Non-sulphide zeolite catalyst for bio-jet-fuel conversion

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Non-sulphide zeolite catalyst for bio-jet-fuel conversion ⁎

⁎

M. Shahinuzzamana, , Zahira Yaakoba, , Yunus Ahmedb a Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia b Department of Chemistry, Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET), Chittagong 4349, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O

A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Non-sulphide zeolite Bio-jet fuel Hydrodeoxygenation Greenhouse gases H+-Y Zeolite

In recent years, the production of bio-aviation fuels has received increased attention because of its renewability and environmental benefits. Catalytic hydrocracking is a convenient way to produce bio-jet fuel from vegetable oil. Among the different types of catalysts, sulphided zeolites showed more catalytic activity for bio-fuel conversion. However, the uses of different sulphiding agents in this process causes the emission of H2S gas and exposes the environment to sulphur residues, which are responsible for pollution and the greenhouse effect. Conversely, various non-sulphide zeolite catalysts, such as noble metal supported on ZSM-5, HZSM-5, SAPO11, beta- zeolite, SBA-15 and mesoporous-Y zeolite, also showed considerable activity for bio-fuel conversion. Therefore, it is time to improve the non-sulphide zeolite catalysts for the production of bio-jet fuel to combat fuel recession and mitigate environmental problems. Several good reviews are available on the catalytic conversion of bio-jet fuel. This review is distinct from the previous ones, as it combines most of the previous reviews, illustrates the different supported non-sulphide zeolite-type catalysts and their preparation methods, characteristics and performance in bio-jet fuel production.

1. Introduction At present, jet fuels are the most used commercial and military aviation fuel and mainly come from petroleum [1,2]. The use of aviation transport is rapidly increasing, and every year, it is approximately 5% [3,4]. Therefore, it is notably easy to understand that the demand and cost of jet fuel is also rapidly increasing. The world demand for jet fuel is calculated to increase approximately 38% during the years 2008 to 2025 [5]. The price of jet fuel also increased nearly three times from the year 2004 to the year 2014 [6]. Conversely, petroleum-based aviation fuel have a negative impact on the environment, mainly through the emission of GHG. The amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) emission from using aviation transport fuel is increasing rapidly day by day [7–9]. Sustainability is also another important issue to consider [8,10]. Hence, the development of an alternative and renewable jet fuel is an imminent concern of scientists and also the aviation industry. A renewable jet fuel has benefits that include saving the environment and reducing GHG emission, as well as the economic advantages associated with increased availability and lower fuel cost [11,12]. To date, several researchers have worked for the development of bio-jet fuel from various renewable sources using different processes [13–21]. Among them, the catalytic hydrocracking of vegetable oil is

⁎

one of the major routes to produce bio-jet fuel because of the straight chain alkanes and high cetane number of the product [19,22,23]. Therefore, it is a priority to design the proper catalyst for the hydrocracking of vegetable oil. At present, the conventional catalysts used for the hydrocracking of vegetable oil are mainly sulphided forms of silica- and alumina-supported Ni-Mo, Co-Mo and/or Ni-W [24–28]. Therefore, the use of these catalysts needs the addition of sulphurcontaining compounds, such as H2S or dimethyl disulphide, to maintain the activity of the catalysts. The use of these sulphiding agents causes sulphur residues in the final products, H2S emissions and corrosion problems. Though the supported noble metal catalysts are active, it is not recommended to use them. The rarity and high price of noble metal catalysts has made the process economically unfeasible. Additionally, the noble metal catalysts are very sensitive to catalyst poisons and impurities (such as sulphur, heavy metals and oxygenated compounds) in the feedstock. This property can result in a significant deactivation of the catalysts [29]. The lists of some important review articles for the production of biofuel using zeolite catalyst from the last 15 years (2002–2016) is shown in Table 1. Recently several novel hydrotreating catalyst systems have been developed such as Ni supported by γ-Al2O3, SiO2, HY, HZSM-5, and SAPO-11 [24]. Numerous researchers used sulphide catalyst for the production of biofuels. In 1989 Gusmao and coworkers synthesized sulfided NiMo/γ-

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Shahinuzzaman), [email protected] (Z. Yaakob).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.162 Received 13 March 2016; Received in revised form 11 December 2016; Accepted 28 January 2017 1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Shahinuzzaman, M., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.162

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

M. Shahinuzzaman et al.

WHSV XAS XPS XRD ZSM ZSM-5

Nomenclature AES APTES B BET DTA DSC EDS FFA GHG GHSV HDO HDS HZSM-5 HREM MCM Meso-Y NMR SAXS SEM SSP SBO SAPO SBA TG TCD TPO Ru-Al2O3 REY USYZ

Auger electron spectroscopy 3-Aminopropyl-triethoxysilane Boron Brunauer-Emmett-Teller Differential thermal analysis Differential scanning calorimetry Energy dispersive spectrometer Free fatty acid Greenhouse gases Gas hourly space velocity hydrodeoxygenation Hydrodesulfurization H(+)-exchanged ZSM-5 High-resolution electron microscopy Mobil composition of matter Mesoporous zeolite Y Nuclear magnetic resonance Small-angle X-ray scattering Scanning electron microscope Single-step process Soy bean oil Silico allumino phosphate Santa Barbara Amorphous Thermo-gravimetry Thermal conductivity detector Temperature-programmed oxidation Ruthenium-supported Al2O3 Rare earth-Y zeolite Ultrastable-Y zeolite

Weight hourly space velocity X-ray absorption spectroscopy X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy X-ray diffraction Zeolite socony mobil Zeolite socony mobil # 5

Subscripts cm °C kV g h m P σ α Vp Sp ϱp ϱ Eb hv Ф MPa d nm Å wt

Centimetre Degree celsius Kilo-volt Gram Hour Metre Pressure Surface tension of mercury Contact angle Pore volume Surface area Particle density True density Electron binding energy Photon energy Work function Mega pascle Diameter Nanometer Angstrom Weight

numerous researchers for the hydrotreating of sunflower oil [32], rapeseed oil [33], heavy gas oil with sunflower oil [34], palm oil [35]. Non-edible jatropha oils is a very important source for bio fuels. Various sulphide catalyst such as PtPd/Al2O3, NiMoP/Al2O3 [36];

Al2O3 and Ni/SiO2 catatlyst for hydrocracking of soybean and babassu oils [30]. Da Rocha Filho et al (1993) used the same sulfided NiMo/γAl2O3 for soybean oil and other vegetable oils such as maracuja, tucuma, buriti, and babassu oils [31]. The sulfide NiMo/Al2O3 used Table 1 Review articles for bio-fuel production with zeolite catalysts. Sl. No.

Title of the work

Year

Reference

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

Bio-jet fuel conversion technologies A Review on Processing Technology for biodiesel production Prospects of 2nd generation biodiesel as a sustainable fuel—Part:1, selection of feedstocks, oil extraction techniques and conversion technologies A review on recent advancement in catalytic materials for biodiesel production Aviation biofuel from renewable resources: Routes, opportunities and challenges Comprehensive Review on the Biodiesel Production using Solid Acid Heterogeneous Catalysts Activity of solid acid catalysts for biodiesel production: A critical review Heterogeneous catalysis for sustainable biodiesel production via esterification and transesterification Production of renewable jet fuel range alkanes and commodity chemicals from integrated catalytic processing of biomass Technical review on jet fuel production Recent developments for biodiesel production by ultrasonic assist transesterification using different heterogeneous catalyst: a review The Acidity of Zeolites: Concepts, Measurements and Relation to Catalysis: a Review on Experimental and Theoretical Methods for the Study of Zeolite Acidity Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis: a Review The effects of catalysts in biodiesel production: a review A techno-economic review of hydroprocessed renewable esters and fatty acids for jet fuel production Recent developments on heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production by oil esterification and transesterification reactions: a review Zeolite-catalysed biomass conversion to fuels and chemicals Latest developments on application of heterogeneous basic catalysts for an efficient and eco-friendly synthesis of biodiesel: a review Biodiesel production using heterogeneous catalysts Inorganic heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production from vegetable oils Modern heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production: a comprehensive review Aviation gas turbine alternative fuels: A review Homogeneous, heterogeneous and enzymatic catalysis for transesterification of high free fatty acid oil (waste cooking oil) to biodiesel: a review Biofuels from microalgae—A review of technologies for production, processing, and extractions of biofuels and co-products Solid heterogeneous catalysts for transesterification of triglycerides with methanol: a review Activity of solid catalysts for biodiesel production: A review

2016 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2014 2014 2014 2013 2013 2013

[8] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55]

2013 2013 2013 2012 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2010 2010 2009 2009

[56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69]

