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Organizing education for minorities: enhancing minority access and use of the new information technologies in higher education
Education & Computing 8 (1992) 119-127 Elsevier
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Organizing education for minorities: enhancing minority access and use of the new information technologies in higher education Paul
Resta
Center for Technology and Education, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
Abstract
Resta, P., Organizing education for minorities: enhancing minority access and use of the new information technologies in higher education, Education & Computing 8 (1992) 119-127 Many minority students in the United States are entering higher education with less expertise and experience in using the new academic tools than majority culture students. The lack of computer competence can become an additional barrier, (in addition to the fiscal, cultural and educational barriers) to their successful pursuit and completion of an academic degree program. This paper discusses: the rapid changes which are taking place in the use of computers and related technologies in higher education institutions; the potential impact of present inequities in pre-college access and use of computers experienced by minority students, particularly Black, Hispanic and American Indian students; and strategies and recommendations to enhance the computer competence of minority students in institutions of higher education and public schools. Keywords: higher education; use of technology by minorities; computer access; computer use; computer equity; university
resources; support services for minorities.
Introduction A n e w e r a of c o m p u t i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s is app e a r i n g on t h e university c a m p u s . T h e s e r a d i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m t h e ways in w h i c h k n o w l e d g e is created, m a n a g e d a n d d i s s e m i n a t e d . S t u d e n t s with k n o w l e d g e a b o u t a n d access to c o m p u t e r s a r e a b l e to use p e r s o n a l p r o d u c t i v i t y tools such as word-processing, spellirig-checkers, graphics, d a t a b a s e s , s p r e a d s h e e t s , statistical a n d o t h e r a n a lytic p r o g r a m s , a n d t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , to e n r i c h t h e i r l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s a n d e n h a n c e t h e i r academic performance. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m a n y m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s a r e ent e r i n g h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n with l i m i t e d k n o w l e d g e a n d l i m i t e d skill in t h e use of t h e new a c a d e m i c tools. T h e i r l a c k of c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c e o f t e n serves as a b a r r i e r , (in a d d i t i o n to t h e fiscal, c u l t u r a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l b a r r i e r s ) to t h e i r successful p u r s u i t a n d c o m p l e t i o n of an a c a d e m i c d e g r e e p r o g r a m . This p a p e r discusses: © 1992 - IFIP
-the infusion of i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y resources into t h e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n curriculum, -the p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d by m i n o r i t y students, p a r t i c u l a r l y Black, H i s p a n i c a n d A m e r i can I n d i a n s t u d e n t s in p u r s u i n g h i g h e r e d u c a tion p r o g r a m s resulting f r o m l a c k of p r e - c o l l e g e compjater e x p e r i e n c e a n d k n o w l e d g e , - s t r a t e g i e s a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s to e n h a n c e t h e c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c e of m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s in institutions of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a n d p u b l i c schools.
The impact of the new information technologies on the university learning environment C o m p u t i n g on college c a m p u s e s is in a state of transition. D u r i n g t h e p a s t d e c a d e , t h e r e has b e e n an explosive g r o w t h in t h e use o f c o m p u t e r s a n d r e l a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s in h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . Inc r e a s i n g l y o n e finds c o m p u t e r s in faculty a n d
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administrative offices as well as research facilities. In addition, the number of microcomputer work stations available to students at various locations across the campus continues to expand [8]. Campus-wide communication networks, linking the campus' microcomputers together, provide increased access to shared computer systems and databases available both on and off campus. These "information-rich" university environments are beginning to change radically how faculty teach and how students learn. As noted by Weissman in 1987 [15], today's users of academic computing technology come from nearly every discipline on campus. The greatest growth has come from those academic disciplines new to computing, such as the arts, humanities, education, history, anthropology, etc. The university faculty is discovering that traditional learning activities such as lectures, seminars, class projects, tests, library assignments, and personal assistance can be accomplished in very different ways with the new information technologies. The electronic university library is also coming. Electronic storage of text and graphics is more economical than storage of paper. Electronic books, serials, maps and other documents will make it possible for faculties to develop customized textbooks and for students to develop more current and comprehensive research papers. A number of private universities now require all students to have computers. These are either supplied by the university or purchased by the student. In other institutions of higher education, some academic departments (e.g., computer science, engineering, etc.) may require students to have their own personal computer. Many universities presently offer substantial discounts to students and faculty to purchase computers for personal use. In recent years, we have seen a shift in the norms for student work in higher education. Handwritten and even typewriter-prepared papers are rapidly vanishing from the face of higher education. Increasingly, students are completing their papers using word processors, spelling checkers, g r a m m a r / s y n t a x checkers, and printing them out on university laser printers. Students with skills in setting up and using databases and spreadsheets often have an advantage in compiling and organizing information for their classes. In addition, students who have skills in using
computer-based communications can access information from national and regional databases to enhance their research projects and papers. Some university students have even secured consultant assistance from experts in other universities and national laboratories through higher education electronic networks such as Bitnet. These are only a few examples of the ways today's students are benefiting from the new information technologies. Many far more powerful and sophisticated computer tools and applications are emerging in college campuses across the country. It is clear that students who are already familiar and comfortable in using computers are able to take full advantage of these new information tools and resources in pursuing their academic studies. On the other hand, students entering college who are unfamiliar with the use of these powerful new information tools will find it more and more difficult to compete with their peers. Unfortunately, many minority students entering higher education today lack the skills and experience to use computers to enrich and support their academic studies. This problem stems in art from the inequities in access and use of computers in their pre-college preparation. Unless the present trend is reversed, these students are in danger of remaining a class of information-disadvantaged students.
Race/ethnicity and computer competence The differences in computer knowledge and skills between majority and minority culture students have been most clearly shown in the national study of computer competence conducted by Educational Testing Service (ETS). As part of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), ETS surveyed the nation's third, seventh and eleventh-grade students for their knowledge and skill in using a computer. The study results showed that White students had a clear advantage over Black and Hispanic students at all three grade levels. The greatest performance differences, however, were found in the higher grades [6]. In brief, the study showed that Black and Hispanic high-school students had much lower levels of computer competence than their White peers.
