Garavaglia, Diolaiuti, Smiraglia, Pasquale, & Pelfini, 2012). Garavaglia et al. (2012) also found that the location from which visitors were viewing the alpine landscape influenced their perception of change; closer to the glacier, people were more conscious of change processes, although the authors noted that the skill level required to get 7

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

H. Purdie, et al.

Fig. 7. Examples of interpretation in the Park. A. Visitors read an interpretation panel at the Tasman Glacier view point (photo H. Purdie), B. Glacier Explorers guide providing visitors with an illustrative story about the ice (photo AMCAV Ltd), C. Managing visitor expectations using interpretation panels in Franz Josef Glacier valley (photo H. Purdie), D. The call to action, a new innovative interpretation panel in the Franz Josef Glacier valley (photo Glacier Valley Eco Tours).

aircraft activity (Espiner & Wilson, 2013). This was the first time that the 25 per cent threshold for management intervention had been exceeded (Department of Conservation, 2001, ammendment 2014). Increased aircraft usage as a solution to deteriorating alpine accessibility highlighted complex tensions, especially for those who rely on mountain access for their business, but also for those who recreate in the mountains. The apparent contradiction of flying people into the mountains while talking with visitors about climate change was noted by Alpinists interviewed. Eijgelaar, Thaper, and Peeters (2010) explored this paradox in the context of Antarctic cruise-ship tourism, finding that very high levels of greenhouse gas emissions are generated with no evidence to support the hypothesis that such trips increased people's environmental awareness. Likewise, Hall and Saarinen (2010) found that the broader effects of geotourism-related travel, like for example, emissions associated with air travel, have been ignored. However, changing climatic conditions may present opportunities for tourism to become smarter and more sustainable (Becken, 2013), provided there is a willingness and capacity to expand and diversify products (Stewart et al., 2016). Such diversification has already occurred at AMCNP with the development of lake-based visitor activities (Purdie, 2013; Wilson, Purdie, Stewart, & Espiner, 2015). In addition to diversification by tourist providers, tourists themselves have the ability to substitute the place and timing of holidays, giving them large adaptive capacity to climate change (Gössling, Scott, Hall, Ceron, & Dubois, 2012). Therefore understanding tourist perceptions and responses to change is essential to any anticipation of seasonal or geographic shifts in tourism demand (Becken, 2013). In AMCNP, the National Park Management Plan, which at the time of writing (2019) remains under review, is seen as the key management mechanism for responding to climate change because it is the policy which controls park infrastructure, commercial activities, and how people move about within the Park boundaries (Department of Conservation, 2018). It will be through a public submission processes that issues such as increased helicopter usage will be debated (Department of Conservation, nd).

closer may indeed self-select those who are more aware of the mountain environment and how it is changing. Similarly, Pröbstl-Haider et al. (2016) reported that mountain tourists in Austria may be more aware of climate change than other outdoor recreationists – at least in part due to their frequent visits to affected sites and exposure to changing environmental conditions, including receding glaciers. As the large valley glaciers of New Zealand's Aoraki Mount Cook National Park have retreated into large proglacial lakes, the glacier trunks have also been thinning, with over 200 m of surface lowering recorded on the Tasman Glacier, and similar levels of down-wasting seen at the Mueller and Hooker Glaciers. For mountaineers and backcountry users, this ice thinning makes foot access into the high mountain huts more difficult as people need to descend steep, loose moraine walls in order to access the glacier (Pröbstl-Haider et al., 2016; Purdie & Kerr, 2018; Ritter et al., 2012). Key informants also highlighted this as a key issue driving an increase in the use of helicopters to access the mountains. In addition to glacier access, reduced snow cover was another change highlighted by key informants. In years with a thinner seasonal snow cover, the climbing season is shorter due to the earlier exposure of crevasses, which make glacier travel and mountain access more difficult and dangerous, an issue also common to the European Alps (Ritter et al., 2012). The thinner seasonal snow cover was also reported to impact aircraft landing sites, especially ski plane landing sites, as they become unusable when the snow melts off exposing the rough and broken glacier surface. 5.2. Adaptation to change Climate change is presenting new and difficult challenges for the future management of protected areas worldwide (De Urioste-Stone, Le, Scaccia, & Wilkins, 2016; Lemieux, Beechey, & Gray, 2011; Poudyal, 2015). One of the most immediate and potentially contentious adaptations to shrinking glaciers and deteriorating mountain access has been the increased use of aircraft, in particular, helicopters. This adaptation was formalised in neighbouring Westland Tai Poutini National Park in 2013 in response to deteriorating foot access to the iconic Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers, when additional flights were permitted to glacier heli-hike sites (Department of Conservation, 2014). Subsequent monitoring of levels of annoyance to visitors from aircraft over-flights found that 26 per cent of visitors walking along the main valley floor felt annoyed by the