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

2

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

M. Shahinuzzaman et al.

groups: Solid catalysts (acidic and basic) and enzymatic catalyst. These catalysts are also divided into several sub-classes, which are given in Fig. 1. According to the preparation procedure, catalysts are of two types: bulk catalysts or supports and impregnated catalysts. In this preparation process, the catalytic active phase is generated as a new solid phase or the active phase is introduced or fixed on a pre-existing solid by a process which intrinsically depends on the support surface [70]. The more usable form of catalyst for the hydro-conversion of vegetable oil is the supported catalyst. Among the homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts, homogeneous catalysts have several disadvantages over heterogeneous [50]. The main one is the production of soap and wastewater because of the presence of higher fatty acids of feed oil (vegetable oil). This results in oil loss, separation problems and ultimately an increase the production cost [45,54,57,71,72]. Homogeneous base catalysts, such as NaOH and KOH, are naturally hygroscopic and dangerous to the environment, whereas the heterogeneous catalyst is more suitable because of the reusability of the catalyst, the easy separation and finally low cost [73– 76]. Heterogeneous catalysts also have the characteristic of high selectivity [59]. Table 2 shows the main advantages and disadvantages of different catalytic systems. Generally, a solid base catalyst is more active than an acid catalyst [54,77]. However, solid acid heterogeneous catalysts are better than solid base catalysts for the esterification reaction. This is because the presence of free fatty acid and water in the feedstock harms the reaction less with this catalyst. It also does not produce soap with FFA. The base-catalysed process needs a feedstock of high purity [59]. However, the use of base catalysts in continuous flow with a packed bed would facilitate the catalyst separation and the production of high-purity glycerol as the co-product. This can reduce the production cost and enable the re-use of the catalyst [51]. Other advantages are that the esterification and transesterification reactions occur simultaneously with heterogeneous acid catalysts. One can also avoid the washing step in the bio-jet process to easily separate, regenerate and recycle the catalyst from the reaction mixture and reduce the corrosion problem [78–81]. However, the main problem in using jet fuel in cold areas is its freezing point. Generally, the freezing point of hydrocarbons produced by the hydrodeoxygenation of vegetable oil is more than zero degrees [82], while the freezing point of the commercial aviation fuel Jet-A is −40 °C and that of Jet A-1 is −47 °C [83,84]. The friendly solution to overcoming this problem is to use acidic zeolite-supported metal catalysts for the hydrodeoxygenation of vegetable oils in jet fuel production [18,85]. Zeolite catalysts have

Fig. 1. Classification of catalysts.

NiMo/SiO2−Al2O3 and NiMo/ZSM-5−Al2O3 [37]; Ni/H-ZSM-5 [38]; Ni–W/SiO2–Al2O3, Co–Mo/Al2O3 and Ni–Mo/Al2O3 [24] used for the hydro-processing of jatropha oil. Others suiphide catalyst such as MoO3/CoO/MCM-41[39], CoMo/γAl2O3 [40] and CoMo/OMA [41] used for rapeseed oil; NiMo/Al2O3, CoMo/Al2O3, NiW/Al2O3, NiMo/ B2O3-Al2O3 for waste cooking oil [42], sulfided Pd/γAl2O3, sulfided CoMo/γAl2O3, Ni/ SiO2–Al2O3, Pt/γAl2O3 and Ru/Al2O3 for hydroteating of soybean oil [43]. From these studies, it is clear that sulphide zeolite catalysts have the superior activity, but most of them do not solve the present environmental issues because of the sulphur contamination. These contaminated sulphur compunds are responsible for pollution and global warming [44]. Therefore, an improvement of nonsulphide zeolite catalysts for bio-jet fuel production is one of the important tasks for the aviation industry and also researchers. The aim of this review to compile the production of biojet fuel using zeolite catalyst especially non-sulphide zeolite-type catalysts and their preparation methods, characteristics and performance evaluation for environmental remidation.

2. Classification and comparative study of different catalysts There are many types of catalyst, which are mainly used for transesterification process in the production of biofuel. This transesterification can be carried out either using catalytic (homogeneous or heterogeneous) or non-catalytic (biocatalytic) process [49,61]. Few researcher may also classified heterogeneous catalysts into two subTable 2 Advantages and disadvantages of different catalytic systems. Catalyst type

Advantage

Disadvantage

Homogeneous catalyst

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1.

1. 2. 3. 1. 2.

It is difficult to separate the catalyst from its product Produces soap and wastewater Cannot be reused Contamination problem with the catalyst active site and product It is slower than the homogeneous process

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1.

Corrosion problem Slow reaction rate Requires long reaction times Free fatty acid and water is harmful for the reaction It produces soap and wastewater Separation problem It needs high-purity feedstock Comparatively less effective for the transesterification reaction because of its lower pore size

Heterogeneous catalyst

Acid catalyst

Base catalyst

Zeolite catalyst

2. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Less energy intensive Reaction can occur under mild conditions Kinetically much faster and economically viable It is easier to separate the catalyst from its product It is possible to reuse and regenerate the catalyst Insensitive to the FFA and water content of the oil High selectivity Esterification and transesterification occurs at the same time The ability to carry out the esterification of free fatty acids More active Relatively cheap and available The ability to carry out the transesterification of triglycerides Versatile catalysis ability Acid-base character Inexpensive Environmentally favourable Uniform pore structure Reusability

3

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

M. Shahinuzzaman et al.

AlO45− and SiO44−, which are bonded by oxygen atoms in threedimensional frameworks. Zeolites possess the general formula, Mx/ n[(AlO2)x(SiO2)y].zH2O, where M is an extra-framework cation that balances the anionic charge of the framework [102]. Generally, zeolites are classified as one of three types, depending on their pore volume [103]. There are small-pore zeolites (diameter, d: 2.8 < d < 4 Å, containing rings with 6–8 members), medium-pore zeolite (diameter, d: 5 < d < 6 Å, containing 10-membered rings) and large-pore zeolite (diameter, d: d > 7 Å, constructed with 12-membered rings). Sodalite and zeolite A are examples of small-pore zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites are medium-pore zeolites, and zeolites X and Y and faujasite-type zeolites are large-pore zeolites. Zeolite Y is the most important heterogeneous catalyst and is the active component for catalytic fluid cracking [104]. It consists of spherical cages 1.3 nm in diameter that are connected tetrahedrally with four neighbouring cages through 0.74 nm diameter [105]. Therefore, the pore system of zeolite Y is relatively outspread. Zeolite ZSM-12 contains 12-membered rings with slightly elliptical pores that are 0.57–0.61 nm in dimension. ZSM-5 also has more importance as a heterogeneous catalyst and possesses an intersecting system with 10-membered ring pores. Of the zeolites listed, it has been reported that ZSM-5 showed the best activity for biofuel production from palm oil [106]. Different studies have shown that ZSM-5 and zeolite-Y are good for the cracking of vegetable oil, however, the small pore size of ZSM-5 (5.5 Å) has limited cooking tendencies and therefore performs better than zeoliteY (7.4 Å) [107]. Carlson and his co-workers reported that biomassderived carbohydrates can be directly converted into aromatics with ZSM-5 as a catalyst in a single catalytic pyrolysis step [108]. Lei et al. (2013) reported the production of aromatic hydrocarbons through catalytic microwave-induced pyrolysis of Douglas fir sawdust. Up to 92.60% selectivity of the liquid organics obtained was jet fuel range (C8–C15) aromatic hydrocarbons [109]. In 2012, Wang and coworkers showed that Ru/ZSM-5 catalysts are more efficient for the hydrocracking process [29]. At a temperature of approximately 360 to 450 °C and after 6 d, a 55% bio-jet fuel yield can be achieved from soybean oil using Ru/ZSM-5. Choi et al. [100] reported 100% of catalytic conversion rate and 69.3% of jet fuel yield by the hydrocracking of non-edible waste oil (stearic acid) with Pd/ beta-zeolite catalyst at 270 °C in a single-step process (SSP). They also observed 60.77% of conversion rates for raw soybean oil at 300 °C and 6 h reaction time with the same catalyst [100]. Unfortunately, this long time and higher doses of catalyst induced a relatively low yield (30.1%) for jet fuel. Zhao et al. (2015) observed similar observations were for raw sunflower and

versatile catalysis abilities because of its chemical composition, pore size distribution and ion-exchange abilities [45]. Furthermore, zeolite catalysts have both acidic and basic characteristics. Zeolites can be widely used as an industrial heterogeneous catalyst because they are inexpensive and environmentally friendly [71]. They have a broad surface area and high porosity. It molecular pores can easily absorb molecules that fit inside them while preferentially excluding larger ones, acting as molecular sieves. This property gives zeolites the ability to exchange ions. For example, Al+3 replaces Si+4 within the crystalline silica (SiO2) framework. This replacement produces negative charges within the catalyst framework, enhancing catalytic activity [49]. It is clear from the above discussion that it is an important task for the aviation industry and also for researchers to improve the zeolite catalyst for the conversion of vegetable oil to produce bio-jet fuel.

