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Pedestrian exposure to traffic-related particles along a city road in Lublin, Poland
Journal Pre-proof Pedestrian Exposure to Traffic-related Particles Along a City Road in Lublin, Poland Bernard Polednik, Adam Piotrowicz PII:
S1309-1042(19)30538-0
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2019.12.019
Reference:
APR 716
To appear in:
Atmospheric Pollution Research
Received Date: 27 August 2019 Revised Date:
21 December 2019
Accepted Date: 24 December 2019
Please cite this article as: Polednik, B., Piotrowicz, A., Pedestrian Exposure to Traffic-related Particles Along a City Road in Lublin, Poland, Atmospheric Pollution Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.apr.2019.12.019. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Pedestrian Exposure to Traffic-related Particles Along a City Road in Lublin, Poland Bernard Polednik*, Adam Piotrowicz Lublin University of Technology, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Lublin, Poland ul. Nadbystrzycka 40B, 20-618 Lublin, Poland. tel.: +48 81 538 44 03 fax: +48 81 538 19 97
*
Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
2 ABSTRACT Pedestrian exposure to traffic-related air pollution can lead to adverse health consequences. Research in this area is of particular importance in cities in Central and Eastern Europe due to mostly outdated transportation fleet and seasonally variable weather conditions. This study estimates the contribution of traffic-related particles to the total doses of particles inhaled by pedestrians on a sidewalk along a busy road in Lublin, Eastern Poland during the day and at night in four seasons. The highest number and mass of traffic-related particles were received during the day on the sidewalk near 4-way traffic intersections. The highest contribution of traffic-related particles to the total number of inhaled ultrafine particles was estimated in the fall and equaled 68.6 ±8.5%. The highest relative contribution of traffic-related PM2.5 amounted to 40.4 ±2.7% and was obtained in the spring. The lowest doses of traffic-related particles were received in the summer. The findings of this study may contribute not only to actions taken at local level aimed at minimizing pedestrian exposure but also to redesigning or delineating sidewalks away from busy roads. Keywords: ambient particulate matter, traffic pollution, exposure concentration, inhaled dose
3
1. Introduction Sidewalks are an integral part of the road used for pedestrian mobility. Their functionality is not limited to walking as they often constitute multi-use paths that provide space for other physical activities such as running, cycling etc. Sidewalks are usually situated on both sides of roads and also cross at intersections with heavy traffic. For this reason pedestrians are directly exposed to traffic-related emissions. This involves exposure to aerosol particles from traffic exhaust sources, including such components as black carbon as well as gaseous precursors of secondary particulate matter like NOX and VOCs (Janssen et al., 2011; Qiu et al., 2019b). Furthermore, pedestrians are also exposed to particles from non-exhaust sources such as road dust and road surface abrasions or wear of vehicular tires and brakes (Kwak et al., 2013; WHO, 2005). In accordance with epidemiological and toxicological studies, these pollutants have adverse health effects and contribute to cardiopulmonary and other serious diseases (Valavanidis et al., 2008; WHO, 2013). Exposure to such pollutants may, among other things, result in increased lung cancer mortality and may affect the central nervous system (Lee et al., 2019; Sram et al., 2017). As regards traffic-related emissions, special focus has been recently placed on ultrafine particles (UFP) with aerodynamic diameter less than 100 nm, mainly due to their specific physical-chemical characteristics and unique properties, including great pulmonary deposition efficiency, the amounts of adsorbed transition metals, as well as toxicity resulting from their large surface area which make them especially hazardous (Bliss et al., 2018; Rogula-Kozłowska et al., 2019). Previous studies indicate that the exposure to traffic-related particles significantly decreases pro rata to the distance from the road (Mukerjee et al., 2015; Puett et al., 2014), which would imply that the doses inhaled by vehicle commuters should be greater than in the case of pedestrians. Such results were presented e.g. by Cepeda et al. (2017) and de Nazelle et al. (2017). However, taking into consideration that vehicle commuters usually remain in an environment that is relatively isolated from the outdoor air by means of sealed windows and they breathe filtered air, pedestrians may in fact inhale greater particles doses than vehicle commuters. This may be especially relevant on certain road sections (e.g. busy intersections) or under appropriate meteorological conditions (Moreno et al., 2015; Pirjola et al., 2012). There are numerous studies focusing on the exposure of commuters that have been recently conducted in urban areas (Kwak et al., 2018; Moreno et al., 2019; Luengo-Oroz and Reis, 2019). To date, quite a few studies on pedestrian exposure have also been carried out (Choi et al., 2018; Qiu et al., 2019a; Rakowska et al., 2014). Yet, the accurate determination
4 of exposure to aerosol particles from traffic-related emissions remains a difficult task. This is mainly due to the fact that the obtained measurement results may be affected by a number of factors such as the road characteristics, including traffic intensity or the type of vehicles and the fuel used. The topography and arrangement of buildings along the road (e.g. the presence of street canyons), the time of the day that affects the traffic intensity and the season that determines the changes in weather conditions are also of significance. The latter is especially relevant in the case of cities in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) where unfavourable weather conditions such as low temperatures, strong winds, heavy rains and snowfalls hinder vehicular traffic for a significant part of the year. This region, however, has been rarely considered in previous research. It also needs to be noted that traffic exposures in the region may be affected by a relatively high percentage of old used vehicles and outdated transportation network and infrastructure (Eurostat, 2019; Taczanowski et al., 2018). The aim of this study is to estimate the contribution of traffic-related particles to the particle doses inhaled by pedestrians on a sidewalk of a busy road in Lublin, Eastern Poland during the day and at night in four seasons of the year.