5.3. Implications for geotourism As glacier termini have receded from key tourist view-points and the space in between occupied by growing proglacial lakes, geotourism 8

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

H. Purdie, et al.

activities could become an increasingly important link between people and the changing environment. Interestingly, our results found that only around half of the people surveyed indicated that an important aspect of their visit was to learn more about climate change, even though 70 per cent of respondents expected the glaciers to recede in the near future. Indeed Thompson-Carr (2012) found that many visitors’ experiences could be viewed as superficial given that their primary focus was on sightseeing as opposed to connecting with the environment, even though an element of learning may occur. Visitor and school group education provided by DOC in AMCNP was highlighted as a key asset in improving knowledge, as too was the role that local guides (e.g. tour guides/mountain guides) have in educating visitors about environmental change. Guided tours are recognised as the most powerful geo-interpretation tool (Migoń, 2018). Guides directly interact with their clients, they can provide context, share stories and answer questions, giving visitors a personalised experience. Farsani, de Carvalho, and Xu (2018) identified good tour guides as people who do not just lecture, rather, they encourage participation in the learning process. However, this personalised interaction is resource intensive to provide (Migoń, 2018). Being able to manage more visitors while still achieving conservation goals (often with reduced budgets), is an increasing challenge for park managers, and one which can blur boundaries between interpretation and marketing (Archer & Wearing, 2002). Effective interpretation can not only enrich the visitors experience, but if combined with marketing, can also manage visitor expectations and behaviour (Fig. 7), both during and after the visit (Archer & Wearing, 2002). De Urioste-Stone et al. (2015), following a study of visitor perceptions of climate change at Acadia National Park in Maine, suggested that enhanced public understanding of regional climate effects had potential to contribute to resource stewardship and mitigation strategies. One recent New Zealand example of glacier-based visitor interpretation aimed at environmental behaviour change is the initiative adopted in Westland Tai Poutini National Park, where new interpretation panels (Fig. 7D) in the Fox and Franz Josef Glacier valleys aim to improve the visitor experience but also attempt to stimulate sustainable lifestyle choices (Davies, Lindsay, McLean, Sullivan, & Tennant, 2015).