3. Zeolites as a catalyst for bio-jet fuel production Zeolite is a complex molecule containing different ratio of silica to alumina and have three-dimensional porous structures that exhibit a potent catalytic activity for the production of biofuel by the simultaneous cracking and dehydration reactions. Adsorption of oxy-compound occurs on its acid site and followed by either decomposition or bimolecular monomer dehydration by its different pore size [86]. Several types of zeolite catalysts have been reported for use in biojet-fuel conversion. A summary of the product yields with different conditions are shown in Table 3. Among all solid aids, zeolites are widely used as the catalysts for petroleum and petrochemical industries. In the US, approximately 90% of catalytic cracking units use zeolites as the catalyst for catalytic cracking processes [55]. The most common zeolite catalysts for the catalytic cracking of vegetable oil are ZSM-5 [29,87–92], Ni/ZSM-5 [87], Zeolite HY, Ru/ZSM-5 [29], Pt/ ZSM-12 [93], SAPO-11 [94], Ni/SAPO-11 [24], Meso-Y [95], Pt/SAPO11 [94], NiAg/SAPO-11 [96], HZSM-5 [97], Ni-HZSM-5 [97], SBA-15 [97], Ni-SBA-15 [97], Ni-HZSM-5/SBA-15 [97], MCM-41 [98], Pt/AlMCM-41 [98], Ultrastable-Y zeolite (USYZ) [99], beta zeolite [99,100], Pd/ beta-zeolite [100], etc. have shown good catalytic activity for the cracking of heavy oil fractions [101]. It is possible to overcome diffusional limitations with the optimized production of bio-fuel by zeolite catalysts. Zeolites can also be modulated to exhibit hydrophobic characteristics without changing its functionalized acidic sites. This can be done by incorporating certain organic species, such as certain heteropoly acids, into their pore structure [68]. Basically, zeolites consist of the tetrahedral form of

Table 3 The amount of bio-jet fuel yields from catalytic cracking with different zeolite-supported catalysts under different conditions. Catalyst

Feedstock

Condition

Jet fuel yield %

Reference

ZSM-5

Soybean oil Non-edible Sunflower oil Biomass (Douglas fir) Lignocellulosic biomass Cellulose co-fed Soybean oil Camelina oil Algal lipid Algal lipid Soybean oil Waste cooking oil Castor oil Castor oil Castor oil Biomass-Derived Sorbitol Biomass-Derived Sorbitol Biomass-Derived Sorbitol Biodiesel Soybean oil Non-edible waste oil (Stearic acid)

360–450 °C, 6 h 550 °C, 6 h 12 h, 375 °C 500 °C 375 °C 360–450 °C, 650 psi, 6 h 500 °C 3 MPa hydrogen pressure, 200–340 °C 3 MPa hydrogen pressure, 200–340 °C 250 °C and 1.5 MPa 400 °C, 3 h 360 °C, 3 MPa, WHSV = 2 h 360 °C, 3 MPa, WHSV = 2 h 360 °C, 3 MPa, WHSV = 2 h 320 °C, WHSV of 0.75 h−1, GHSV of 2500 h−1 and 4.0 MPa 320 °C, WHSV of 0.75 h−1, GHSV of 2500 h−1 and 4.0 MPa 320 °C, WHSV of 0.75 h−1, GHSV of 2500 h−1 and 4.0 MPa 330 °C, 2 MPa, 1 h−1 300 °C, 6 h 270 °C, 1 h

21% 30.1% 39 % 24.68% 39% 16% 44% 60% 40 % 21.5% 40.5% 80.3% 3.2% 2.5% 22.4% 12.3% 40.4% 65.62% 30.1% 69.3%

[29] [89] [90] [91] [92] [29] [88] [93] [93] [94] [95] [96] [96] [96] [97] [97] [97] [98] [100] [100]

Ru/ZSM-5 Zn-ZSM-5 Pt/ZSM-12 Pt/USYZ Pt/SAPO-11 Ni/Meso-Y Ni/USY-APTES-MCM-41 Ni/SAPO-11 Ni2P/SAPO-11 Ni-HZSM-5 Ni-SBA-15 Ni-HZSM-5/SBA-15 Pt/Al-MCM-41 Pd/beta-zeolite Pd/beta-zeolite

4

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

M. Shahinuzzaman et al.

this reaction is that the carbon chain substructures of lignin can be largely maintained and new C–C bonds can be also generated. So finally, lignin-substructure based C12–C18 cyclohexanes are produced by the cleavage of C–O–C bonds without disrupting C–C linkages in the lignin structure [121]. Ni2P/SAPO-11, Ni/MCM-41 and Ni/SAPO-11 are acidic zeolites. However, Ni2P/SAPO-11 and Ni/MCM-41 possess more amounts of weak acid than Ni/SAPO-11. Liu et al. [96] synthesised and used these non-sulfided nickel based bifunctional catalysts on HDO and hydrocracking of castor oil for the production of bio-aviation fuel through a two-step process and a one-pot process. The first step focuses on the HDO of castor oil over the Ni/SAPO-11, Pt/SAPO-11, Ni2P/SAPO-11 and Ni/MCM-41 which can produce high yields of C17–C18 and second step process focuses on the hydrocracking of C17–C18 to C8–C15.They observed Ni/SAPO-11 and Pt/SAPO-11 catalysts showed strong cracking activity and leading to a lower yield of jet-fuel range and high yields of C5–C7. However, the addition of Ag can restrain cracking as a result of the high yields of C8–C15 and low yields of C5–C7. This phenomenon observed due to acid strength and amount of the catalysts. They used another catalyst Ni/MCM-41–USY and observed low yield of bio-aviation fuel. To increase the yield they incorporated APTES with Ni/MCM-41-USY for the deoxygenation of castor oil. They showed that the addition of MCM-41 could cover the strong acid sites and higher yield of bio-aviation fuel range alkanes (80.3%) [96].

camelina oil. They achieved 44% of jet fuel yield over ZSM-5-Zn-20 for raw camelina oil at 500 °C [88] and 30.1% of jet fuel yield over ZSM-5 for raw sunflower oil at 550 °C [89]. Recently Ju and co-workers reported 40% and 60% of jet fuel yield for the Pt/USYZ and Pt/ZSM-12 catalyst respectively with the condition of 3 MPa hydrogen pressure and 200–340 °C temperature by the hydro treatment of algal lipid. The obtained jet fuel satisfied the specification of ASTM 7566 standard [93]. MCM-41 is a special mesoporous zeolite consisting of a regular array of pores hexagonal in shape, uniform in diameter and uniform in width [110], which has good catalytic activity. The different properties of zeolite catalysts can be achieved by changing its structure, silicaalumina ratio, pore size and density. A wide variety of acidity, surface characteristics and morphologies can be synthesised by this property. The acidity of zeolites depends on the ratio of silica to aluminium. The lower the ratio, the higher the acidity; while the opposite holds for basicity. The activity of a zeolite depends on the structure, polarity, shape and size of the substrate and the reaction conditions (temperature, pressure, time, etc.). A high reaction temperature leads to high activity [63]. However, when the molecular size of the free fatty acids is comparable to the smaller pore volume of a zeolite, the catalyst shows good activity for the esterification reaction but not for transesterification. With respect to the transesterification reaction, the small pore volume results in a diffusion problem, which also leads to a slow reaction rate [111]. This problem can be overcome by producing mesoporous zeolite catalysts for the transesterification of vegetable oils [112–115]. Shah et al. [113] investigated the use of SBA-15, a mesoporous silica with a large pore diameter, surface area and pore volume, and found that it showed better activity for the transesterification of DEM (diethylmalonate) with butanol, and reuse of the catalyst resulted in only a small decrease of activity. Among the various zeolite catalysts, the most frequently used catalyst for vegetable oil cracking is HZSM-5 [116]. The cracking of soybean oil with HZSM-5 at 60 °C and a 1 h reaction time produces an 80% bio-diesel yield [117]. However, large molecule (sorbitol) of biomass are unable to enter the micropore of HZSM-5 and thereby its oxidation ability reduced. To increase HZSM-5 efficiency, Weng et al. [97] used microporous and mesoporous mixed catalysts to increase the yields of jet fuel from biomass-derived sorbitol and observed 12.3%, 22.4% and 40.4% efficiency for Ni-SBA15, Ni-HZSM-5 and Ni-HZSM-5/SBA-15 respectively [97]. The acidic zeolites have extended catalytic activity for the bio-jetfuel conversion. H-Y zeolite contains 12-membered ring system with cubic pore structure. Among all the zeolite catalysts tested, H-Y has the highest acidity (Si/Al = 5.1), large pore size (0.74 nm) and large surface area (925 m2/g) [118]. The acidity of H+-Y type zeolite increased by the interaction of extra framework aluminum with the framework Al (Bronsted acidity) of the zeolite structure [119,120]. For the depolymerization reaction of lignin polymer, H+-Y type zeolite was more effective than others [121] due to the presence of high concentrated active acid sites and large-pore structure. Actually, it is simultaneously depolymerised lignin into monomers and dimers by the breaking of the C–O–C bonds, and also could link the monomers into dimers via alkylation or dimerization reactions [122]. In order to the conversion of C7–C18 jet fuel range hydrocarbons from biomass-derived lignin, the combination of noble metal catalyst (Ru/Al2O3) and acidic zeolite (H+Y) showed good result. In the lignin polymer, the monomers are linked by C-O-C bond and generally C-O-C bond energy is lower than that of C–C bond. So it is easier to cleavage the C-O-C bond than C-C bond in lignin polymer. The acidic H+-Y type zeolites can easily disrupt the lignin polymer into oligomers by cleaving C–O–C bonds. Lignin deconstruction can also be done on the metal catalyst. The combination of Ru-Al2O3 and H+-Y zeolite showed better activity in HDO reactions, which could both have a synergistic effect on oxygen removal from lignin-degraded intermediates and also could couple the monomers into dimers to produce a wide variety of alkyl cyclohexane species that are commonly found in jet fuel blend stocks. The main advantage of