2. Materials and methods The measurements were performed in Lublin, a large city in eastern Poland with almost 350,000 inhabitants and the area of 147 km2 with the average yearly temperature of 7.6 ºC (2018). In terms of the existing transportation network, Lublin may be considered, in many respects, as a typical city in the CEE. However, despite a relatively large number of vehicles and high traffic intensity, it lacks adequate transportation infrastructure and therefore is one of the most congested cities in Europe (TomTom Traffic Index, 2017). Its transportation fleet mainly includes relatively old, used, gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles i.e. cars, vans, trucks and buses and some electric trolleybuses. Cars older than 15 years make up over 50% of all passenger cars and an average public transportation bus is 21 years old (CSOP, 2017). The conducted study involved mobile and fixed-site measurements which were performed along a 2.1 km route which is part of one of the busiest streets in the city with 3- to 4-storey buildings located on each side of the street. The monitored four-lane road has three 4-way intersections (TIs) with traffic lights. The traffic pattern on the road does not differ from a typical bimodal pattern in almost all urban areas, with maxima during the morning and afternoon/evening peak hours. The maximum traffic intensity is usually in the morning between 7:00–8:00 and afternoon between 15:00-16:00. During that time the traffic volume at
5 each of the examined intersections exceeds 2000 vehicles per hour (maximum reported vehicle number is 3000) (RBA, 2018). The traffic intensity is considerably lower during offpeak hours and in the summer. Fig. 1. Location of Lublin in Europe and satellite image (Google Earth) with the mobile monitoring route and the fixed-site measurement points on the sidewalk along the route.
A detailed description of the route (shown in Figure 1) and the location of the sampling points, instruments and measurement procedures have been presented elsewhere by Połednik et al. (2018) and Piotrowicz and Polednik (2019). In brief, the Mobile Air Pollution Analytic Laboratory (MAPAL) installed in a Renault Kangoo was used during the measurements. MAPAL was equipped, among other things, with the Grimm Aerosol Spectrometer 1.109 with Nano Sizer 1.321 (Grimm Aerosol, Germany), P-Trak ultrafine particle counter model 8525 (TSI Inc., USA), OPS 3330 optical spectrometer (TSI Inc., USA), DustTrak DRX aerosol monitor model 8533 (TSI Inc., USA). Air samples were supplied to MAPAL through tubes with endpoints located in the middle of the vehicle, on the left side, at the height of approximately 1.7 m. The logging interval for the instruments was 6 seconds. All instruments were calibrated by their manufacturer at the beginning of the measurements. The position and speed of the MAPAL vehicle was continuously recorded using a Global Positioning System (GPS; Garmin Nuvi 2460LMT). A HD 1080P Wide angle 170° camera located on the windshield of the car was used to collect the traffic flow data at the time of measurements. The air temperature and relative humidity were measured outside and inside the car cabin with the use of thermo-hygrometer LB-520 (LAB-EL, Poland). This paper only analyzes data of ultrafine particle number concentrations (PN0.1) measured with the use of the Grimm Aerosol Spectrometer, submicron particle number concentrations (PN1) determined using PTrak and mass concentrations of fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM10) particles measured by DustTrak DRX. The ambient air particulate sampling was performed during runs in both directions along the route. Fixed-site measurements were carried out in 11 sampling points that were distributed on the sidewalk along the route. Six of such points were located on the sidewalk in the section near 4-way TIs (RS-I) with intensive traffic, and five sampling points were located away from 4-way TIs with less intensive traffic (RS-II). 5-minute measurements were performed at each point, at which time MAPAL was parked on the sidewalk, on the curb. Background particle concentrations were measured away from the route, approximately 350 m from the considered monitored street and relatively far from other streets, near a green area
6 at the river with almost no motor vehicle traffic. Therefore, background measurements were not or were only slightly affected by traffic pollutants. The average particle concentration obtained from two 5-minute background measurements taken at the beginning and after the end of each run was used as the background value for the given run. Concentrations of trafficrelated particles at each sampling point during the individual run were determined as differences of the measured total size-fractionated particle concentrations and their background concentrations. The monitoring campaigns were performed on several consecutive days in the spring, summer and fall of 2017 and in the winter of 2018. The mean ambient temperatures in those seasons in Lublin were 9.4 ºC, 19.1 ºC, 9.5 ºC and -1.6 ºC, respectively (https://www. weatheronline.com). A relatively high average temperature in winter resulted from a very warm December; however, there were days when the average temperature was well below zero. On each test day six runs were performed at fixed times in 4-hour intervals. The times were selected to account for the morning and afternoon peak hours, as well as the off-peak hours in the evening and at night. On average, one full run took approximately 95 minutes to complete, however, it varied depending on the time of the day and the traffic. This paper analyzes the measurement results obtained during six consecutive runs in one representative day for the particular season. In the given day, the runs were performed under relatively stable meteorological conditions with natural temperature and relative humidity differences resulting from the time of the day. In the adopted approach it was assumed that the traffic conditions during each run were the same. The respiratory dose (RD) of particles inhaled by pedestrians during the exposure was estimated based on the simplified methodology presented in Qiu et al. (2019a) with the use of the following equation (1): RD = VT . f . PC .t
(1)
where VT is the tidal volume, f is the breathing frequency, PC is the averaged particle number or mass concentration and t is the duration of exposure. The calculations were performed based on the assumption that the tidal volume for both a male and female adult pedestrian amounted to 1100 cm3 per breath and the breathing rate equaled 21 per minute (Hinds, 1999).