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Computer experience and computer competence As might be expected, the survey showed that computer experience is consistently associated with computer competence across all r a c i a l / ethnic groups. That is, the minority students who had experience with computers, did consistently better than those who did not. For example, Hispanic eleventh grade students who had completed a computer course, had substantially higher scores than those who had not. Similarly, Hispanic students who had access to a computer at home, had a higher m e a n score c o m p a r e d to those who did not. The study points out that there are other potential contributors to computer competence associated with access to a computer in the home, particularly socioeconomic status (SES), which may go well beyond whether or not a family owns a computer. Edwards [5] indicates that the average income among purchasers of home computers is $35,000. The average income of Black families is $16,786 and the average income for Hispanic families is $19,027; both well below that of h o m e computer owners. The important point, however, is that educational computing instruction and home access to computers are related to student computer competence in all r a c i a l / e t h n i c groups. The N A E P study results confirm the observations of a number of educators that White students have a definite advantage over Black and Hispanic students in computer knowledge and skill at the high school level. They carry this advantage with them as they enter the increasingly computer intensive university environments. Much of this difference is attributable to the computer experiences provided to students. T h e r e are four sources of computer experience for children: - required computer literacy or use of computers in content areas in schools, - self-selected computer courses; - h o m e use of computers; - p u b l i c access, such as in library, museum, school computer clubs, community centers, etc.
Inequities in computer education What are some of the factors which may contribute to the lack of computer experience of Black and Hispanic students observed in the
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N A E P study? T h r e e factors, identified by researchers, indicate lack of access to computers, differential use of computers and the lack of role models.
Lack of access to computers Despite the rapid infusion of computers into our nation's schools, there still remain major concerns about whether minorities have the same access and use of computers as experienced by White middle class and upper class students. A national survey of over 2100 schools in the US suggests that major inequalities in access and use of computers still exist across racial and economic groups [1]. The survey indicates that Black elementary school students were about three times as likely as white students to attend a school without computers. Cole and Griffin [2] also indicate that more computers are being placed in the hands of middle and u p p e r class children than in the hands of poor and minority students. This trend may well be continued in the near future. As noted by Edwards [5], not only do schools with low percentages of poor and minority students have more computers than schools with higher percentages of poor and minority students, but they are also acquiring them at a faster rate. Differential use of computers Although access to computers is necessary, it is not a sufficient condition to assure that minority students will develop the skills and knowledge to use computers to enhance their learning and productivity. Computers may be used as "cognitive enhancers" and personal productivity tools or they can simply be used as "electronic drill sergeants", continuing and transferring the tedious tradition of workbooks to an electronic format. At present, in an effort to improve performance on standardized tests, poor and minority students are more likely to spend computer time on rote drill and practice learning, and less likely to be asked or expected to make judgments, draw inferences or engage in critical thinking or problem solving with computers [4]. The 1985 national survey, conducted by the Center for the Social Organization of Schools, indicates that students of low socio-economic status (SES) spend far more time on drill and practice activities than do high SES students. Cole and Griffin [2] also found that computers tend to
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be used more for rote drill and practice with poor children and for "cognitive enrichment" activities with middle and upper class students. T h e y attribute the present situation in part to the long held educational ideology which asserts that children must first learn the basics before proceeding to higher order problems. Stanley Pogrow, a professor at the University of Arizona, has demonstrated that minority and low SES students can learn higher order thinking skills using computers. Project Micro, in working with Black children in Georgia, North Carolina and Mississippi, has similarly shown that minority and low SES students can learn higher order thinking skills using Computers [5]. There is also emerging evidence that students engaged in higher level computer applications can increase their proficiency in the "basic skills". For example, in one study, students working with problem-solving and simulation software showed greater gains in reading comprehension than students taking widely-used computer-assisted drill and practice reading programs [9]. There is growing recognition that for minority and poor students the type of computer use is important in their development of computer competence. Although drill and practice software may be appropriate for certain educational needs, it should not prohibit minority students from using computers as a writing, problem solving, and personal productivity tool. As noted by Watt [14], failure to do so will only aggravate the present situation in which "Affluent students are thus learning to tell the computer what to do, while less affluent students are learning to do what the computer tells them." Lack of role models An additional barrier to increasing minority student computer competence is the lack of computer-using role models for the students. The NAEP survey revealed that, both in the seventh and eleventh grades, more than 90 percent of computer coordinators were White. Black and Hispanic computer coordinators were under-represented compared to the percentage of Black and Hispanic population. The problem of underrepresentation was particularly acute for Hispanic coordinators who composed only 1 percent of the high school computer coordinators [6]. These findings are consistent with those of Becker
[1], who found that White students are far more likely to have a computer-using teacher in the classroom than minority students. All of these problems must be addressed and overcome to enable minority students to develop the computer competencies needed to effectively use the new technology resources available in our nation's universities and colleges.
Enhancing minority access and use of computers in education
To help remedy the lack of computer competence of many minority students on entry, immediate action is required by institutions of higher education. In addition, a major effort is required to increase minority access and appropriate use of computers in our nation's public schools. The following are some recommendations which may help reduce the growing disparity in computer competence between entering minority and majority culture college students. Prowiding equitable computer access for minority students At present computers and other technological resources are more readily available in affluent schools across the nation. Efforts must be made to assure that computer hardware and other technological resources are equitably distributed among all schools. In addition, funds must be made available to help cover the multiple costs associated with effective utilization of computers, including software, teacher training, technical assistance and administrative support. In addition, special efforts should be made to help increase minority use of existing computer facilities in public schools and universities, after school and on Saturdays. George Washington University is operating a project, funded by the National Science Foundation, to encourage female students, particularly girls of colour, to enter the science field, especially computer science. This project, directed by Dianne Martin, provides both a Saturday academy and an exciting and intense summer school program. A project at the University of New Mexico Center for Technology and Education also focuses on use of computers by minorities which
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fosters problem solving and higher order thinking skills. The project uses on-line simulations, bulletin boards, and multiple school site science projects to help strengthen the mathematics, science and language skills of American Indian students [161.