4. Why a non-sulphide zeolite* Most studies confirm that the combustion of bio-fuels can significantly decrease the amount of resultant pollutants and toxic emissions when compared with the use of conventional petroleum fuels. Furthermore, it is clear that the sulphide forms of zeolites showed superior activity as catalysts for bio-fuel production. The use of these catalysts needs the addition of sulphur-containing compounds, such as hydrogen sulphide or dimethyl disulphide, to maintain their activity. But, the use of these sulphiding agents causes sulphur residues in the final products, H2S emissions and corrosion problems [29]. The combustion of this product may produce SOx, ozone and other greenhouse gases, which are responsible for pollution and global warming [44]. Because of this sulphur contamination, bio-jet fuels produced with sulphide zeolite catalysts do not solve the present environmental issues. Therefore, it is essential for researchers and the aviation industry to improve non-sulphide zeolite catalysts for bio-jet-fuel processing. 5. Preparation of catalyst Basically, a supported heterogeneous catalyst results from the combination of a support and precursor components under the proper reaction parameters (Fig. 2) and involves the attachment of the active phase onto the surface of the support. With supported catalysts, only the minor part is formed by the active material, and it accumulates on the supports surface [123,124]. It was reported that highly concentrated solutions, short ageing times and low temperatures result in smooth crystalline or amorphous products, but they are not easily washed and filtered. Low concentrations, high temperatures and extended ageing of the solution give coarse crystalline precipitates that are easier to separate and purify [123,125,126]. The general method for the preparation of the catalysts involve the following key steps:

• • • • • 5

Preparation of the metal salt solution and the precipitating agent (dissolution, filtration) Precipitation Ageing the precipitate or equilibration Filtration Washing the filter cake (spray drying)

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

M. Shahinuzzaman et al.

Zn(NO3)2.4H2O [128]; Al(NO3)3.9H2O [128]; Mg(NO3)2.6(H2O) and LiNO3 [46,129]; Al2(SO4)3.18H2O [130]; Fe(NO3)3.9H2O, Co(NO3)2.6H2O, and Cu(NO3)2.3H2O; etc. 5.3. Preparation techniques for catalysts There are several methods for the preparation of zeolite-type active catalysts by using precursors and support materials. The most common and favoured methods are precipitation, a sol-gel method, ionexchange, impregnation, adsorption, co-impregnation, and co-precipitation. Most of the methods contain a series of elementary steps or unit operations that can be described in a general way [70,126,131–133]. 5.3.1. Precipitation For preparing any type of catalyst (single component catalysts, supported catalysts or mixed catalysts), precipitation is the most widely used method [132,133]. In this method, the pH is maintained at a constant value during co-precipitation. Because of low solubility, facile decomposition and minimal toxicity and environmental issues, hydroxides and carbonates are used as the precipitates in the precipitation method [126]. A general schematic diagram for the precipitation method is shown in Fig. 3 [134].

Fig. 2. Relevant aspects and strategies for the synthesis of solid heterogeneous catalysts.

• • • •

Drying Calcination Shaping Activation

5.3.2. Sol-gel method The sol-gel method is a well-known homogeneous catalyst preparation method in which a solution is continuously transformed into a hydrated solid precursor material [70,126,132,135]. This method is more desirable than precipitation method because of its several advantages, including better control of the texture, structural properties and homogeneity of the product. The main steps of this process are hydrogel formation, aging, solvent removal and heat treatment (Fig. 4). There are some parameters that need to be controlled for each of the steps, which give rise to the versatility of this method.

A good catalyst is characterised by the following criteria, which are dependent on the preparation methods and techniques: 1. Activity, 2. Selectivity, 3. Thermal and mechanical properties, 4. Stability, 5. Morphology, 6. Reusability, and 7. Cost. 5.1. Supports Different supports for the preparation of industrial catalysts are currently available, but the zeolite-type supports are best suited for biofuel production. This is because most of the supports also have catalytic properties [103]. The support is either a powder or a pre-shaped solid. Sometimes the supports are essentially inert compared with the active site, and sometimes they participate in the reaction as a bi-functional catalytic system [103]. There are some supports that can change the catalytic performance of the active phase, such as altering the chemisorption capacity of supported metals and hampering the reduction of supported metal oxides. The most common zeolite-type catalyst supports are Zeolite Y, Zeolite NH4Y, ZSM-5, SAPO-11, SAPO-34, Zeolite β, ZSM-5, Bentonite P-140, MCM-41, SBA-15, etc. It is very important to regulate the pH of the support solution to achieve the ZPC (point of zero charge) of that support. This is because solutions that are mildly acidic or basic do not contain a sufficient number of protons/ cations or hydroxyls/anions to protonate or deprotonate the surface. The point of zero charge is the pH value at which the surface is electrically neutral. 5.2. Precursors Nowadays various transitional metals such as Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ru, Rh, etc have been used as an active catalyst for the production of biofuel due to its electronic configuration and valency. Transition metals have variable valencies, which are more effective for redox reactions. It can easily gain or lose electrons to change their valency via oxidation-reduction reactions. Metal salts or coordination complexes are used as the active phase or as a precursor material for the preparation of zeolite-supported catalysts for bio-jet fuel production. The most common metal salts that are used as a precursor material to prepare the zeolite catalysts such as RuCl3.3H2O [29]; Ni(NO3)2.6H2O [82]; Ca(NO3)2.4H2O and La(NO3)3.6H2O [127];

Fig. 3. Preparation scheme for the precipitation method.

6

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

M. Shahinuzzaman et al.

According to adsorption isotherms, powders or particles exposed to a solution of metal salt adsorb equilibrium quantities of the salt ions. The adsorption is one of two types, depending on the carrier’s surface properties, which is either cationic or anionic. Instead of the most oxide supports, if placed in aqueous solutions pH may be developed depending on their surface charge. Depending on the adsorption conditions, mainly on the pH of the solution, the oxide can be cationic (for example, SiO2–Al2O3 and SiO2), anionic (for example, ZnO and MgO), or both, cationic in a basic solution and anionic in an acidic solution (for example, TiO2, Al2O3). 5.4. Characterisation techniques of catalyst The activity and selectivity of a solid heterogeneous zeolite-supported catalyst depends on the structure, morphology and texture, surface chemical composition and phase composition of the solid catalyst. For the characterization of solid catalysts in catalysis research, different types of physical and chemical methods are used. These help to determine correlations between the structures of different catalysts and their performances [55,126]. The specific surface area (in m2/g) and the pore size are determined by measuring the volume of a gas, usually N2, according to the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) method. The total surface area of a catalyst is given by the sum of the internal and external surface areas. The specific pore volumes, pore widths, and pore-size distributions are determined by gas adsorption. The pore size distribution is determined by measuring the volume of mercury (or another non-wetting liquid) forced into the pores under pressure [138]. The measurement, carried out with a mercury pressure porosimeter, depends on the following relation:

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the different steps in the sol-gel method.

5.3.3. Ion exchange The ion exchange method is very similar to ionic adsorption, but it involves the exchange of ions other than protons [70,126,132,136]. This method is based on replacing an ion in an electrostatic interaction with the surface of a support with another ionic species. Lower valence ions can be exchanged with higher valence ions [126]. Ion exchange is mainly used for the preparation of metallic-type zeolites, such as zeolite-Y with Ni/Pd and mordenites. The support containing ion A is plunged into an excess volume of a solution containing another ion, B. The B ions penetrate into the pore volume of the support, and the A ions move into the solution. This process continues until equilibrium is established between the ions of the solid and the solution. For example, the preparation of the acid form of a zeolite is accomplished by exchanging NH4+ for Na+, followed by successive calcinations using a proper salt solution at 100 °C [137].