7 Descriptive statistics were used to characterize particle concentrations and relative pedestrian exposure grouped according to the particle size, part of the route, time of the day and season.
3. Results and discussion The results obtained in this research confirm the explicit relationship between the concentrations of traffic-related particles on the road and its vicinity and the traffic intensity, which is reported in previous studies. Table 1 presents average total number concentrations of ultrafine and submicron particles (PN0.1, PN1) and average total mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of the route section near 4-way TIs (RS-I) and route sections away from 4way TIs (RS-II) during the day and at night in four seasons. Table 1. Average total number concentrations of ultrafine and submicron particles (PN0.1, PN1) and average total mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of RS-I – route section near 4-way TIs and RS-II – route sections away from 4-way TIs with less intensive traffic during the day time (measurements at 8:00, 12:00, 16:00) and at night time (measurements at 20:00, 0:00, 4:00) in four seasons.
It can be seen that the particle concentrations on the sidewalk are significantly affected by the traffic intensity which, in turn, is related to the time of the day and, to some extent, to the season of the year. A certain impact of other particle sources located in the vicinity, including residential coal and biomass combustion appliances may also not be ruled out (Polednik, 2013; Marczak, 2017). Higher total concentrations of almost all considered particles were observed during the day and in RS-I than at night and in RS-II. The highest total PN0.1, PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations were measured on the sidewalk of RS-I during the day in the fall and their average values amounted to 23.3 x 103 pt/cm3, 77.9 µg/m3 and 81.5 µg/m3, respectively. The highest average total PN1 concentration was also obtained on the sidewalk of RS-I during the day, but in the winter and it amounted to 47.4 x 103 pt/cm3. In turn, the lowest total concentrations of all of the examined particles were recorded on the sidewalk in the winter and at night and their average levels were similar in both route sections i.e. PN0.1 - 4.6 x 103 pt/cm3, PN1 - 10.1 x 103 pt/cm3, PM2.5 - 47.2 µg/m3 and PM10 - 48.9 µg/m3. Figure 2 presents the contribution of traffic-related particles to the total particle number and mass concentrations measured on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II at different times of the day and in different seasons.
8 Fig. 2. Percentage contribution of traffic-related particles to the total particle concentrations measured on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II at different times of the day and in different seasons.
The contributions of traffic-related particles to the total particle number and mass concentrations measured on the sidewalk near intersections were in most cases higher than away from the TIs. Moreover, the percentage contributions of these particles were greater during the day than at night. Relatively high contributions of traffic-related particles to the total particle number concentrations were measured in three seasons, i.e. in the fall, winter and summer. However, the highest values for PN0.1 and PN1 concentrations were obtained in the winter during the morning peak hour (7:00 - 8:00) in RS-I and they amounted to 81.5 ±0.3% and 88.1 ±2.1%, respectively. In the case of PM2.5 and PM10 mass concentrations, the highest contributions of traffic-related particles in RS-I were obtained in the spring in the afternoon peak hour (15:00 -16:00) and they reached 80.1 ±9.1% and 59.7 ±12.4%, respectively. Similar relations in terms of increasing particle concentrations in the vicinity of traffic intersections were reported in many previous studies, e.g. elevated concentrations of traffic-related particles in close proximity of intersections were observed, among others, by Goel and Kumar (2015). Data obtained by Ćwiklak at al. (2009) in Zabrze (Upper Silesia, Poland) near a busy street intersection indicated that the average increase of PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations as compared to the urban background amounted to 46.9% and 44.9%, respectively. Lower contributions of vehicle-generated particles to total particle concentrations which were observed at night may result, apart from the obvious less intense traffic, from lower air temperatures which contribute to an increase in air relative humidity. This, in turn, may lead to the condensation of water vapor on the generated and aggregated traffic-related particles which facilitates their deposition and results in limited spreading. Condensation of water vapor may also take place on the usually cooler ground-level surfaces, including the road, sidewalk and the particles deposited thereon, thus hindering particle resuspension. Lower mass concentrations of vehicle-generated fine and coarse particles observed in the fall and winter may also be attributed to the greater humidity of the road surface resulting from more frequent precipitation in these seasons (Olszowski, 2016; Zalakeviciute et al., 2018). In order to better characterize the observations made, ratios of traffic-related particle concentrations on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II to background concentrations were calculated. Statistical information on the ratios of traffic-related particle number (PN0.1, PN1) and mass (PM2.5, PM10) concentrations measured on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the day and night in four seasons to background levels is presented in Table 2.
9 Table 2. Ratios of traffic-related ultrafine and submicron particle number concentrations (PN0.1, PN1) and mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the day (at 8:00, 12:00, 16:00) and at night (at 20:00, 0:00, 4:00) in four seasons to background levels.