State leadership States must play a major role in funding and developing plans for the equitable acquisition and distribution of computer resources. A few states have initiated efforts and plans to help provide more equitable distribution of computer resources to schools. New Hampshire, for example, recently provided funding to enable teachers to have a computer in their classroom. Texas has recently completed an ambitious plan to increase the numbers of computers in schools in both rural and urban areas. Other states are also including provisions for technology resources in their educational reform packages. Role of the federal government Leadership is also needed at the national level and additional efforts should be made to integrate the computer education needs into appropriate existing federal programs. Initial (Chapter 1) funding, for example, has been used for the purchase of computers, but federal and state regulations often limit their use as a learning tool for disadvantaged students. In addition, Chapter 1 programs continue to emphasize the need for basic skills development in reading, language arts and mathematics and the most frequent use of computers has been for drill and practice. Within the past few years, there are some hopeful signs that this trend is beginning to change. For example, several Chapter 1 programs are now beginning to use computers as writing tools for children. Recent efforts to integrate higher order thinking skills into the computer use of minority and poor students should be encouraged and expanded (e.g. Project Micro [5], the Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) program, etc.). Higher education roles and responsibilities Until these problems are resolved at the public school level, institutions of higher education must recognize and develop strategies to assist minority and other students who enter college with deficits in computer competence. The following
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are some strategies which may be used to enhance the technological competence of minority students. (1) Providing special programs and summer camps for minority students. Colleges and universities should work collaboratively with public schools to develop programs designed to enhance the interest, knowledge and skills of minority students in mathematics and science and the use of computers as a learning tool. These efforts may include: (a) The sponsoring of after school sessions and Saturday academies for minority students. Universities and colleges may use their computer, science, and mathematics laboratory facilities, as well as college faculty and students as instructors and tutors, to offer special after school sessions and Saturday academies. A number of universities have developed such offerings through the federally funded programs such as Upward Bound, as well as through state funding. In addition to providing minority students with instruction in science, mathematics and use of computers, the programs should also emphasize the writing process (using the computer as a writing tool). (b) Involving college faculty and students (particularly minority members) in providing supplementary instruction and tutoring to minority students and to motivate them towards higher education. Minority faculty and students in universities can be helpful in demonstrating the uses of computers in their research and academic work. Through these efforts they will serve as role models for students and enhance their awareness of the importance of computer-related technologies in all academic disciplines and career fields. College faculty and students can also serve as sponsors or resource persons for school computer clubs and after school computer programs. (2) Increasing college counsellor awareness of importance of minority student computer competence. College counsellors and advisers need to become aware of the lack of computer competence of many entering minority students and should make a particular effort to inquire about the general computer experience and background of the student. If students are entering without appropriate computer experience, counsellors should encourage them to take advantage of courses, workshops or other training opportuni-
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ties, available on the campus, which may enhance their knowledge and skill in using computers in pursuing their academic program. (3) Providing on-campus computer-related training and technical assistance to college-entering minority students. The institutions of higher education should ensure that training opportunities are readily available, on-campus, for minority students both during the day and evening hours. Student microcomputer laboratories should be staffed by personnel who are able to help train and assist minority students with limited computer backgrounds. In several universities I have visited, these laboratories are often student hackers who can only talk in "techno-speak" which is both incomprehensible and frightening to the naive user. Whenever possible, hire minority staff to serve in these positions. Special computer application courses should be developed and offered for academic credit. Such courses should be organized around student productivity applications such as word processing, graphics, spreadsheets, databases, telecommunications, etc. The awarding of academic credit for such courses is clearly warranted, based on the importance of computer competence to the student, not only in completing their academic studies, but in their post-baccalaureate careers. (4) Providing student-buy programs and financial assistance to enable minority students to have their own personal computer. At present, very few Black and Hispanic students have access to computers in their homes compared to White students. In addition, low SES minority college students typically do not have the financial resources to acquire their own personal computer in college. As noted in the recent report "Education That Works: An Action Plan for the Education of Minorities" [7], issued by the Action Council on Minority Education, the level of financial assistance provided has not kept pace with increases in the costs of attending college during the past decade. In addition, spending on the Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant has fallen 14.7 in constant dollars and the College Work Study Program has fallen 28 percent in constant dollars from 1980 to 1988. The college loan burdens of minority students are often greater than the total annual income of their families. This situation is not only shattering the dreams of many minority
students across the country, but renders "unthinkable" the possibility of the students having access to their own personal computer. To remedy this problem, the federal government should increase the level of financial assistance provided to low income minority students. In addition, as a special incentive for the use of the computer as a powerful personal productivity tool by minority students, a special provision should be considered for inclusion in the federal regulations, which "forgives" the cost of the purchase of the computer if the student completes his program of studies. Many colleges and universities have established special student-buy programs which enable them to purchase computers at substantial savings. Efforts should be made to negotiate the best possible prices with computer hardware and software vendors by the institutions of higher education. In addition, universities should explore, with local financial institutions, the possibility of long term loans for student purchases of computer equipment. (5) Providing inservice training for teachers in schools serving minority students. Our nation's colleges and universities must play a stronger role in helping change the current situation in which schools serving minorities have fewer computerusing teachers than those serving white children [1]. Colleges of education must expand their inservice training efforts to enable minority teachers, as well as those in schools serving minority children, to be comfortable and effective in using the new tools for learning. Special computing for teachers workshops, training sessions and courses should be offered both during the academic year and summer sessions. Such courses should model strategies for integrating computers into the content areas. The courses and workshops should be fun! They should not emphasize jargon and should be taught, whenever possible, by a minority master teacher or faculty member. The courses should be designed to reduce computer anxiety and to help teachers understand the uses of computers in bilingual settings and as problem solving, writing and personal productivity tools for both students and teachers. States should facilitate such efforts by providing additional funding to colleges of education to expand their training and technical assistance ser-
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vices to schools, particularly those situated in rural, isolated areas. In addition, colleges of education need to take whatever actions necessary to assure that all graduating teachers will be able to effectively use the new information technology learning tools in their classroom instruction. In many instances, the present curriculum may need restructuring to integrate the new information technologies into the methods and content area courses. College of education equipment and facility needs are often assigned a low priority by the university central administration. Consequently, at present, many colleges do not have sufficient state-of-the-art equipment and facilities to adequately train teachers in the use of networked computers, hypermedia, interactive computer videodisk, and the multimedia computer applications which are emerging in schools. This situation needs to be changed if colleges of education are to adequately prepare teachers to competently use the exciting array of new computerbased learning tools. States should provide funding for equipment to colleges of education to assure that they are able to have access and model the current uses of technology in instruction. (6) Recruiting minority students into teacher training programs. To help provide needed minority technology-using role models in the schools, colleges and universities must develop more effective strategies for recruiting minorities into the teaching profession and particularly in the fields of mathematics, science and technology. Universities need to expand the support services for minority students on campus to help provide counselling and tutorial assistance to minority students entering such programs. States can help encourage the recruitment of minority students into the teaching profession by providing financial incentives for recruiting and retaining minority students. (7) Supporting research-and-development efforts to enhance minority student use of technology. Institutions of higher education need to encourage and support research studies of the impact of computers on the cognitive learning styles of minority students and the most effective ways to enhance the learning of students with limited English proficiency. In addition, research is needed on the potential of interactive computer videodisk, hypermedia and multimedia for ira-