P=

2πσcosα rp

(1)

where P is pressure, σ is the surface tension of mercury, and α is the contact angle of mercury with the solid. The average pore radius (rp) and the pore volume (Vp) of a catalyst or support can be approximated by using the following equation [103]:

rp = 2Vp/Sp

(2)

Vp = 1/ϱp−1/ϱ

(3)

where Vp is the pore volume, Sp is the surface area, ϱp is the particle density, and ϱ is the true density. The pore dimensions of a catalyst can be determined using HREM (high-resolution electron microscopy) [139]. The property of dispersion depends on the particle size and the particle size distribution. Average crystallite size distributions can be observed by using X-ray diffraction line broadening, and SAXS (small-angle X-ray scattering). Electron microscopy is also a good way to characterise the catalyst morphology over the entire range of relevant particle sizes . Different phases present in the catalyst can be identified by XRD (X-ray diffraction) but XAS (X-ray absorption spectroscopy) is the better method [140]. Therefore, in catalysis research, it is more desirable to use both XAS and XRD on the same sample using synchrotron radiation [141]. The metal loading of a catalyst can be determined by using an SEM (scanning electron microscope). This equipment can be used with EDS (energy dispersive spectrometer) at a maximum operating voltage of approximately 25 kV [29]. The chemical and structural environment of a catalyst’s atoms are characterized by the use of NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy. Information about a catalyst’s structure, its chemical or thermal transformations, the nature of chemically bonded surface species, specific adsorbent– adsorbate interactions, and chemical reactions occurring at its surface can be obtained with NMR spectroscopy [142,143]. Catalytic properties are also dependent on the atomic composition of a catalyst’s surface. Information regarding the atomic composition of the surface of a catalyst can be acquired from the use of electron and

5.3.4. Impregnation The impregnation method is the simplest method to prepare supported catalysts. In this method, a known volume of solution containing the precursor is brought into contact with the solid support, and the support is subsequently dried to remove the absorbed solvent [70,126,136]. The main goal of this method is to fill the pores of the support with a precursor solution containing a sufficient concentration of metal salt to achieve the desired loading [126]. Generally two methods used in impregnation process, which are mainly distinguished by the volume of the solution used. They are the wet (soaking) impregnation and incipient wetness (dry) impregnation method. An excess of solution is used in the wet impregnation process, which is then removed by drying after a certain time, and the solid is isolated. With incipient wetness impregnation method, the volume of the solution is approximately equal or slightly less than the pore volume of the support. In both processes, the temperature is the main operation variable, and both the precursor solubility and solution viscosity with wetting time depend on the temperature. 5.3.5. Adsorption Adsorption is the favoured method to achieve the uniform deposition of small amounts of an active component on a support [70,126,136]. 7

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

M. Shahinuzzaman et al.

transesterification reaction. H+-Y type zeolite possess large-pore structure and contain high concentrations of active acid sites. Since this type of catalyst depolymerised the biomass containing lignin into monomers and dimers by the breaking of the C–O–C bonds, and also could link the monomers into dimers via alkylation or dimerization reactions, which is very much essential for the conversion of C7–C18 to jet fuel range hydrocarbon. However to increase the catalytic activity and acid strength, we can easily incorpotrated non-sulphide metal in this zeolite and thereby increasing the yield of jet fuel from biomass feedstock. Now, it is very important to an improvement in the efficiency of non-sulphide supported zeolite catalysts which can contribute to overcome the present fuel crisis. With this selection of proper zeolite catalyst and reaction conditions also should be investigated for better yield of jet fuel.

Table 4 Textural properties of various supported zeolite catalysts. Catalyst

Surface area (m2 g−1)

Pore volume (cm−3 g−1)

Pore diameter (Å)

References

NiMoC/Zeolite β Ni/HZSM-5 NiMoC/ZSM-5 NiMoC/USY NiMoC/γ-Al2O3 NiMoC/Al-SBA15 HZSM-5 HZSM-12 Unactivated natural zeolitelampung Pd/zeolite Ni/SAPO-11 SAPO-11 Ni/HY NaY

466.7

0.090

-

[29]

173.3 446.8 475.6 216.0 711.5

0.130 0.130 0.250 0.210 0.710

20.0 -

[24] [29] [29] [29] [29]

213.3 346 51.9

0.130 0.0045

10.5

[130] [146] [145]

Acknowledgement 27.3 33.5 85.6 616.9 506.0

0.0139 0.080 0.096 0.210 0.246

9.9 34.0 10.2 -

This project is financed by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia under Grant LIV-2015-04 and DIP-2014-011. The authors would like to thank the university administration for the financial support.

[145] [24] [82] [24] [116]

References

ion spectroscopies [144]. AES (Auger electron spectroscopy) and XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) are the two techniques that are used to identify the elements on the surfaces of solid materials. Electrons are used as information carriers in these techniques. The absorption of photons results in the photoemission electrons. The kinetic energy (Ek) of the emitted photoelectrons is measured in XPS, where X-ray photons are used to ionize core levels. The following equation is used to calculate Ek:

Ek = hv − Eb –Φ

[1] Andriishin M, Ya M, Boichenko S, Ryabokon L. Gaz prirodnyi, paliva ta olivy. Odessa: Astroprint; 2010. [2] Wang J, Bi P, Zhang Y, Xue H, Jiang P, Wu X, et al. Preparation of jet fuel range hydrocarbons by catalytic transformation of bio-oil derived from fast pyrolysis of straw stalk. Energy. 2015;86:488–99. [3] Platzer MD. US Aerospace Manufacturing: Industry Overview and Prospects. DTIC Document; 2009. [4] OECD. Strategic Transport Infrastructure Needs to 2030: (Complete Edition ‐ ISBN 9789264168626): OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; 2012. [5] Penner J, Lister D, Griggs D, Dokken D, McFarland M. Aviation and the global atmosphere–a special report of IPCC working groups I and III. Intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press; 1999. [6] Boichenko S, Vovk O, Iakovlieva A. Overview of innovative technologies for aviation fuels production. Chem Chem Technol 2013;7:305–12. [7] Rosillo-Calle F, Thrän D, Seiffert M, Teelucksingh S. The potential role of biofuels in commercial air transport (BIOJETFUEL). IEA Bioenergy Task 2012. [8] Wang W-C, Tao L. Bio-jet fuel conversion technologies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;53:801–22. [9] Chavez-Rodriguez MF, Nebra SA. Assessing GHG emissions, ecological footprint, and water linkage for different fuels. Environ Sci Technol 2010;44:9252–7. [10] McCollum D, Yang C. Achieving deep reductions in US transport greenhouse gas emissions: Scenario analysis and policy implications. Energy Policy 2009;37:5580–96. [11] Michaelis L. Transport sector-strategies markets, technology and innovation. Energy Policy. 1997;25:1163–71. [12] Sharma Y, Singh B, Upadhyay S. Advancements in development and characterization of biodiesel: a review. Fuel 2008;87:2355–73. [13] Fortier M-OP, Roberts GW, Stagg-Williams SM, Sturm BS. Life cycle assessment of bio-jet fuel from hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae. Appl Energy 2014;122:73–82. [14] Daroch M, Geng S, Wang G. Recent advances in liquid biofuel production from algal feedstocks. Appl Energy 2013;102:1371–81. [15] Robota HJ, Alger JC, Shafer L. Converting algal triglycerides to diesel and HEFA jet fuel fractions. Energy Fuels 2013;27:985–96. [16] Serrano-Ruiz JC, Ramos-Fernández EV, Sepúlveda-Escribano A. From biodiesel and bioethanol to liquid hydrocarbon fuels: new hydrotreating and advanced microbial technologies. Energy Environ Sci 2012;5:5638–52. [17] Wang H, Yan S, Salley SO, Ng KS. Hydrocarbon fuels production from hydrocracking of soybean oil using transition metal carbides and nitrides supported on ZSM-5. Ind Eng Chem Res 2012;51:10066–73. [18] Verma D, Kumar R, Rana BS, Sinha AK. Aviation fuel production from lipids by a single-step route using hierarchical mesoporous zeolites. Energy Environ Sci 2011;4:1667–71. [19] Bezergianni S, Kalogianni A, Vasalos IA. Hydrocracking of vacuum gas oilvegetable oil mixtures for biofuels production. Bioresour Technol 2009;100:3036–42. [20] Bezergianni S, Voutetakis S, Kalogianni A. Catalytic hydrocracking of fresh and used cooking oil. Ind Eng Chem Res 2009;48:8402–6. [21] Bezergianni S, Kalogianni A. Hydrocracking of used cooking oil for biofuels production. Bioresour Technol 2009;100:3927–32. [22] Christensen ED, Chupka GM, Luecke J, Smurthwaite T, Alleman TL, Iisa K, et al. Analysis of oxygenated compounds in hydrotreated biomass fast pyrolysis oil distillate fractions. Energy Fuels 2011;25:5462–71. [23] Shonnard DR, Williams L, Kalnes TN. Camelina‐derived jet fuel and diesel: Sustainable advanced biofuels. Environ Progress Sustain Energy 2010;29:382–92.