The determined ratios of the particle concentrations of all the considered sizes were in the majority of cases higher on the sidewalk of RS-I than on the sidewalk of RS-II. They were also significantly higher during the day than at night. During the day the highest mean ratios of traffic-related PN0.1 concentrations to background PN0.1 concentrations were obtained on the sidewalk of RS-I in the spring and fall and they equaled 3.2 and 3.1, respectively. The maximum ratios reached 8.5 and 7.5, while the coefficients of variation (CV) amounted to 98% and 68%, respectively. The lowest ratios of these particle concentrations were observed in the summer with a mean value of 1.3. During the day the traffic-related PN1 concentrations were greater than the background PN1 concentrations in all seasons. The maximum mean value of PN1 concentration ratios was obtained in the winter and amounted to 5.0. In the spring and fall mean ratios equaled 4.2 and 3.8, respectively. The lowest mean value, similarly like in the case of PN0.1 concentration ratios, was observed in the summer and amounted to 1.4. As regards traffic-related to background ratios of PM2.5 and PM10 mass concentrations, the highest mean values during the day were obtained in the spring and summer and reached 2.7 and 2.7 respectively for PM2.5 as well as 1.3 and 0.9 respectively for PM10 concentrations. CV values in the spring and summer amounted to 104% and 63% respectively for PM2.5 and 92% and 110% respectively for PM10. In the fall and winter, traffic-related particles had relatively little impact on the PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations on the sidewalk of both considered route sections. During the day, they on average constituted approximately 1/3 of the total measured PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations, with an even lower contribution at night. Moreover, no differences in the concentration ratios of the considered particles were observed on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II. This may indicate that non-traffic-related particles had significant contributions in the fall and winter. Rogula-Kozłowska et al. (2014) investigated seasonal variability of the mass concentration of urban air particles in three locations in Poland. They found that the winter average PM2.5 concentration was almost twice as high as the average in the non-heating period and three times as high as the average obtained in the summer. Similar observations in terms of such trend were made in other studies e.g. by Marczak (2017) in Lublin, Poland, and by Meng et al. (2019) in Urumqi, China.
10 The mean daily contributions of traffic-related particles to the total amount of particles inhaled by pedestrians on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II in the individual seasons are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Mean percentage contributions of traffic-related particles to the total amount of particles inhaled by pedestrians on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II in four seasons.
It was assumed in the study that 70% of the time spent by a typical pedestrian on commuting on the sidewalk falls between 8:00 to 20:00 i.e. during the day and 30% of that time is at night (20:00 to 8:00). The results confirm that pedestrian exposure depends on the given location along the route and the related traffic intensity. Regardless of the season, the number and mass of traffic-related particles inhaled by a pedestrian in proximity to 4-way TIs was greater than away from these intersections. In the spring, fall and winter in RS-I the mean daily contributions of traffic-related PN0.1 and PN1 to the total inhaled PN0.1 and PN1 derived from all sources exceeded 60%. The highest mean daily contribution of traffic-related PN0.1 and PN1 was obtained in the fall and winter and amounted to 68.6 ±8.5% and 79.9 ±5.9%, respectively. In turn, the lowest, albeit still relatively high contributions of number of ultrafine and submicron traffic-related particles to the total inhaled PN0.1 and PN1 were obtained in the summer and amounted respectively to 39.9 ±25.4% and 41.8 ±31.7%. Throughout the day, the greatest mass of traffic-related PM2.5 and PM10 was inhaled by pedestrians in RS-I in the spring. Respective contributions to the total mass of inhaled PM2.5 and PM10 were equal to 40.4 ±2.7% and 36.9 ±4.7%. The lowest mass of traffic-related PM2.5 and PM10 was inhaled by pedestrians in RS-I in the fall – contributions decreased to respectively 26.4 ±19.5% and 24.7 ±19.2%. From the presented data it can be concluded that pedestrians received greater traffic-related particle doses in the part of the route with heavier traffic. Furthermore, pedestrians inhaled lower numbers of traffic-related particles in the summer and lower doses of traffic-related particle mass in the fall. Figure 3 presents the estimated percentage contribution of traffic-related particles inhaled by pedestrians on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II in the individual seasons to the total amount of these particles inhaled by them during the entire year. Fig. 3. Percentage contribution of traffic-related particles inhaled by pedestrians in the individual seasons to the total amount of these particles inhaled by them on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the entire year.