References Anderson, B. (2016). Alpine agency: Locals, mountaineers and tourism in the Eastern Alps c.1860-1914. Rural History, 27, 61–78. Archer, D., & Wearing, S. (2002). Interpretation and marketing as management tools in national parks: Insights from Australia. Journal of Leisure Property, 2, 29–39. Baumann, S., Anderson, B., Mackintosh, A., Lorrey, A., Chinn, T., Collier, C., et al. (2017). Updating the New Zealand glacier inventory. New Orleans: American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting Dec. Becken, S. (2013). A review of tourism and climate change as an evolving knowledge domain. Tourism Management Perspectives, 6, 53–62. Bolch, T., Kulkarni, A., Kääb, A., Huggel, C., Paul, F., Cogley, J. G., et al. (2012). The state and fate of Himalayan glaciers. Science, 336, 310–314. Bowie, N. (1969). Mick bowie: The hermitage years. Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed. Bürki, R., Elsasser, H., Abegg, B., & Koenig, U. (2005). Climate change and tourism in the Swiss Alps. In M. Hall, & J. Higham (Eds.). Tourism, recreation and climate change (pp. 155–163). Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Carisio, S. P. (2012). Evaluating areal errors in Northern Cascade glacier inventories. USA: MSc thesis: University of Delaware. Carrivick, J. L., & Tweed, F. S. (2013). Proglacial lakes: Character, behaviour and geological importance. Quaternary Science Reviews, 78, 34–52. Chinn, T. J. (2001). Distribution of the glacial water resources of New Zealand. Journal of Hydrology, 40, 139–187. Chinn, T. J., McSaveney, M. J., & McSaveney, E. R. (1992). The Mount Cook rock avalanche of 14 December 1991. Wellington: DSIR Geology and Geophysics. Chinn, T. J., Salinger, J., Fitzharris, B., & Willsman, A. (2012). Annual ice volume changes 1976-2008 for the New Zealand Southern Alps. Global and Planetary Change, 92–93, 105–118. Davies, C., Lindsay, J., McLean, S., Sullivan, O., & Tennant, M. (2015). Engaging visitors to the Fox and Franz Valleys on global climate change and glacial retreat using interpretation boards. Department of Geography, University of Canterburyhttps://www.canterbury. ac.nz/media/documents/oexp-science/geography/community-engagement/geog309/2015/Engaging-visitors-in-the-glacial-valleys-using-interpretation-boards.pdf, Accessed date: 18 December 2018. Dawson, J., & Scott, D. (2013). Managing for climate change in the alpine ski sector. Tourism Management, 35, 244–254. De Urioste-Stone, S. M., Le, L., Scaccia, M. D., & Wilkins, E. (2016). Nature-based tourism and climate change risk: Visitors' perceptions in mount desert island, Maine. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 13, 57–65. De Urioste-Stone, S. M., Scaccia, M. D., & Howe-Poteet, D. (2015). Exploring visitor perceptions of the influence of climate change on tourism at Acadia National Park, Maine. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 11, 34–43. Deline, P., Gruber, S., Delaloye, R., Fisher, L., Geertsema, m., Giardino, M., et al. (2015). Ice loss and slope stability in high-mountain regions. In W. Haeberli, & C. Whiteman (Eds.). Snow and ice-related hazards, risks, and disasters (pp. 521–561). Amsterdam: Elsevier. Department of Conservation nd Statutory plan consultations. https://www.doc.govt.nz/ about-us/our-policies-and-plans/statutory-plans/statutory-plan-consultations/, Accessed date: 18 December 2018. Department of Conservation (2001). Westland Tai Poutini national park management plan 2001-2011. West coast conservancy management plan series No. 3, Hokitika. Department of Conservation Te Papa Atawhai. Department of Conservation (2014). Westland Tai Poutini national park management plan 2001-2011. Avaliable from https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/our-policiesand-plans/statutory-plans/statutory-plan-publications/national-park-management/ westland-tai-poutini/. Department of Conservation (2018). Aoraki/Mount Cook national park management plan (Draft)Christchurch, New Zealand: Department of Conservation 187. Department of Lands and Survey (1986). The story of Mount Cook national park. Auckland: Department of Lands and Survey. Dowling, R., & Newsome, D. (2010). Geotourism: A global activity. In R. K. Dowling, & D. Newsome (Eds.). Global Geotourism Perspectives, e-book (pp. 1–17). Goodfellow Publishers Ltd. Dowling, R., & Newsome, D. (2018). Geotourism: Definition, characteristics and international perspectives. In R. Dowling, & D. Newsome (Eds.). Handbook of geotourism (pp. 1–22). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. Dykes, R., Brook, M., Robertson, C., & Fuller, I. (2011). Twenty-first century calving retreat of Tasman Glacier, Southern Alps, New Zealand. Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research, 43, 1–10. Eijgelaar, E., Thaper, C., & Peeters, P. (2010). Antarctic cruise tourism: The paradoxes of ambassadorship, "last chance tourism" and greenhouse gas emissions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18, 337–354. Espiner, S., & Wilson, J. (2013). The visitor experience at Franz Josef Glacier, Westland Tai Poutini national park, New Zealand. Hokitika, New Zealand: A report prepared for the Department of Conservation. Farsani, N. T., de Carvalho, C. N., & Xu, K. (2018). Education as a key tenet of geotourism. In R. Dowling, & D. Newsome (Eds.). Handbook of geotourism (pp. 234–243). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. Fischer, L., Huggel, C., Kääb, A., & Haeberli, W. (2013). Slope failures and erosion rates on a glacerized high-montain face under climate changes. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 38, 836–846. Fischer, A., Olefs, M., & Abermann, J. (2011). Glaciers, snow and ski tourism in Austria's changing climate. Annals of Glaciology, 52, 89–96. Garavaglia, V., Diolaiuti, G., Smiraglia, C., Pasquale, V., & Pelfini, M. (2012). Evaluating tourist perception of environmental changes as a contribution to managing natural