(4)

where Eb is the electron binding energy that is relative to the Fermi level, hv is the photon energy, and Ф is the work function. The binding energies are characteristic of a particular element. Thermo-analytical techniques such as DTA (differential thermal analysis), TG (thermo-gravimetry), TCD (thermal conductivity detector), and DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) are well-used methods [82] by which the synthesis of solid catalytic materials can be investigated. These analyses can also be used to monitor reduction and oxidation processes by measuring thermal effects and/or weight changes. The reduction behaviour of bulk and zeolite-supported catalysts can be investigated by a combination of NH3-TPD and H2TPR with TCD. TPO (temperature-programmed oxidation) is used to investigate the oxidation kinetics and mechanisms of reduced materials. The cyclic application of TPR and TPO gives data on the redox behaviour of catalytic materials, such as those for selective catalytic oxidation [103]. Table 4 shows the textural properties of different zeolite-supported catalysts. Al-SBA-15 [29], Ni/HY [24] and NaY [116] catalysts possess the largest surface areas, which are 711.5, 616.9 and 506.0 m2/g, respectively. Meanwhile, Pd/zeolite [145] and Ni/SAPO11 [24] contain the least surface area, pore volume and pore diameter. 6. Conclusion Catalysis is the most important application of zeolites. Among all heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts, zeolite-supported catalysts are the most suitable for the hydrocracking of vegetable oil. The quality and activity of a catalyst mainly depends on its structure, particle size and shape, surface area, and reusability, as well as the reaction conditions. A catalyst with high surface area and pore volume tends to be more active. Zeolite X, HY and faujasite-type zeolites are largepore zeolites that show good activity for the transesterification reaction. However, zeolites with a small pore volume are better for esterification, but diffusion is limited; therefore, this type of system is not good for the 8

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

M. Shahinuzzaman et al.

production: a review. J Ind Eng Chem 2013;19:14–26. [58] Pearlson M, Wollersheim C, Hileman J. A techno-economic review of hydroprocessed renewable esters and fatty acids for jet fuel production. Biofuels Bioprod Biorefin 2013;7:89–96. [59] Borges M, Díaz L. Recent developments on heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production by oil esterification and transesterification reactions: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:2839–49. [60] Taarning E, Osmundsen CM, Yang X, Voss B, Andersen SI, Christensen CH. Zeolite-catalyzed biomass conversion to fuels and chemicals. Energy Environ Sci 2011;4:793–804. [61] Sharma YC, Singh B, Korstad J. Latest developments on application of heterogenous basic catalysts for an efficient and eco friendly synthesis of biodiesel: a review. Fuel 2011;90:1309–24. [62] Semwal S, Arora AK, Badoni RP, Tuli DK. Biodiesel production using heterogeneous catalysts. Bioresour Technol 2011;102:2151–61. [63] Endalew AK, Kiros Y, Zanzi R. Inorganic heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production from vegetable oils. Biomass Bioenergy 2011;35:3787–809. [64] Chouhan AS, Sarma A. Modern heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production: a comprehensive review. Renew and Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:4378–99. [65] Blakey S., Rye L., Wilson C.W. Aviation gas turbine alternative fuels: A review. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute. 2011;33:2863-2885. [66] Lam MK, Lee KT, Mohamed AR. Homogeneous, heterogeneous and enzymatic catalysis for transesterification of high free fatty acid oil (waste cooking oil) to biodiesel: a review. Biotechnol Adv 2010;28:500–18. [67] Brennan L, Owende P. Biofuels from microalgae—a review of technologies for production, processing, and extractions of biofuels and co-products. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:557–77. [68] Helwani Z, Othman M, Aziz N, Kim J, Fernando W. Solid heterogeneous catalysts for transesterification of triglycerides with methanol: a review. Appl Catal A: Gen 2009;363:1–10. [69] Zabeti M, Daud WMAW, Aroua MK. Activity of solid catalysts for biodiesel production: a review. Fuel Process Technol 2009;90:770–7. [70] Campanati M, Fornasari G, Vaccari A. Fundamentals in the preparation of heterogeneous catalysts. Catal Today 2003;77:299–314. [71] Hassani M, Najafpour GD, Mohammadi M, Rabiee M. Preparation, characterization and application of zeolite-based catalyst for production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil. J Sci Ind Res 2014;73:129–33. [72] Li Y, Qiu F, Yang D, Li X, Sun P. Preparation, characterization and application of heterogeneous solid base catalyst for biodiesel production from soybean oil. Biomass Bioenergy 2011;35:2787–95. [73] de Oliveira Lima JR, Ghani YA, da Silva RB, Batista FMC, Bini RA, Varanda LC, et al. Strontium zirconate heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production: synthesis, characterization and catalytic activity evaluation. Appl Catal A: Gen 2012;445:76–82. [74] Sakai T, Kawashima A, Koshikawa T. Economic assessment of batch biodiesel production processes using homogeneous and heterogeneous alkali catalysts. Bioresour Technol 2009;100:3268–76. [75] Nakagaki S, Bail A, dos Santos VC, de Souza VHR, Vrubel H, Nunes FS, et al. Use of anhydrous sodium molybdate as an efficient heterogeneous catalyst for soybean oil methanolysis. Appl Catal: Gen 2008;351:267–74. [76] Di Serio M, Tesser R, Pengmei L, Santacesaria E. Heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production. Energy Fuels. 2007;22:207–17. [77] Sarin A. Biodiesel: production and properties. Royal Society of Chemistry; 2012. [78] Lotero E, Liu Y, Lopez DE, Suwannakarn K, Bruce DA, Goodwin JG. Synthesis of biodiesel via acid catalysis. Ind Eng Chem Res 2005;44:5353–63. [79] Suarez PA, Meneghetti SMP, Meneghetti MR, Wolf CR. Transformation of triglycerides into fulels, polymers and chemicals: some applications of catalysis in oleochemistry. Quím Nova 2007;30:667–76. [80] Jitputti J, Kitiyanan B, Rangsunvigit P, Bunyakiat K, Attanatho L, Jenvanitpanjakul P. Transesterification of crude palm kernel oil and crude coconut oil by different solid catalysts. Chem Eng J 2006;116:61–6. [81] Dalai A, Kulkarni M, Meher L. Biodiesel productions from vegetable oils using heterogeneous catalysts and their applications as lubricity additives. EIC Clim Change Technol 2006:1–8. [82] Liu Q, Zuo H, Wang T, Ma L, Zhang Q. One-step hydrodeoxygenation of palm oil to isomerized hydrocarbon fuels over Ni supported on nano-sized SAPO-11 catalysts. Appl Catal A: Gen 2013;468:68–74. [83] Morgan P, Roets P. The Synthetic Jet Fuel Journey. 20th World Petroleum Congress: World Petroleum Congress; 2011. [84] Bishop GJ. Aviation turbine fuels. Ullmann's encyclopedia of industrial chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2000. [85] Hancsók J, Krár M, Magyar S, Boda L, Holló A, Kalló D. Investigation of the production of high cetane number bio gas oil from pre-hydrogenated vegetable oils over Pt/HZSM-22/Al2O3. Microporous Mesoporous Mater 2007;101:148–52. [86] Mortensen PM, Grunwaldt J-D, Jensen PA, Knudsen K, Jensen AD. A review of catalytic upgrading of bio-oil to engine fuels. Appl Catal A: Gen 2011;407:1–19. [87] Lang L, Zhao S, Yin X, Yang W, Wu C. Catalytic activities of K-modified zeolite ZSM-5 supported rhodium catalysts in low-temperature steam reforming of bioethanol. Int J Hydrog Energy 2015;40:9924–34. [88] Zhao X, Wei L, Cheng S, Huang Y, Yu Y, Julson J. Catalytic cracking of camelina oil for hydrocarbon biofuel over ZSM-5-Zn catalyst. Fuel Process Technol 2015;139:117–26. [89] Zhao X, Wei L, Julson J, Qiao Q, Dubey A, Anderson G. Catalytic cracking of nonedible sunflower oil over ZSM-5 for hydrocarbon bio-jet fuel. New Biotechnol 2015;32:300–12. [90] Zhang X, Lei H, Zhu L, Wei Y, Liu Y, Yadavalli G, et al. Production of renewable jet