The highest amount of traffic-related PN0.1 is inhaled by pedestrians in the fall. In RS-I it corresponds to 40.3%, while in RS-II to 34.3% of the annual traffic-related PN0.1 dose. The
11 amount of inhaled traffic-related PN1 in this season is also high and exceeds 30% of the annual dose. The greatest mass of traffic-related particles is inhaled by pedestrians in the winter. In both considered route sections, it constituted roughly 35% and 37% of the annual average dose of traffic-related PM2.5 and PM10. In turn, the lowest number and mass of trafficrelated particles (less than 15%) is taken in by pedestrians in the summer. It is difficult to directly compare the obtained results, since the previous studies performed in other urban areas in the CEE primarily concerned other aspects of traffic-related health hazards. In turn, a comparison with other studies conducted worldwide is not entirely justified, as they were carried out in a different climate and weather conditions. However, it can be noted that studies performed by Arkouli et al. (2010) in the urban area of Buenos Aires indicated that average diurnal patterns of PM2.5 show a clear seasonal variation. Concentrations in the winter were on average 1.4 times higher than in the summer. In turn, Alharbi et al. (2015) obtained results to the contrary in studies carried out in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. They reported that the concentrations of particulate matter were about 84% higher in the summer, which may be ascribed to dust storms that occur frequently in that season. Studies of Srimuruganandam and Shiva Nagendra (2010) near an urban road way in Chennai, India showed clear diurnal, weekly and seasonal cycles of particular matter concentrations. In turn, Adeniran et al. (2017) determined the seasonal variations and composition of suspended particulate matter emitted at major intra-urban traffic intersections in Ilorin, Nigeria. The average on-road respiratory deposition dose rates of PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 during the dry season at TIs was found to be about 24%, 9% and 25% higher than those obtained during the wet season. Summing up, the results of the study confirm that traffic-related particle number and mass concentrations measured on the sidewalk of the monitored route directly depend on the traffic conditions that differ depending on the time of the day and the season. These conditions may have a significant effect on pedestrian exposure and may be of importance while balancing health benefits from active travel with the negative health consequences related to the increased intake of air pollution. Practical implications include, among other things, the necessity to raise awareness concerning the health hazards related to traffic-related pollution. Results reported in this paper also indicate that, in the absence of other options, physical activity near a road will be least harmful during the summer and in the evening. The results also can be useful for making informed decisions on urban development and on redesigning or delineating new sidewalks away from heavy traffic.
12 Simultaneous, multi-point and extended research should focus on determining the dependency between particle concentrations and pedestrian exposure under different weather conditions in the individual seasons in order to devise effective ways of eliminating health risks.
4. Conclusions The research on the pedestrian exposure to traffic-related particles conducted in four seasons on a sidewalk along a busy road in Lublin, a typical CEE city indicated that the results were mainly affected by the traffic conditions, which depend on the time of the day and the season. The highest number and mass of traffic-related particles were inhaled by pedestrians during the day on the sidewalk of the route section near 4-way TIs. The highest contribution of traffic-related particles to the total number of inhaled ultrafine particles was estimated in the fall and equaled 68.6 ±8.5%. The highest relative contribution of trafficrelated PM2.5 amounted to 40.4 ±2.7% and was obtained in the spring. The lowest doses of traffic-related particles were received in the summer. Further, more detailed comprehensive studies are necessary to determine and minimize the health risk for pedestrians in different seasons and under diversified weather conditions.
Acknowledgements The work was financially supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education under grant no. S-13/WIS/2018.