Conclusions This study explored the implications of climate-driven change for visitor experience at Aoraki Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand. Combining geophysical measurement of change with the documented experiences of visitors and key informants, it was found that there was a strong awareness of glacier recession and climate change, and the majority of people surveyed acknowledged the contribution of human activity to global warming. Rapid glacial recession has changed the ways in which people experience the glaciers, but despite increasing distances to glacier termini, visitors on the whole were satisfied with their glacier experience. Increased reliance on aircraft to access the mountains and glaciers in the Park, a response to the shrinking snow and ice volume, has been a key adaptive strategy, but one which is not without contention. Opportunities to strengthen geo-interpretation and encourage sustainable behaviours were identified as complementary to existing park management practices. Landscape elements in AMCNP have and will continue to change as global climate warms. Connecting visitors to the environment in a way that instils a sense of stewardship that permeates their wider lives, is an opportunity for the tourism sector to make a positive contribution to a more sustainable future. Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank all the participants who were involved in the research, and staff from the Department of Conservati, Aoraki Mount Cook for their support and encouragement. Thanks to Lincoln University for the financial support of Jessica Hughes Hutton. 9

Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29 (2020) 100235

H. Purdie, et al.

Franz Josef and Fox glaciers, New Zealand: Historic length records. Global and Planetary Change, 121, 41–52. Purdie, H., Espiner, S., & Gomez, C. (2018). Geotourism and risk: A case study of rockfall hazard at Fox glacier, New Zealand. In R. Dowling, E. Cowan, & D. Newsome (Eds.). Handbook of geotourism (pp. 139–151). Cheltenham, United Kingdom: Edward Elgar Publishing. Purdie, H., Gomez, C., & Espiner, S. (2015). glacier recession and increased rockfall hazard: Implications for glacier tourism. New Zealand Geographer, 71, 189–202. Purdie, H., & Kerr, T. (2018). Aoraki Mount Cook: Environmental change on an iconic mountaineering route. Mountain Research and Development, 38 (4), 364-379. Rabatel, A., Francou, B., Soruco, A., Gomez, J., Cáceres, B., Ceballos, J. L., et al. (2013). Current state of glaciers in the tropical andes: A multi-century perspectiver on glacier evolution and climate change. The Cryosphere, 7, 81–102. Radić, V., & Hock, R. (2011). Regionally differentiated contribution of mountain glaciers and ice caps to future sea-level rise. Nature Geoscience, 4, 1–15. Reynard, E., & Coratza, P. (2016). The importance of mountain geomorphosites for environmental education: Examples from the Italian Dolomites and the Swiss Alps. Acta Geographica Slovenica, 56, 291–303. Richins, H., Johnsen, S., & Hull, J. S. (2016). Overview of mountain tourism: Substantive nature, historical context, areas of focus. In H. Richins, & J. S. Hull (Eds.). Mountain Tourism: Experiences, communities, environments and sustainable futures, online (pp. 1– 12). CABI. Ritter, F., Fiebig, M., & Muhar, A. (2012). Impacts of global warming on mountaineering: A classification of phenomena affecting the alpine trail network. Mountain Research and Development, 32, 4–15. Rutty, M., Scott, D., Johnson, P., Jover, E., Pons, M., & Steiger, R. (2015). Behavioural adaptation of skiers to climatic variability and change in Ontario, Canada. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 11, 13–21. Scott, D., Gössling, S., & Hall, M. C. (2012). International tourism and climate change. WIREs Climate Change, 3, 213–323. Shelby, B., & Heberlein, T. A. (1987). Carrying capacity in recreation settings. Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Oregon State University Press. Sirguey, P., Cullen, N. J., Hager, T., & Vivero, S. (2014). The contribution of photogrammetry, GIS and geovisualistion to the determination of the height of Aoraki/Mt Cook. In A. Moore, B. Whyte, & I. Drecki (Eds.). GeroCart 2014 and ICA symposium on cartography, 3-5 september, auckland (pp. 129–133). New Zealand. Smiraglia, C., Diolaiuti, G., Pelfini, M., Belò, M., Citterio, M., Carnielli, T., et al. (2008). Glacier changes and their impacts on mountain tourism. In B. Orlove, E. Wiegandt, & B. Luckman (Eds.). Darkening peaks: Glacier retreat, science, and society (pp. 206–215). Berkeley: University of California Press. Stewart, E. J., Wilson, J., Espiner, S., Purdie, H., Lemieux, C., & Dawson, J. (2016). Implications of climate change for glacier tourism. Tourism Geographies, 18, 377–398. Thompson-Carr, A. (2012). Aoraki/Mt Cook and the Mackenzie Basin's transition from wilderness to tourist place. Journal of Tourism Consumption and Practice, 4, 30–58. Thompson-Carr, A. (2015). Guided mountaineering. In G. Musa, J. Higham, & A. Thompson-Carr (Eds.). Mountaineering tourism (pp. 85–100). Abingdon, Oxfordshire, England: Routledge. Tourism New Zealand (2016). Regions benefit as tourism confirmed as New Zealand's top export. retrieved on 18 July 2018 from https://www.tourismnewzealand.com/news/ regions-benefit-as-tourism-confirmed-as-new-zealand-s-top-export/ Tourism New Zealand . Welling, J. T., Árnason, þ., & ÓlasfsdottÍr, R. (2015). glacier tourism: A scoping review. Tourism Geographies, 15, 635–662. WGMS (2017). Global glacier change bulletin No. 2 (2014-2015). In M. Zemp,, S. U. Nussbaumer,, I. Gärtner-Roer,, J. Huber,, H. Machguth,, & F. Paul, (Eds.). Zurich, Switzerland: ICSU(WDS)/IUGG(IACS)/UNEP/UNESCO/WMO (pp. 244). World Glacier Monitoring Service. Willsman, A. (2017). Annual glacier ice volumes 1977-2016. Prepared for the Ministry for the Environment, Vol. 20. Dunedin: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd. Wilson, J., Purdie, H., Stewart, E., & Espiner, S. (2015). Environmental change and tourism at Aoraki/Mt Cook national park, LEap report No. 41New Zealand: Lincoln University: Land Environment & People, Lincoln University. Wilson, J., Stewart, E. J., Espiner, S., & Purdie, H. (2014). Last chance tourism at the Franz Josef and Fox glaciers, Westland Tai Poutini national park: A survey of visitor experience. LEaP report No. 33New Zealand: Lincoln University: Land Environment and People, Lincoln University. Zemp, M., Frey, H., Gärtner-Roer, I., Nussbaumer, S. U., Hoelzle, M., Paul, F., et al. (2015). Historically unprecedented global glacier decline in the early 21st century. Journal of Glaciology, 61, 745–762.