[24] Zuo H, Liu Q, Wang T, Ma L, Zhang Q, Zhang Q. Hydrodeoxygenation of methyl palmitate over supported Ni catalysts for diesel-like fuel production. Energy Fuels 2012;26:3747–55. [25] Tiwari R, Rana BS, Kumar R, Verma D, Kumar R, Joshi RK, et al. Hydrotreating and hydrocracking catalysts for processing of waste soya-oil and refinery-oil mixtures. Catal Commun 2011;12:559–62. [26] Abhari R, Tomlinson L, Havlik P, Jannasch N. Process for co-producing jet fuel and LPG from renewable sources. Google Patents; 2010. [27] Krár M, Kovács S, Kalló D, Hancsók J. Fuel purpose hydrotreating of sunflower oil on CoMo/Al2O3 catalyst. Bioresour Technol 2010;101:9287–93. [28] Pérot G. Hydrotreating catalysts containing zeolites and related materials— mechanistic aspects related to deep desulfurization. Catal Today 2003;86:111–28. [29] Wang H. Biofuels production from hydrotreating of vegetable oil using supported noble metals, and transition metal carbide and nitride. Wayne State University; 2012. [30] Gusmao J, Brodzki D, Djéga-Mariadassou G, Frety R. Utilization of vegetable oils as an alternative source for diesel-type fuel: hydrocracking on reduced Ni/SiO2 and sulphided Ni-Mo/γ-Al2O3. Catal Today. 1989;5:533–44. [31] da Rocha Filho G, Brodzki D, Djéga-Mariadassou G. Formation of alkanes, alkylcycloalkanes and alkylbenzenes during the catalytic hydrocracking of vegetable oils. Fuel 1993;72:543–9. [32] Huber GW, O’Connor P, Corma A. Processing biomass in conventional oil refineries: production of high quality diesel by hydrotreating vegetable oils in heavy vacuum oil mixtures. Appl Catal A: Gen 2007;329:120–9. [33] Šimáček P, Kubička D, Šebor G, Pospíšil M. Hydroprocessed rapeseed oil as a source of hydrocarbon-based biodiesel. Fuel 2009;88:456–60. [34] Duan J, Han J, Sun H, Chen P, Lou H, Zheng X. Diesel-like hydrocarbons obtained by direct hydrodeoxygenation of sunflower oil over Pd/Al-SBA-15 catalysts. Catal Commun 2012;17:76–80. [35] Guzman A, Torres JE, Prada LP, Nunez ML. Hydroprocessing of crude palm oil at pilot plant scale. Catal Today 2010;156:38–43. [36] Gong S, Shinozaki A, Shi M, Qian EW. Hydrotreating of jatropha oil over alumina based catalysts. Energy Fuels 2012;26:2394–9. [37] Gong S, Shinozaki A, Qian EW. Role of support in hydrotreatment of jatropha oil over sulfided NiMo catalysts. Ind Eng Chem Res 2012;51:13953–60. [38] Shi N, Liu Q-y , Jiang T, Wang T-j, Ma L-l, Zhang Q, et al. Hydrodeoxygenation of vegetable oils to liquid alkane fuels over Ni/HZSM-5 catalysts: methyl hexadecanoate as the model compound. Catal Commun 2012;20:80–4. [39] Kubička D, Bejblová M, Vlk J. Conversion of vegetable oils into hydrocarbons over CoMo/MCM-41 catalysts. Top Catal 2010;53:168–78. [40] Kubička D, Horáček J. Deactivation of HDS catalysts in deoxygenation of vegetable oils. Appl Catal A: Gen 2011;394:9–17. [41] Kubička D, Šimáček P, Žilková N. Transformation of vegetable oils into hydrocarbons over mesoporous-alumina-supported CoMo catalysts. Top Catal 2009;52:161–8. [42] Toba M, Abe Y, Kuramochi H, Osako M, Mochizuki T, Yoshimura Y. Hydrodeoxygenation of waste vegetable oil over sulfide catalysts. Catal Today 2011;164:533–7. [43] Veriansyah B, Han JY, Kim SK, Hong S-A, Kim YJ, Lim JS, et al. Production of renewable diesel by hydroprocessing of soybean oil: Effect of catalysts. Fuel 2012;94:578–85. [44] Chauhan SK, Shukla A. Environmental impacts of production of biodiesel and its use in transportation sector. INTECH Open Access Publisher; 2011. [45] Saifuddin N, Samiuddin A, Kumaran P. A review on processing technology for biodiesel production. Trends Appl Sci Res 2015;10:1–87. [46] Bhuiya M, Rasul M, Khan M, Ashwath N, Azad A. Prospects of 2nd generation biodiesel as a sustainable fuel—part: 1 selection of feedstocks, oil extraction techniques and conversion technologies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;55:1109–28. [47] Avhad M, Marchetti J. A review on recent advancement in catalytic materials for biodiesel production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;50:696–718. [48] Kandaramath Hari T, Yaakob Z, Binitha NN. Aviation biofuel from renewable resources: Routes, opportunities and challenges. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;42:1234–44. [49] Diamantopoulos N, Panagiotaras D, Nikolopoulos D. Comprehensive review on the biodiesel production using solid acid heterogeneous catalysts. J Thermodyn Catal 2015;6:1–8. [50] Sani YM, WMAW Daud, Aziz AA. Activity of solid acid catalysts for biodiesel production: a critical review. Appl Catal A: Gen 2014;470:140–61. [51] Lee AF, Bennett JA, Manayil JC, Wilson K. Heterogeneous catalysis for sustainable biodiesel production via esterification and transesterification. Chem Soc Rev 2014;43:7887–916. [52] Bond JQ, Upadhye AA, Olcay H, Tompsett GA, Jae J, Xing R, et al. Production of renewable jet fuel range alkanes and commodity chemicals from integrated catalytic processing of biomass. Energy Environ Sci 2014;7:1500–23. [53] Liu G, Yan B, Chen G. Technical review on jet fuel production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;25:59–70. [54] Ramachandran K, Suganya T, Gandhi NN, Renganathan S. Recent developments for biodiesel production by ultrasonic assist transesterification using different heterogeneous catalyst: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;22:410–8. [55] Derouane E, Vedrine JC, Pinto RR, Borges P, Costa L, Lemos M, et al. The acidity of zeolites: concepts, measurements and relation to catalysis: c review on experimental and theoretical methods for the study of zeolite acidity. Catal Rev 2013;55:454–515. [56] Dickerson T, Soria J. Catalytic fast pyrolysis: a review. Energies. 2013;6:514–38. [57] Atadashi I, Aroua M, Aziz AA, Sulaiman N. The effects of catalysts in biodiesel

9

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

M. Shahinuzzaman et al.

[91] [92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100] [101] [102] [103] [104]

[105] [106] [107]

[108] [109]

[110] [111] [112]

[113]

[114]

[115] [116]

[117]