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14 comparison for bus, tram, subway and pedestrian commutes in Barcelona. Environ. Res. 142, 495–510. Mukerjee, S., Smith, L., Brantley, H., Stallings, C., Neas, L., Kimbrough, S., Williams, R., 2015. Comparison of modeled traffic exposure zones using on–road air pollution measurements. Atmos. Pollut. Res. 6 (1), 82–87. Olszowski, T., 2016. Changes in PM10 concentration due to large-scale rainfall. Arab. J. Geosci. 9, 160. Piotrowicz, A., Polednik, B., 2019. Exposure to Aerosols Particles on an Urban Road. J. Ecol. Eng. 20 (5), 27–34. Pirjola, L., Lähde, T., Niemi, J.V., Kousa, A., Rönkkö, T., Karjalainen, P., Keskinen, J., Frey, A., Hillamo, R., 2012. Spatial and temporal characterization of traffic emissions in urban microenvironments with a mobile laboratory. Atmos. Environ. 63, 156–167. Polednik, B., 2013. Particulate matter and student exposure in school classrooms in Lublin, Poland. Environ. Res. 120, 134–139. Połednik, B., Piotrowicz, A., Pawłowski, L., Guz, Ł., 2018. Traffic-related particle emissions and exposure on an urban road. Arch. Environ. Prot. 44 (2), 83–93. Puett, R.C., Hart, J.E., Yanosky, J.D., Spiegelman, D., Wang, M., Fisher, J.A., Hong, B., Laden, F., 2014. Particulate matter air pollution exposure, distance to road, and incident lung cancer in the Nurses' Health Study cohort. Environ. Health Perspect. 122 (9), 926– 932. Qiu, Z., Lv, H., Wang, W., Zhang, F., Wang, W., Hao, Y., 2019a. Pedestrian exposure to PM2.5, BC and UFP of adults and teens: A case study in Xi’an, China. Sustain. Cities Soc. 51, 101774. Qiu, Z., Wang, W., Zheng, J., Lv, H., 2019b. Exposure assessment of cyclists to UFP and PM on urban routes in Xi'an, China. Environ. Pollut. 250, 241–250. Rakowska, A., Wong, K.C., Townsend, T., Chan, K.L., Westerdahl, D., Ng, S., Močnik, G., Drinovec, L., Ning, Z., 2014. Impact of traffic volume and composition on the air quality and pedestrian exposure in urban street canyon. Atmos. Environ. 98, 260–270. RBA, 2018. Road and Bridge Authority in Lublin (in Polish) http://www.zdm.lublin.eu/?page_id=1716 (Accessed in June 2019). Rogula-Kozłowska, W., Klejnowski, K., Rogula-Kopiec, P., Ośródka, L., Krajny, E., Błaszczak, B., Mathews, B., 2014. Spatial and seasonal variability of the mass concentration and chemical composition of PM2.5 in Poland. Air Qual. Atmos. Health 7 (1), 41–58. Rogula-Kozłowska, W., Mach, T., Rogula-Kopiec, P., Rybak, J., Nocoń, K., 2019. Concentration and elemental composition of quasi-ultrafine particles in Upper Silesia. Environ. Prot. Eng. 45 (1), 171–184. Sram, R.J., Veleminsky, M.Jr, Veleminsky, M.Sr, Stejskalová, J., 2017. The impact of air pollution to central nervous system in children and adults. Neuro Endocrinol. Lett. 38 (6), 389–396. Srimuruganandam, B., Shiva Nagendra, S.M., 2010. Analysis and interpretation of particulate matter–PM10, PM2.5 and PM1.0 emissions from the heterogeneous traffic near an urban roadway. Atmos. Pollut. Res., 1, 184–194. Taczanowski, J., Kołoś, A., Gwosdz, K., Domański, B., Guzik, R., 2018. The development of low-emission public urban transport in Poland. Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series 41, 79–92. TomTom, 2017. TomTom Traffic Index. http://www.tomtom.com/trafficindex (Accessed in July 2018). Valavanidis, A., Fiotakis, K., Vlachogianni, T., 2008. Airborne particulate matter and human health: Toxicological assessment and importance of size and composition of particles for
15 oxidative damage and carcinogenic mechanisms. J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev. 26 (4), 339–362. WHO, 2005. WHO Regional Office for Europe. Health effects of transport-related air pollution. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/74715/E86650.pdf (Accessed in July 2019). WHO, 2013. WHO Regional Office for Europe. Review of evidence on health aspects of air pollution– REVIHAAP Project. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/193108/REVIHAAP-Finaltechnical-report-final-version.pdf (Accessed in July 2019). Zalakeviciute, R., López-Villada, J., Rybarczyk, Y., 2018. Contrasted effects of relative humidity and precipitation on urban PM2.5 pollution in high elevation urban areas. Sustainability 10 (6), 2064.
Table 1. Average total number concentrations of ultrafine and submicron particles (PN0.1, PN1) and average total mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of RS-I – route section near 4-way TIs and RS-II – route sections away from 4-way TIs with less intensive traffic during the day time (measurements at 8:00, 12:00, 16:00) and at night time (measurements at 20:00, 0:00, 4:00) in four seasons. Season Time Spring Day Night Summer Day Night Fall Day Night Winter Day Night