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proving the quality of education for minorities. More efforts, such as those of Gary Bitter and Ray Padilla, in developing interactive computervideo programs to raise the mathematical achievement of Hispanic students are needed [17]. There is also a critical need to develop genderfree paradigms for teaching about computers and to develop software which is not ethnically biased. The federal government should increase funding to institutions of higher education for research and development in these areas. (8) Using electronic networks as a means of contacting minority students and teachers. Across the country, there is growing interest and awareness in the use of electronic networking as a means of providing information and facilitating communication between educators, school districts, state agencies and universities. Institutions of higher education with their greater information processing expertise and resources can and should play a leadership role in the development and use of such networks to: (a) provide greater access to college information resources, training and technical assistance to teachers, counsellors, and administrators. Through the use of computer-based electronic networks, a variety of bulletin boards and databases may be developed to provide useful information to teachers and other educators. Electronic networks can also be used to help support on-site inservice training and to provide follow-on assistance and projects. The University of New Mexico Center for Technology has developed state, regional and national educational electronic networks to address the diverse training and information needs of teachers, counsellors and administrators in public and federallyfunded schools. These networks have proven particularly helpful in providing information and technical assistance to teachers who often feel professionally isolated, even within large urban school districts. For example, science teachers across New Mexico are able to learn of new science education articles, materials, software, museum exhibits, field trip opportunities, potential funding sources, equipment donations, etc., and to take on-line courses. Using electronic bulletin boards and databases, information on university academic programs, schedule of classes, admissions requirements, fi-
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nancial assistance, etc., is also made available to school counsellors to assist their students in making college selection decisions and to track their admissions status. Electronic networks can specifically developed to address the educational needs of minority students. One such network, the Educational Native American Network (ENAN), was established by the University of New Mexico Center for Technology and Education and the Bureau of Indian Affairs to support schools serving American Indian children. The network provides teachers with access to a wide range of information, technical assistance and training resources. Through the network, teachers are able to share information on effective practices and classroom ideas and materials, access curriculum materials and resources related to Indian education from universities, national laboratories, museums, etc., and take on-line courses. It also supports multiple classroom site instructional projects [16]. (b) provide supplemental instruction, tutorial assistance and information resources to minority students, particularly to those in rural areas. Education-based telecommunications systems can prove to be an effective means for providing a number of information and instructional support services to minority students in rural areas. For example, the Center for Technology and Education and the Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute have developed a unique project to explore how computer-based communications can be used to enrich the learning opportunities of Indian and Hispanic students in rural, isolated schools in New Mexico and Arizona. The project provides a n u m b e r of on-line activities and projects for students to strengthen their mathematics, science, communication and computer skills. Another example of such an activity is the current D e e p Space Probe Simulation Project. Schools on the network participate as separate earth tracking stations. Over a period of weeks each station receives a specific flow of digital information over the network (much as they would from a real space probe satellite as it passes near a planet). The students at each school determine the quality of the data and compile, integrate and analyze their data with that of the other tracking stations in order to develop accurate picture of the planet. Network-based projects such as these help stimulate minority student interest and com-
petence in science, mathematics and in the use of the computer as a communications and problemsolving tool. In addition to such activities, students have access over the network to university faculty, national laboratory scientists and others who serve as "electronic mentors" to students, responding to questions and assisting them on science fair and other research projects. The minority students participating in this project over their three years in high school will have established both "on-line" and personal working relationships with both college faculty and students. Such contacts, it is believed, will raise the interest and aspirations of minority students for entering college, while strengthening their knowledge of science and mathematics, as well as their skills in writing and the use of the computer as a tool. These are only some of the ways institutions of higher education can help address the educational needs of minority students, while building their skills in using the computer as a problemsolving and communications tool. T h e r e are many other effective strategies which may be used, such as those found effective in increasing the mathematics, science and technology participation and performance of Hispanic students [11]. Through such efforts, minority students can increase their computer competence, take greater advantage of the information resources within the university, enhance their own academic productivity and participate fully in our increasingly technological society.
References [1] H.J. Becker, Equity in school computer use: National data and neglected considerations, paper presented at the 1986 annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, 1986. [2] M. Cole and P. Griffin, Contextual factors in education: improving science and mathematics education for minorities and women (Wisconsin Center or Education Research, Madison, Wisconsin, 1987). [3] B. Clewell, C. Thorpe and B. Anderson, Intervention programs in math, science, and computer science for minority and females in grades four through eight (Education Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey, 1987). [4] Educational Technology Center, Computers, Equity and Urban Schools (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1985).
P. Resta / Organizing education for minorities [5] C. Edwards, Enhancing minority student educational opportunities through instructional computing: A report on Project Micro, paper presented at the 1988 Council of Great City Schools National Technology Forum, San Diego, CA, 1988. [6] M.E. Martinez and N.A. Mead, Computer competence: the first national assessment (Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ, 1988). [7] S.M. McBay, Education That Works: An Action Plan for the Education of Minorities (Action Council on Minority Education, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1990). [8] R.K. Neff, Computing in the University, Implications of the new technologies, Perspectives in Computing 7 (1987) 14-22. [9] P. Norton and V. Resta, Investigating the impact of computer instruction on elementary students' reading, Educational Technology 26 (March, 1986) 35-41. [10] Project on Equal Education Rights, Beyond the Star Trek syndrome to an egalitarian future: "Where no one has gone before." (NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, Washington District of Columbia, 1986). [11] P.E. Resta, Strengthening math education for Hispanics: new community college, public school and private sector partnerships (Ford Foundation Report, Border College Consortium, E1 Centro, CA, 1985). [12] P.E. Resta, Equity of school access and use of computer technology by Hispanic students, paper presented at "Technology and the education of Hispanics: the promise and the dilemma", conference held at The Tomas Rivera
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Center, Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA, June 20-21, 1986. [13] P.E. Resta and B. Kurshan, Educational telecommunications: the good, bad and the ugly, paper presented at the First international conference on telecommunications in education: "learners and the global village", held in Jerusalem, Israel, August 1989. [14] D. Watt, Education for citizenship in a computer-based society, in: R. Seidel, R. Anderson and B. Hunter, eds., Computer Literacy (Academic Press, New York, 1982) 59. [15] R.F. Weissman, The two cultures of academic computing, Perspectives in Computing 7 (1987) 4-12. Paul E. Resta is a professor in the
Department of Curriculum & Instruction and Director of the Learning Technology Center at the University of Texas at Austin. Dr. Resta has served as President of the International Council for Computers in Education and as founding Co-President of the International Society for Technology in Education. He currently is a member of the US Department of Education Technology Steering Committee. He is Chair of the Smithsonian Institution Off-Site Technology Applications Committee and was the US Coordinator for ITEC, an international study of the cognitive effects of computers on children.