[118] Mihalcik DJ, Mullen CA, Boateng AA. Screening acidic zeolites for catalytic fast pyrolysis of biomass and its components. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 2011;92:224–32. [119] Lónyi F, Lunsford JH. The development of strong acidity in hexafluorosilicatemodified Y-type zeolites. J Catal 1992;136:566–77. [120] Kuehne MA, Babitz SM, Kung HH, Miller JT. Effect of framework Al content on HY acidity and cracking activity. Appl Catal A: Gen 1998;166:293–9. [121] Wang H, Ruan H, Pei H, Wang H, Chen X, Tucker MP, et al. Biomass-derived lignin to jet fuel range hydrocarbons via aqueous phase hydrodeoxygenation. Green Chem 2015;17:5131–5. [122] Yoon JS, Lee Y, Ryu J, Kim Y-A, Park ED, Choi J-W, et al. Production of high carbon number hydrocarbon fuels from a lignin-derived α-O-4 phenolic dimer, benzyl phenyl ether, via isomerization of ether to alcohols on high-surface-area silica-alumina aerogel catalysts. Appl Catal B: Environ 2013;142–143:668–76. [123] Stiles AB. Catalyst manufacture. CRC Press; 1995. [124] Geus JW, van Dillen AJ. Preparation of supported catalysts by deposition– precipitation. Handbook of heterogeneous catalysis. KGaA: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co; 2008. [125] Richardson J, Twigg M, Spencer M. Fundamental and Applied Catalysis: Principle of Catalyst Development; 1989. [126] Ertl G, Knözinger H, Schüth F, Weitkamp J. , 2nd ed.Handbook of heterogeneous catalysis, 8 volumes. Wiley-Vch; 2008. [127] Lee H, Juan J, Taufiq-Yap Y. Preparation and application of binary acid–base CaO–La2O3 catalyst for biodiesel production. Renew Energy 2015;74:124–32. [128] Veiga PM, Luna AS, de Figueiredo Portilho M, de Oliveira Veloso C, Henriques CAZn. Al-catalysts for heterogeneous biodiesel production: Basicity and process optimization. Energy 2014;75:453–62. [129] Lu F, Yu W, Yu X, Tu S-T. Transesterification of vegetable oil to biodiesel over Mgo-Li2O catalysts templated by a PDMS-PEO comb-like copolymer. Energy Procedia 2015;75:72–7. [130] Sirajudin N, Jusoff K, Yani S, Ifa L, Roesyadi A. Biofuel production from catalytic cracking of palm oil. Catalyst 2013;5:9. [131] Tsubota S, Cunningham D, Bando Y, Haruta M. Preparation of nanometer gold strongly interacted with TiO2 and the structure sensitivity in low-temperature oxidation of CO. Stud Surf Sci Catal 1995;91:227–35. [132] Vaccari A. Preparation and catalytic properties of cationic and anionic clays. Catal Today 1998;41:53–71. [133] Page J. Applied Heterogeneous Catalysis: Design, Manufacture, Use of solid catalysts. Technip, Paris. 1987:291. [134] Maldonado-Hódar FJ, Morales-Torres S, Ribeiro F, Silva ER, Pérez-Cadenas AF, Carrasco-Marín F, et al. Development of carbon coatings for cordierite foams: an alternative to cordierite honeycombs. Langmuir. 2008;24:3267–73. [135] Mohadesi M, Hojabri Z, Moradi G. Biodiesel production using alkali earth metal oxides catalysts synthesized by sol-gel method. Biofuel Res J 2014;1:30–3. [136] Le Page J-F, Cosyns J, Courty P. Applied heterogeneous catalysis: design, manufacture, use of solid catalysts. Editions Technip; 1987. [137] Bhatia S. Zeolite catalysts: principles and applications. CRC Press; 1989. [138] Richardson J. Principles of Catalyst Development in" Fundamental and Applied Catalysis" Series (MV Twigg, MS Spencer, Eds.). Plenum Press, New York; 1989. [139] Sing K, Rouquerol J, Ertl G, Knözinger H, Weitkamp J. Ertl G, Knözinger H, Schüth F, Weitkamp J, editors. Handbook of heterogeneous catalysis, 2. WileyVch; 1997. p. 427. [140] Conesa J, Esteban P, Dexpert H, Bazin D. Characterization of catalyst structures by extended X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Stud Surf Sci Catal 1990;57:A225–A297. [141] Thomas JM. The ineluctable need for in situ methods of characterising solid catalysts as a prerequisite to engineering active sites. Chem-a Eur J 1997;3:1557–62. [142] Engelhardt G, Michel D. High-resolution solid-state NMR of silicates and zeolites. New York: Wiley; 1987. [143] Bell A, Pines A. NMR Techniques in CatalysisMarcel Dekker. New York, Basel, Hong Kong; 1994. [144] Mestl G, Knözinger H, Ertl G, Knözinger H, Weitkamp J. Ertl G, Knözinger H, Schüth F, Weitkamp J, editors. Handbook of heterogeneous catalysis, 2. WileyVCh; 1997. [145] Susanto BH, Nasikin M, Wiyo A. Synthesis of renewable diesel through hydrodeoxygenation using Pd/zeolite catalysts. Procedia Chem 2014;9:139–50. [146] Sasidharan M, Kumar R. Transesterification over various zeolites under liquidphase conditions. J Mol Catal A: Chem 2004;210:93–8.

fuel range alkanes and aromatics via integrated catalytic processes of intact biomass. Fuel. 2015;160:375–85. Zhang X, Lei H, Zhu L, Wu J, Chen S. From lignocellulosic biomass to renewable cycloalkanes for jet fuels. Green Chem 2015;17:4736–47. Zhang X, Lei H, Zhu L, Zhu X, Qian M, Yadavalli G, et al. Optimizing carbon efficiency of jet fuel range alkanes from cellulose co-fed with polyethylene via catalytically combined processes. Bioresour Technol 2016;214:45–54. Ju C, Zhou Y, He M, Wu Q, Fang Y. Improvement of selectivity from lipid to jet fuel by rational integration of feedstock properties and catalytic strategy. Renew Energy 2016;97:1–7. Herskowitz M, Landau MV, Reizner Y, Berger D. A commercially-viable, one-step process for production of green diesel from soybean oil on Pt/SAPO-11. Fuel 2013;111:157–64. Li T, Cheng J, Huang R, Zhou J, Cen K. Conversion of waste cooking oil to jet biofuel with nickel-based mesoporous zeolite Y catalyst. Bioresour Technol 2015;197:289–94. Liu S, Zhu Q, Guan Q, He L, Li W. Bio-aviation fuel production from hydroprocessing castor oil promoted by the nickel-based bifunctional catalysts. Bioresour Technol 2015;183:93–100. Weng Y, Qiu S, Ma L, Liu Q, Ding M, Zhang Q, et al. Jet-fuel range hydrocarbons from biomass-derived sorbitol over Ni-HZSM-5/SBA-15 catalyst. Catalysts 2015;5:2147. Lu M, Liu X, Li Y, Nie Y, Lu X, Deng D, et al. Hydrocracking of bio-alkanes over Pt/Al-MCM-41 mesoporous molecular sieves for bio-jet fuel production. J Renew Sustain Energy 2016;8:053103. Twaiq FA, Zabidi NAM, Bhatia S. Catalytic conversion of palm oil to hydrocarbons: performance of various zeolite catalysts. Industrial & Eng Chem Res 1999;38:3230–7. Choi I-H, Hwang K-R, Han J-S, Lee K-H, Yun JS, Lee J-S. The direct production of jet-fuel from non-edible oil in a single-step process. Fuel 2015;158:98–104. Van Donk S, Janssen AH, Bitter JH, de Jong KP. Generation, characterization, and impact of mesopores in zeolite catalysts. Catal Rev 2003;45:297–319. Jacobs PA. Carboniogenic activity of zeolites. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1977. Deutschmann O, Knözinger H, Kochloefl K, Turek T. Heterogeneous catalysis and solid catalysts. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry; 2009. Gates BC. Fluid catalytic cracking with zeolite catalysts, Paul B. Venuto and E. Thomas Habib, Jr., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1979, 156 pages, $19.50. AIChE Journal. 1980;26:332-. Weitkamp J. Zeolites and catalysis. Solid State Ion 2000;131:175–88. Twaiq FA, Zabidi NA, Bhatia S. Catalytic conversion of palm oil to hydrocarbons: performance of various zeolite catalysts. Ind Eng Chem Res 1999;38:3230–7. Mante OD, Agblevor F, Oyama S, McClung R. The effect of hydrothermal treatment of FCC catalysts and ZSM-5 additives in catalytic conversion of biomass. Appl Catal A: Gen 2012;445:312–20. Carlson TR, Vispute TP, Huber GW. Green gasoline by catalytic fast pyrolysis of solid biomass derived compounds. ChemSusChem 2008;1:397–400. Wang L, Lei H, Lee J, Chen S, Tang J, Ahring B. Aromatic hydrocarbons production from packed-bed catalysis coupled with microwave pyrolysis of Douglas fir sawdust pellets. RSC Adv 2013;3:14609–15. Wei Y, Parmentier TE, de Jong KP, Zečević J. Tailoring and visualizing the pore architecture of hierarchical zeolites. Chem Soc Rev 2015;44:7234–61. Van Bekkum H, Kouwenhoven HW. Progress in the use of zeolites in organic Synthesis. Stud Surf Sci Catal 2007;168:947–98. Margolese D, Melero J, Christiansen S, Chmelka B, Stucky G. Direct syntheses of ordered SBA-15 mesoporous silica containing sulfonic acid groups. Chem Mater 2000;12:2448–59. Shah P, Ramaswamy AV, Lazar K, Ramaswamy V. Synthesis and characterization of tin oxide-modified mesoporous SBA-15 molecular sieves and catalytic activity in trans-esterification reaction. Appl Catal A: Gen 2004;273:239–48. Kageyama K, Ogino S-i, Aida T, Tatsumi T. Mesoporous zeolite as a new class of catalyst for controlled polymerization of lactones. Macromolecules 1998;31:4069–73. Zhang ZC, Dery M, Zhang S, Steichen D. New process for the production of branched-chain fatty acids. J Surfact Deterg 2004;7:211–5. Buzetzki E, Sidorová K, Cvengrošová Z, Kaszonyi A, Cvengroš J. The influence of zeolite catalysts on the products of rapeseed oil cracking. Fuel Process Technol 2011;92:1623–31. Chung K-H, Park B-G. Esterification of oleic acid in soybean oil on zeolite catalysts with different acidity. J Ind Eng Chem 2009;15:388–92.

10