Route section
x
PN0.1 103 pt/cm3
x
PN1 103 pt/cm3
PM2.5 µg/m3
PM10 µg/m3
I II
14.1 (8.2)13.9/25.9 9.8 (7.9)7.3/33.6
34.3 (16.4)36.1/54.5 21.8 (15.0)19.5/63.3
26.1 (23.2)14.9/69.7 16.0 (13.2)10.4/38.8
32.1 (25.5)17.7/83.3 21.0 (14.4)16.5/47.5
I II
8.0 (3.0)6.8/12.6 6.7 (2.0)6.0/11.3
15.8 (6.2)16.2/24.9 13.2 (5.9)13.1/27.0
38.0(9.5)39.9/51.9 37.3 (13.1)33.2/79.2
42.3 (10.8)43.1/59.1 40.9 (14.4)36.1/85.1
I II
10.0 (6.1)7.2/18.2 7.2 (2.3)6.9/12.0
18.6 (13.5)15.4/45.3 14.4 (4.2)15.4/22.7
13.1 (15.2)3.4/32.4 10.0 (12.0)1.7/30.3
17.2 (17.9)6.4/40.3 15.3 (16.2)5.1/45.4
I II
5.6 (1.8)4.7/9.2 4.8 (0.9)4.6/7.0
11.6 (4.3)12.8/17.4 8.7 (3.3)7.4/16.5
20.0 (8.0)20.5/29.3 20.4 (9.5)21.3/43.4
24.2 (7.8)26.9/32.7 25.2 (10.3)27.2/51.7
I II
23.3 (11.0)23.5/41 12.5 (5.6)12.3/30.4
38.3 (17.3)36.5/63.5 24.5 (12.3)22.3/65.2
77.9 (45.0)66.1/144 68.0 (40.9)44.4/146
81.5 (45.9)70.4/149 71.7 (41.9)46.2/153
I II
9.7 (5.0)7.1/19.1 6.7 (1.6)6.3/11.1
21.4 (13.9)20.9/48.3 12.8 (8.1)8.3/30.4
70.8 (21.6)77.5/93.5 70.7 (20.6)82.5/89.9
73.0 (21.1)78.9/95.2 72.9 (20.5)84.9/91.5
I II
16.1 (5.8)19.7/23.1 10.0 (3.7)8.6/22.5
47.4 (17.5)50.0/68.0 24.3 (10.7)20.2/48.4
66.4 (13.8)65.5/82.7 63.9 (14.4)66.8/89.1
72.1 (14.3)73.4/89.7 68.6 (14.2)69.5/93.6
47.2 (11.1)41.5/67.5 48.2 (17.8)41.6/106
48.9 (11.3)43.5/68.9 50.0 (18.2)43.5/109
I 4.6 (2.1)3.8/8.0 10.2 (5.8)7.8/19.6 II 4.8 (3.2)3.5/17.0 10.1 (8.5)6.2/38.0 Arithmetic average (SD)median/maximum
Table 2. Ratios of traffic-related ultrafine and submicron particle number concentrations (PN0.1, PN1) and mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the day (at 8:00, 12:00, 16:00) and at night (at 20:00, 0:00, 4:00) in four seasons to background levels. Season Time Spring Day Night Summer Day Night Fall Day Night Winter Day Night
Route section
PN0.1
PN1
PM2.5
PM10
I II
3.2 (3.2)2.2/8.5 1.2 (1.4)0.8/5.0
4.2 (3.2)2.8/8.5 1.9 (2.0)1.6/7.2
2.7 (2.8)2.2/8.1 1.3 (1.9)0.6/7.6
1.3 (1.2)0.8/3.5 0.6 (0.5)0.5/2.4
I II
0.3 (0.2)0.3/0.6 0.2 (0.2)0.1/0.8
0.6 (0.4)0.7/1.3 0.4 (0.4)0.4/1.5
0.5 (0.7)0.3/2.2 0.2 (0.3)0.1/1.1
0.2 (0.1)0.1/0.3 0.2 (0.2)0.1/0.9
I II
1.3 (1.4)0.6/3.2 0.6 (0.5)0.4/1.5
1.4 (1.4)0.2/6.3 0.7 (0.7)0.4/2.0
2.7 (1.7)1.9/6.0 2.5 (3.8)1.1/13
1.0 (1.1)0.7/4.0 0.9 (0.4)0.9/1.8
I II
0.4 (0.5)0.3/1.4 0.3 (0.2)0.2/0.8
1.0 (0.7)1.2/1.8 0.5 (0.6)0.3/2.3
0.2 (0.1)0.2/0.4 0.2 (0.3)0.2/1.5
0.2 (0.1)0.1/0.4 0.2 (0.2)0.2/0.8
I II
3.1 (2.1)3.6/7.5 1.2 (1.2)0.9/5.3
3.8 (2.2)3.7/7.9 2.1 (1.7)1.8/8.1
0.5 (0.5)0.3/1.4 0.5 (0.5)0.2/1.4
0.5 (0.5)0.3/1.3 0.5 (0.5)0.2/1.3
I II
0.7 (0.7)0.5/2.1 0.3 (0.3)0.2/1.4
2.3 (1.8)2.0/5.4 1.2 (1.7)0.5/6.7
0.2 (0.2)0.2/0.5 0.2 (0.1)0.1/0.5
0.2 (0.1)0.2/0.5 0.2 (0.1)0.1/0.5
I II
2.5 (1.7)2.4/4.5 1.1 (0.9)1.0/3.4
5.0 (2.6)4.7/8.5 2.0 (1.4)1.7/4.8
0.5 (0.5)0.3/1.4 0.4 (0.4)0.3/1.7
0.5 (0.4)0.4/1.4 0.4 (0.4)0.4/1.6
1.4 (0.7)1.5/2.2 1.4 (1.6)0.7/5.3
0.3 (0.2)0.3/0.6 0.3 (0.4)0.3/1.3
0.3 (0.2)0.3/0.5 0.3 (0.3)0.2/1.4
I 0.7 (0.3)0.8/1.1 II 0.7 (0.8)0.5/3.5 Arithmetic average (SD)median/maximum
Table 3. Mean percentage contributions of traffic-related particles to the total amount of particles inhaled by pedestrians on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II in four seasons. Season
Route section
PN0.1
PN1
PM2.5
PM10
Spring
I II
61.5 ± 12.1 40.0 ± 9.2
70.5 ± 7.7 53.0 ± 13.1
40.4 ± 2.7 28.0 ± 7.4
36.9 ± 4.7 22.8 ± 6.8
Summer
I II
39.9 ± 25.4 32.0 ± 12.0
41.8 ± 31.7 32.9 ± 19.7
35.7 ± 14.1 34.8 ± 8.8
29.2 ± 9.9 26.4 ± 11.2
Fall
I II
68.6 ± 8.5 44.6 ± 13.6
76.2 ± 7.2 62.7 ± 10.2
26.4 ± 19.5 20.9 ± 19.8
24.7 ± 19.2 20.1 ± 18.4
64.7 ± 11.7 48.9 ± 12.3
79.9 ± 5.9 65.3 ± 4.9
28.2 ± 12.0 26.4 ± 11.8
29.2 ± 10.9 26.9 ± 11.1
Winter
I II Mean ± standard deviation
Fig. 1. Location of Lublin in Europe and satellite image (Google Earth) with the mobile monitoring route and the fixed-site measurement points on the sidewalk along the route.
Fig. 2. Percentage contribution of traffic-related particles to the total particle concentrations measured on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II at different times of the day and in different seasons.
PN0.1 I RS-I
23.8
34.7
38.4
14.0 13.3
12.5
11.1
25.1
31.8
34.3
36.5
30.4 22.1
PM10
14.4
36.6
12.4 40.3 28.7
PM2.5
PN1 22.2
25.1
25.6
34.6
26.2
36.1
RS-II II 14.9
10.4
34.3
Spring
26.8
Summer
12.3
13.0
32.7
Fall
25.4
Winter
Fig. 3. Percentage contribution of traffic-related particles inhaled by pedestrians in the individual seasons to the total amount of these particles inhaled by them on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the entire year.