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Organizing education for minorities: enhancing minority access and use of the new information technologies in higher education Paul
Resta
Center for Technology and Education, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
Abstract
Resta, P., Organizing education for minorities: enhancing minority access and use of the new information technologies in higher education, Education & Computing 8 (1992) 119-127 Many minority students in the United States are entering higher education with less expertise and experience in using the new academic tools than majority culture students. The lack of computer competence can become an additional barrier, (in addition to the fiscal, cultural and educational barriers) to their successful pursuit and completion of an academic degree program. This paper discusses: the rapid changes which are taking place in the use of computers and related technologies in higher education institutions; the potential impact of present inequities in pre-college access and use of computers experienced by minority students, particularly Black, Hispanic and American Indian students; and strategies and recommendations to enhance the computer competence of minority students in institutions of higher education and public schools. Keywords: higher education; use of technology by minorities; computer access; computer use; computer equity; university
resources; support services for minorities.
Introduction A n e w e r a of c o m p u t i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s is app e a r i n g on t h e university c a m p u s . T h e s e r a d i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m t h e ways in w h i c h k n o w l e d g e is created, m a n a g e d a n d d i s s e m i n a t e d . S t u d e n t s with k n o w l e d g e a b o u t a n d access to c o m p u t e r s a r e a b l e to use p e r s o n a l p r o d u c t i v i t y tools such as word-processing, spellirig-checkers, graphics, d a t a b a s e s , s p r e a d s h e e t s , statistical a n d o t h e r a n a lytic p r o g r a m s , a n d t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , to e n r i c h t h e i r l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s a n d e n h a n c e t h e i r academic performance. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m a n y m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s a r e ent e r i n g h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n with l i m i t e d k n o w l e d g e a n d l i m i t e d skill in t h e use of t h e new a c a d e m i c tools. T h e i r l a c k of c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c e o f t e n serves as a b a r r i e r , (in a d d i t i o n to t h e fiscal, c u l t u r a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l b a r r i e r s ) to t h e i r successful p u r s u i t a n d c o m p l e t i o n of an a c a d e m i c d e g r e e p r o g r a m . This p a p e r discusses: © 1992 - IFIP
-the infusion of i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y resources into t h e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n curriculum, -the p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d by m i n o r i t y students, p a r t i c u l a r l y Black, H i s p a n i c a n d A m e r i can I n d i a n s t u d e n t s in p u r s u i n g h i g h e r e d u c a tion p r o g r a m s resulting f r o m l a c k of p r e - c o l l e g e compjater e x p e r i e n c e a n d k n o w l e d g e , - s t r a t e g i e s a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s to e n h a n c e t h e c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c e of m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s in institutions of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a n d p u b l i c schools.
The impact of the new information technologies on the university learning environment C o m p u t i n g on college c a m p u s e s is in a state of transition. D u r i n g t h e p a s t d e c a d e , t h e r e has b e e n an explosive g r o w t h in t h e use o f c o m p u t e r s a n d r e l a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s in h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . Inc r e a s i n g l y o n e finds c o m p u t e r s in faculty a n d
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administrative offices as well as research facilities. In addition, the number of microcomputer work stations available to students at various locations across the campus continues to expand [8]. Campus-wide communication networks, linking the campus' microcomputers together, provide increased access to shared computer systems and databases available both on and off campus. These "information-rich" university environments are beginning to change radically how faculty teach and how students learn. As noted by Weissman in 1987 [15], today's users of academic computing technology come from nearly every discipline on campus. The greatest growth has come from those academic disciplines new to computing, such as the arts, humanities, education, history, anthropology, etc. The university faculty is discovering that traditional learning activities such as lectures, seminars, class projects, tests, library assignments, and personal assistance can be accomplished in very different ways with the new information technologies. The electronic university library is also coming. Electronic storage of text and graphics is more economical than storage of paper. Electronic books, serials, maps and other documents will make it possible for faculties to develop customized textbooks and for students to develop more current and comprehensive research papers. A number of private universities now require all students to have computers. These are either supplied by the university or purchased by the student. In other institutions of higher education, some academic departments (e.g., computer science, engineering, etc.) may require students to have their own personal computer. Many universities presently offer substantial discounts to students and faculty to purchase computers for personal use. In recent years, we have seen a shift in the norms for student work in higher education. Handwritten and even typewriter-prepared papers are rapidly vanishing from the face of higher education. Increasingly, students are completing their papers using word processors, spelling checkers, g r a m m a r / s y n t a x checkers, and printing them out on university laser printers. Students with skills in setting up and using databases and spreadsheets often have an advantage in compiling and organizing information for their classes. In addition, students who have skills in using
computer-based communications can access information from national and regional databases to enhance their research projects and papers. Some university students have even secured consultant assistance from experts in other universities and national laboratories through higher education electronic networks such as Bitnet. These are only a few examples of the ways today's students are benefiting from the new information technologies. Many far more powerful and sophisticated computer tools and applications are emerging in college campuses across the country. It is clear that students who are already familiar and comfortable in using computers are able to take full advantage of these new information tools and resources in pursuing their academic studies. On the other hand, students entering college who are unfamiliar with the use of these powerful new information tools will find it more and more difficult to compete with their peers. Unfortunately, many minority students entering higher education today lack the skills and experience to use computers to enrich and support their academic studies. This problem stems in art from the inequities in access and use of computers in their pre-college preparation. Unless the present trend is reversed, these students are in danger of remaining a class of information-disadvantaged students.
Race/ethnicity and computer competence The differences in computer knowledge and skills between majority and minority culture students have been most clearly shown in the national study of computer competence conducted by Educational Testing Service (ETS). As part of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), ETS surveyed the nation's third, seventh and eleventh-grade students for their knowledge and skill in using a computer. The study results showed that White students had a clear advantage over Black and Hispanic students at all three grade levels. The greatest performance differences, however, were found in the higher grades [6]. In brief, the study showed that Black and Hispanic high-school students had much lower levels of computer competence than their White peers.