resources in glacierized areas: A case study from the Forni Glacier (Stelvio national park, Italian Alps). Environmental Management, 50, 1125–1138. Gilaberte-Búrdalo, M., López-Martín, F., Pino-Otín, M. R., & López-Moreno, J. I. (2014). Impacts of climate chnage on ski industry. Environmental Science & Policy, 44, 51–61. Gobiet, A., Kotlarski, S., Beniston, M., Heinrich, G., Rajczak, J., & Stoffel, M. (2014). 21st century climate chnage in the European Alps - a review. The Science of the Total Environment, 493, 1138–1151. Gössling, S., Scott, D., & Hall, C. M. (2013). Challenges of tourism in a low-carbon economy. WIREs Climate Change, 4, 525–538. Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C. M., Ceron, J.-P., & Dubois, G. (2012). Consumer behaviour and demand response of tourists to climate change. Annals of Tourism Research, 39, 36–58. Hall, C. M., & Saarinen, J. (2010). Geotourism and climate change. Téoros, 29, 77–86. Hewer, M., Scott, D., & Fenech, A. (2016). Seasonal weather sensitivity, temperature thresholds, and climate chnage impacts for park visitation. Tourism Geographies, 18, 297–321. Hochstein, M., Claridge, D., Henrys, S., Pyne, A., Nobes, D., & Leary, S. (1995). Downwasting of the Tasman Glacier, South Island, New Zealand: Changes in the terminus region between 1971 and 1993. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 38, 1–16. Hochstein, M., Watson, M., Malengreau, B., Nobes, D., & Owens, I. F. (1998). Rapid melting of the terminal section of the Hooker Glacier (Mt Cook national park, New Zealand). New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 41, 203–218. Hopkins, D. (2014). The sustainability of climate chnage adaptation strategies in New Zealand's ski industry: A range of stakeholder perceptions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22, 107–126. Hughes Hutton, J. (2017). The implications of climate change for glacier receation and tourism at Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, New ZealandMaster of Applied Science thesisVol. 157. New Zealand: Lincoln University. IPCC (2013). Climate change 2013: The physical science basis, contribution of working group 1 to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. In T. F. Stocker,, D. Qin,, G.-K. Plattner,, M. M. B. Tignor,, S. K. Allen,, & J. Boschung, (Eds.). Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. Lemelin, H., Dawson, J., & Stewart, E. (2012). Last Chance Tourism: Adapting tourism opportunities in a changing world. London: Routledge. Lemieux, C. J., Beechey, T. J., & Gray, P. A. (2011). Prospects for Canada's protected areas in an era of rapid climate change. Land Use Policy, 28, 928–941. Littlewood, M. (2018). Mackenzie visitor number pressures increase. The Timaru Hearld. 9 May, retrieved on, Accessed date: 18 July 2018. Lofland, J., & Lofland, L. H. (2006). Anbalysing social settings. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Luckman, B., & Kavanagh, T. (2000). Impact of climate fluctuations on mountain environments in the Canadian Rockies. Ambio, 29, 371–380. Mackintosh, A. N., Anderson, B. M., Lorrey, A. M., Renwick, J. A., Frei, P., & Dean, S. M. (2017). Regional cooling caused recent New Zealand glacial advances in a period of global warming. Nature Communications, 8, 1–13. Migoń, P. (2018). Geo-interpretation: How and for whom? In R. Dowling, & D. Newsome (Eds.). Handbook of geotourism (pp. 224–233). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. Nepal, S. K. (2011). Mountain tourism and climate chnage: Implications for the Nepal Himalaya. Nepal Tourism & Development Review, 1, 1–14. Orlove, B., Wiegandt, E., & Luckman, B. L. (2008). The place of glaciers in natural and cultural landscapes. In B. Orlove, E. Wiegandt, & B. H. Luckman (Eds.). Darkening peaks: Glacier retreat, science, and society (pp. 3–19). Berkeley: University of California Press. Pearce, D. (1980). Tourist development at Mount Cook since 1884. New Zealand Geographer, 36, 79–84. Pearson, J. (Ed.). (1986). The story of Mount Cook national park. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Lands and Survey. Poudyal, N. C. (2015). Climate change and outdoor recreation: Impacts, adaptation and alternatives. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 11 iii. Pröbstl-Haider, U., Dabrowska, K., & Haider, W. (2016). Risk perception and preferences of mountain tourists in light of glacial retreat and permafrost degradation in the Austrian Alps. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 13, 66–78. Pröbstl-Haider, U., Haider, W., Wirth, V., & Beardmore, B. (2015). Will climate change increase the attractiveness of summer destinations in the European Alps? A survey of German tourists. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 11, 44–57. Purdie, H. (2013). Glacier retreat and tourism: Insights from New Zealand. Mountain Research and Development, 33, 463–472. Purdie, H., Anderson, B., Chinn, T., Owens, I., Mackintosh, A., & Lawson, W. (2014).

10