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Computer experience and computer competence As might be expected, the survey showed that computer experience is consistently associated with computer competence across all r a c i a l / ethnic groups. That is, the minority students who had experience with computers, did consistently better than those who did not. For example, Hispanic eleventh grade students who had completed a computer course, had substantially higher scores than those who had not. Similarly, Hispanic students who had access to a computer at home, had a higher m e a n score c o m p a r e d to those who did not. The study points out that there are other potential contributors to computer competence associated with access to a computer in the home, particularly socioeconomic status (SES), which may go well beyond whether or not a family owns a computer. Edwards [5] indicates that the average income among purchasers of home computers is $35,000. The average income of Black families is $16,786 and the average income for Hispanic families is $19,027; both well below that of h o m e computer owners. The important point, however, is that educational computing instruction and home access to computers are related to student computer competence in all r a c i a l / e t h n i c groups. The N A E P study results confirm the observations of a number of educators that White students have a definite advantage over Black and Hispanic students in computer knowledge and skill at the high school level. They carry this advantage with them as they enter the increasingly computer intensive university environments. Much of this difference is attributable to the computer experiences provided to students. T h e r e are four sources of computer experience for children: - required computer literacy or use of computers in content areas in schools, - self-selected computer courses; - h o m e use of computers; - p u b l i c access, such as in library, museum, school computer clubs, community centers, etc.
Inequities in computer education What are some of the factors which may contribute to the lack of computer experience of Black and Hispanic students observed in the
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N A E P study? T h r e e factors, identified by researchers, indicate lack of access to computers, differential use of computers and the lack of role models.
Lack of access to computers Despite the rapid infusion of computers into our nation's schools, there still remain major concerns about whether minorities have the same access and use of computers as experienced by White middle class and upper class students. A national survey of over 2100 schools in the US suggests that major inequalities in access and use of computers still exist across racial and economic groups [1]. The survey indicates that Black elementary school students were about three times as likely as white students to attend a school without computers. Cole and Griffin [2] also indicate that more computers are being placed in the hands of middle and u p p e r class children than in the hands of poor and minority students. This trend may well be continued in the near future. As noted by Edwards [5], not only do schools with low percentages of poor and minority students have more computers than schools with higher percentages of poor and minority students, but they are also acquiring them at a faster rate. Differential use of computers Although access to computers is necessary, it is not a sufficient condition to assure that minority students will develop the skills and knowledge to use computers to enhance their learning and productivity. Computers may be used as "cognitive enhancers" and personal productivity tools or they can simply be used as "electronic drill sergeants", continuing and transferring the tedious tradition of workbooks to an electronic format. At present, in an effort to improve performance on standardized tests, poor and minority students are more likely to spend computer time on rote drill and practice learning, and less likely to be asked or expected to make judgments, draw inferences or engage in critical thinking or problem solving with computers [4]. The 1985 national survey, conducted by the Center for the Social Organization of Schools, indicates that students of low socio-economic status (SES) spend far more time on drill and practice activities than do high SES students. Cole and Griffin [2] also found that computers tend to
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be used more for rote drill and practice with poor children and for "cognitive enrichment" activities with middle and upper class students. T h e y attribute the present situation in part to the long held educational ideology which asserts that children must first learn the basics before proceeding to higher order problems. Stanley Pogrow, a professor at the University of Arizona, has demonstrated that minority and low SES students can learn higher order thinking skills using computers. Project Micro, in working with Black children in Georgia, North Carolina and Mississippi, has similarly shown that minority and low SES students can learn higher order thinking skills using Computers [5]. There is also emerging evidence that students engaged in higher level computer applications can increase their proficiency in the "basic skills". For example, in one study, students working with problem-solving and simulation software showed greater gains in reading comprehension than students taking widely-used computer-assisted drill and practice reading programs [9]. There is growing recognition that for minority and poor students the type of computer use is important in their development of computer competence. Although drill and practice software may be appropriate for certain educational needs, it should not prohibit minority students from using computers as a writing, problem solving, and personal productivity tool. As noted by Watt [14], failure to do so will only aggravate the present situation in which "Affluent students are thus learning to tell the computer what to do, while less affluent students are learning to do what the computer tells them." Lack of role models An additional barrier to increasing minority student computer competence is the lack of computer-using role models for the students. The NAEP survey revealed that, both in the seventh and eleventh grades, more than 90 percent of computer coordinators were White. Black and Hispanic computer coordinators were under-represented compared to the percentage of Black and Hispanic population. The problem of underrepresentation was particularly acute for Hispanic coordinators who composed only 1 percent of the high school computer coordinators [6]. These findings are consistent with those of Becker
[1], who found that White students are far more likely to have a computer-using teacher in the classroom than minority students. All of these problems must be addressed and overcome to enable minority students to develop the computer competencies needed to effectively use the new technology resources available in our nation's universities and colleges.
Enhancing minority access and use of computers in education
To help remedy the lack of computer competence of many minority students on entry, immediate action is required by institutions of higher education. In addition, a major effort is required to increase minority access and appropriate use of computers in our nation's public schools. The following are some recommendations which may help reduce the growing disparity in computer competence between entering minority and majority culture college students. Prowiding equitable computer access for minority students At present computers and other technological resources are more readily available in affluent schools across the nation. Efforts must be made to assure that computer hardware and other technological resources are equitably distributed among all schools. In addition, funds must be made available to help cover the multiple costs associated with effective utilization of computers, including software, teacher training, technical assistance and administrative support. In addition, special efforts should be made to help increase minority use of existing computer facilities in public schools and universities, after school and on Saturdays. George Washington University is operating a project, funded by the National Science Foundation, to encourage female students, particularly girls of colour, to enter the science field, especially computer science. This project, directed by Dianne Martin, provides both a Saturday academy and an exciting and intense summer school program. A project at the University of New Mexico Center for Technology and Education also focuses on use of computers by minorities which
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fosters problem solving and higher order thinking skills. The project uses on-line simulations, bulletin boards, and multiple school site science projects to help strengthen the mathematics, science and language skills of American Indian students [161.
State leadership States must play a major role in funding and developing plans for the equitable acquisition and distribution of computer resources. A few states have initiated efforts and plans to help provide more equitable distribution of computer resources to schools. New Hampshire, for example, recently provided funding to enable teachers to have a computer in their classroom. Texas has recently completed an ambitious plan to increase the numbers of computers in schools in both rural and urban areas. Other states are also including provisions for technology resources in their educational reform packages. Role of the federal government Leadership is also needed at the national level and additional efforts should be made to integrate the computer education needs into appropriate existing federal programs. Initial (Chapter 1) funding, for example, has been used for the purchase of computers, but federal and state regulations often limit their use as a learning tool for disadvantaged students. In addition, Chapter 1 programs continue to emphasize the need for basic skills development in reading, language arts and mathematics and the most frequent use of computers has been for drill and practice. Within the past few years, there are some hopeful signs that this trend is beginning to change. For example, several Chapter 1 programs are now beginning to use computers as writing tools for children. Recent efforts to integrate higher order thinking skills into the computer use of minority and poor students should be encouraged and expanded (e.g. Project Micro [5], the Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) program, etc.). Higher education roles and responsibilities Until these problems are resolved at the public school level, institutions of higher education must recognize and develop strategies to assist minority and other students who enter college with deficits in computer competence. The following
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are some strategies which may be used to enhance the technological competence of minority students. (1) Providing special programs and summer camps for minority students. Colleges and universities should work collaboratively with public schools to develop programs designed to enhance the interest, knowledge and skills of minority students in mathematics and science and the use of computers as a learning tool. These efforts may include: (a) The sponsoring of after school sessions and Saturday academies for minority students. Universities and colleges may use their computer, science, and mathematics laboratory facilities, as well as college faculty and students as instructors and tutors, to offer special after school sessions and Saturday academies. A number of universities have developed such offerings through the federally funded programs such as Upward Bound, as well as through state funding. In addition to providing minority students with instruction in science, mathematics and use of computers, the programs should also emphasize the writing process (using the computer as a writing tool). (b) Involving college faculty and students (particularly minority members) in providing supplementary instruction and tutoring to minority students and to motivate them towards higher education. Minority faculty and students in universities can be helpful in demonstrating the uses of computers in their research and academic work. Through these efforts they will serve as role models for students and enhance their awareness of the importance of computer-related technologies in all academic disciplines and career fields. College faculty and students can also serve as sponsors or resource persons for school computer clubs and after school computer programs. (2) Increasing college counsellor awareness of importance of minority student computer competence. College counsellors and advisers need to become aware of the lack of computer competence of many entering minority students and should make a particular effort to inquire about the general computer experience and background of the student. If students are entering without appropriate computer experience, counsellors should encourage them to take advantage of courses, workshops or other training opportuni-
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ties, available on the campus, which may enhance their knowledge and skill in using computers in pursuing their academic program. (3) Providing on-campus computer-related training and technical assistance to college-entering minority students. The institutions of higher education should ensure that training opportunities are readily available, on-campus, for minority students both during the day and evening hours. Student microcomputer laboratories should be staffed by personnel who are able to help train and assist minority students with limited computer backgrounds. In several universities I have visited, these laboratories are often student hackers who can only talk in "techno-speak" which is both incomprehensible and frightening to the naive user. Whenever possible, hire minority staff to serve in these positions. Special computer application courses should be developed and offered for academic credit. Such courses should be organized around student productivity applications such as word processing, graphics, spreadsheets, databases, telecommunications, etc. The awarding of academic credit for such courses is clearly warranted, based on the importance of computer competence to the student, not only in completing their academic studies, but in their post-baccalaureate careers. (4) Providing student-buy programs and financial assistance to enable minority students to have their own personal computer. At present, very few Black and Hispanic students have access to computers in their homes compared to White students. In addition, low SES minority college students typically do not have the financial resources to acquire their own personal computer in college. As noted in the recent report "Education That Works: An Action Plan for the Education of Minorities" [7], issued by the Action Council on Minority Education, the level of financial assistance provided has not kept pace with increases in the costs of attending college during the past decade. In addition, spending on the Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant has fallen 14.7 in constant dollars and the College Work Study Program has fallen 28 percent in constant dollars from 1980 to 1988. The college loan burdens of minority students are often greater than the total annual income of their families. This situation is not only shattering the dreams of many minority
students across the country, but renders "unthinkable" the possibility of the students having access to their own personal computer. To remedy this problem, the federal government should increase the level of financial assistance provided to low income minority students. In addition, as a special incentive for the use of the computer as a powerful personal productivity tool by minority students, a special provision should be considered for inclusion in the federal regulations, which "forgives" the cost of the purchase of the computer if the student completes his program of studies. Many colleges and universities have established special student-buy programs which enable them to purchase computers at substantial savings. Efforts should be made to negotiate the best possible prices with computer hardware and software vendors by the institutions of higher education. In addition, universities should explore, with local financial institutions, the possibility of long term loans for student purchases of computer equipment. (5) Providing inservice training for teachers in schools serving minority students. Our nation's colleges and universities must play a stronger role in helping change the current situation in which schools serving minorities have fewer computerusing teachers than those serving white children [1]. Colleges of education must expand their inservice training efforts to enable minority teachers, as well as those in schools serving minority children, to be comfortable and effective in using the new tools for learning. Special computing for teachers workshops, training sessions and courses should be offered both during the academic year and summer sessions. Such courses should model strategies for integrating computers into the content areas. The courses and workshops should be fun! They should not emphasize jargon and should be taught, whenever possible, by a minority master teacher or faculty member. The courses should be designed to reduce computer anxiety and to help teachers understand the uses of computers in bilingual settings and as problem solving, writing and personal productivity tools for both students and teachers. States should facilitate such efforts by providing additional funding to colleges of education to expand their training and technical assistance ser-
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vices to schools, particularly those situated in rural, isolated areas. In addition, colleges of education need to take whatever actions necessary to assure that all graduating teachers will be able to effectively use the new information technology learning tools in their classroom instruction. In many instances, the present curriculum may need restructuring to integrate the new information technologies into the methods and content area courses. College of education equipment and facility needs are often assigned a low priority by the university central administration. Consequently, at present, many colleges do not have sufficient state-of-the-art equipment and facilities to adequately train teachers in the use of networked computers, hypermedia, interactive computer videodisk, and the multimedia computer applications which are emerging in schools. This situation needs to be changed if colleges of education are to adequately prepare teachers to competently use the exciting array of new computerbased learning tools. States should provide funding for equipment to colleges of education to assure that they are able to have access and model the current uses of technology in instruction. (6) Recruiting minority students into teacher training programs. To help provide needed minority technology-using role models in the schools, colleges and universities must develop more effective strategies for recruiting minorities into the teaching profession and particularly in the fields of mathematics, science and technology. Universities need to expand the support services for minority students on campus to help provide counselling and tutorial assistance to minority students entering such programs. States can help encourage the recruitment of minority students into the teaching profession by providing financial incentives for recruiting and retaining minority students. (7) Supporting research-and-development efforts to enhance minority student use of technology. Institutions of higher education need to encourage and support research studies of the impact of computers on the cognitive learning styles of minority students and the most effective ways to enhance the learning of students with limited English proficiency. In addition, research is needed on the potential of interactive computer videodisk, hypermedia and multimedia for ira-
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proving the quality of education for minorities. More efforts, such as those of Gary Bitter and Ray Padilla, in developing interactive computervideo programs to raise the mathematical achievement of Hispanic students are needed [17]. There is also a critical need to develop genderfree paradigms for teaching about computers and to develop software which is not ethnically biased. The federal government should increase funding to institutions of higher education for research and development in these areas. (8) Using electronic networks as a means of contacting minority students and teachers. Across the country, there is growing interest and awareness in the use of electronic networking as a means of providing information and facilitating communication between educators, school districts, state agencies and universities. Institutions of higher education with their greater information processing expertise and resources can and should play a leadership role in the development and use of such networks to: (a) provide greater access to college information resources, training and technical assistance to teachers, counsellors, and administrators. Through the use of computer-based electronic networks, a variety of bulletin boards and databases may be developed to provide useful information to teachers and other educators. Electronic networks can also be used to help support on-site inservice training and to provide follow-on assistance and projects. The University of New Mexico Center for Technology has developed state, regional and national educational electronic networks to address the diverse training and information needs of teachers, counsellors and administrators in public and federallyfunded schools. These networks have proven particularly helpful in providing information and technical assistance to teachers who often feel professionally isolated, even within large urban school districts. For example, science teachers across New Mexico are able to learn of new science education articles, materials, software, museum exhibits, field trip opportunities, potential funding sources, equipment donations, etc., and to take on-line courses. Using electronic bulletin boards and databases, information on university academic programs, schedule of classes, admissions requirements, fi-
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nancial assistance, etc., is also made available to school counsellors to assist their students in making college selection decisions and to track their admissions status. Electronic networks can specifically developed to address the educational needs of minority students. One such network, the Educational Native American Network (ENAN), was established by the University of New Mexico Center for Technology and Education and the Bureau of Indian Affairs to support schools serving American Indian children. The network provides teachers with access to a wide range of information, technical assistance and training resources. Through the network, teachers are able to share information on effective practices and classroom ideas and materials, access curriculum materials and resources related to Indian education from universities, national laboratories, museums, etc., and take on-line courses. It also supports multiple classroom site instructional projects [16]. (b) provide supplemental instruction, tutorial assistance and information resources to minority students, particularly to those in rural areas. Education-based telecommunications systems can prove to be an effective means for providing a number of information and instructional support services to minority students in rural areas. For example, the Center for Technology and Education and the Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute have developed a unique project to explore how computer-based communications can be used to enrich the learning opportunities of Indian and Hispanic students in rural, isolated schools in New Mexico and Arizona. The project provides a n u m b e r of on-line activities and projects for students to strengthen their mathematics, science, communication and computer skills. Another example of such an activity is the current D e e p Space Probe Simulation Project. Schools on the network participate as separate earth tracking stations. Over a period of weeks each station receives a specific flow of digital information over the network (much as they would from a real space probe satellite as it passes near a planet). The students at each school determine the quality of the data and compile, integrate and analyze their data with that of the other tracking stations in order to develop accurate picture of the planet. Network-based projects such as these help stimulate minority student interest and com-
petence in science, mathematics and in the use of the computer as a communications and problemsolving tool. In addition to such activities, students have access over the network to university faculty, national laboratory scientists and others who serve as "electronic mentors" to students, responding to questions and assisting them on science fair and other research projects. The minority students participating in this project over their three years in high school will have established both "on-line" and personal working relationships with both college faculty and students. Such contacts, it is believed, will raise the interest and aspirations of minority students for entering college, while strengthening their knowledge of science and mathematics, as well as their skills in writing and the use of the computer as a tool. These are only some of the ways institutions of higher education can help address the educational needs of minority students, while building their skills in using the computer as a problemsolving and communications tool. T h e r e are many other effective strategies which may be used, such as those found effective in increasing the mathematics, science and technology participation and performance of Hispanic students [11]. Through such efforts, minority students can increase their computer competence, take greater advantage of the information resources within the university, enhance their own academic productivity and participate fully in our increasingly technological society.
References [1] H.J. Becker, Equity in school computer use: National data and neglected considerations, paper presented at the 1986 annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, 1986. [2] M. Cole and P. Griffin, Contextual factors in education: improving science and mathematics education for minorities and women (Wisconsin Center or Education Research, Madison, Wisconsin, 1987). [3] B. Clewell, C. Thorpe and B. Anderson, Intervention programs in math, science, and computer science for minority and females in grades four through eight (Education Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey, 1987). [4] Educational Technology Center, Computers, Equity and Urban Schools (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1985).
P. Resta / Organizing education for minorities [5] C. Edwards, Enhancing minority student educational opportunities through instructional computing: A report on Project Micro, paper presented at the 1988 Council of Great City Schools National Technology Forum, San Diego, CA, 1988. [6] M.E. Martinez and N.A. Mead, Computer competence: the first national assessment (Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ, 1988). [7] S.M. McBay, Education That Works: An Action Plan for the Education of Minorities (Action Council on Minority Education, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 1990). [8] R.K. Neff, Computing in the University, Implications of the new technologies, Perspectives in Computing 7 (1987) 14-22. [9] P. Norton and V. Resta, Investigating the impact of computer instruction on elementary students' reading, Educational Technology 26 (March, 1986) 35-41. [10] Project on Equal Education Rights, Beyond the Star Trek syndrome to an egalitarian future: "Where no one has gone before." (NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, Washington District of Columbia, 1986). [11] P.E. Resta, Strengthening math education for Hispanics: new community college, public school and private sector partnerships (Ford Foundation Report, Border College Consortium, E1 Centro, CA, 1985). [12] P.E. Resta, Equity of school access and use of computer technology by Hispanic students, paper presented at "Technology and the education of Hispanics: the promise and the dilemma", conference held at The Tomas Rivera
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Center, Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA, June 20-21, 1986. [13] P.E. Resta and B. Kurshan, Educational telecommunications: the good, bad and the ugly, paper presented at the First international conference on telecommunications in education: "learners and the global village", held in Jerusalem, Israel, August 1989. [14] D. Watt, Education for citizenship in a computer-based society, in: R. Seidel, R. Anderson and B. Hunter, eds., Computer Literacy (Academic Press, New York, 1982) 59. [15] R.F. Weissman, The two cultures of academic computing, Perspectives in Computing 7 (1987) 4-12. Paul E. Resta is a professor in the
Department of Curriculum & Instruction and Director of the Learning Technology Center at the University of Texas at Austin. Dr. Resta has served as President of the International Council for Computers in Education and as founding Co-President of the International Society for Technology in Education. He currently is a member of the US Department of Education Technology Steering Committee. He is Chair of the Smithsonian Institution Off-Site Technology Applications Committee and was the US Coordinator for ITEC, an international study of the cognitive effects of computers on children.