Highlights • • • •
Exposure to traffic-related particles depends on traffic conditions. Particle doses inhaled by pedestrians depend on the time of day and season. The highest doses of particles are inhaled during the day near 4-way intersections. The lowest doses of particles are received in the summer.
Bernard Polednik: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing- Original draft preparation, Visualization, Investigation, Resources, Project Administration, Formal analysis, Supervision Adam Piotrowicz: Investigation, Writing - Review & Editing, Methodology
Declaration of interests ☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. ☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
S1309-1042(19)30538-0
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2019.12.019
Reference:
APR 716
To appear in:
Atmospheric Pollution Research
Received Date: 27 August 2019 Revised Date:
21 December 2019
Accepted Date: 24 December 2019
Please cite this article as: Polednik, B., Piotrowicz, A., Pedestrian Exposure to Traffic-related Particles Along a City Road in Lublin, Poland, Atmospheric Pollution Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.apr.2019.12.019. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Pedestrian Exposure to Traffic-related Particles Along a City Road in Lublin, Poland Bernard Polednik*, Adam Piotrowicz Lublin University of Technology, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Lublin, Poland ul. Nadbystrzycka 40B, 20-618 Lublin, Poland. tel.: +48 81 538 44 03 fax: +48 81 538 19 97
*
Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
2 ABSTRACT Pedestrian exposure to traffic-related air pollution can lead to adverse health consequences. Research in this area is of particular importance in cities in Central and Eastern Europe due to mostly outdated transportation fleet and seasonally variable weather conditions. This study estimates the contribution of traffic-related particles to the total doses of particles inhaled by pedestrians on a sidewalk along a busy road in Lublin, Eastern Poland during the day and at night in four seasons. The highest number and mass of traffic-related particles were received during the day on the sidewalk near 4-way traffic intersections. The highest contribution of traffic-related particles to the total number of inhaled ultrafine particles was estimated in the fall and equaled 68.6 ±8.5%. The highest relative contribution of traffic-related PM2.5 amounted to 40.4 ±2.7% and was obtained in the spring. The lowest doses of traffic-related particles were received in the summer. The findings of this study may contribute not only to actions taken at local level aimed at minimizing pedestrian exposure but also to redesigning or delineating sidewalks away from busy roads. Keywords: ambient particulate matter, traffic pollution, exposure concentration, inhaled dose
3
1. Introduction Sidewalks are an integral part of the road used for pedestrian mobility. Their functionality is not limited to walking as they often constitute multi-use paths that provide space for other physical activities such as running, cycling etc. Sidewalks are usually situated on both sides of roads and also cross at intersections with heavy traffic. For this reason pedestrians are directly exposed to traffic-related emissions. This involves exposure to aerosol particles from traffic exhaust sources, including such components as black carbon as well as gaseous precursors of secondary particulate matter like NOX and VOCs (Janssen et al., 2011; Qiu et al., 2019b). Furthermore, pedestrians are also exposed to particles from non-exhaust sources such as road dust and road surface abrasions or wear of vehicular tires and brakes (Kwak et al., 2013; WHO, 2005). In accordance with epidemiological and toxicological studies, these pollutants have adverse health effects and contribute to cardiopulmonary and other serious diseases (Valavanidis et al., 2008; WHO, 2013). Exposure to such pollutants may, among other things, result in increased lung cancer mortality and may affect the central nervous system (Lee et al., 2019; Sram et al., 2017). As regards traffic-related emissions, special focus has been recently placed on ultrafine particles (UFP) with aerodynamic diameter less than 100 nm, mainly due to their specific physical-chemical characteristics and unique properties, including great pulmonary deposition efficiency, the amounts of adsorbed transition metals, as well as toxicity resulting from their large surface area which make them especially hazardous (Bliss et al., 2018; Rogula-Kozłowska et al., 2019). Previous studies indicate that the exposure to traffic-related particles significantly decreases pro rata to the distance from the road (Mukerjee et al., 2015; Puett et al., 2014), which would imply that the doses inhaled by vehicle commuters should be greater than in the case of pedestrians. Such results were presented e.g. by Cepeda et al. (2017) and de Nazelle et al. (2017). However, taking into consideration that vehicle commuters usually remain in an environment that is relatively isolated from the outdoor air by means of sealed windows and they breathe filtered air, pedestrians may in fact inhale greater particles doses than vehicle commuters. This may be especially relevant on certain road sections (e.g. busy intersections) or under appropriate meteorological conditions (Moreno et al., 2015; Pirjola et al., 2012). There are numerous studies focusing on the exposure of commuters that have been recently conducted in urban areas (Kwak et al., 2018; Moreno et al., 2019; Luengo-Oroz and Reis, 2019). To date, quite a few studies on pedestrian exposure have also been carried out (Choi et al., 2018; Qiu et al., 2019a; Rakowska et al., 2014). Yet, the accurate determination
4 of exposure to aerosol particles from traffic-related emissions remains a difficult task. This is mainly due to the fact that the obtained measurement results may be affected by a number of factors such as the road characteristics, including traffic intensity or the type of vehicles and the fuel used. The topography and arrangement of buildings along the road (e.g. the presence of street canyons), the time of the day that affects the traffic intensity and the season that determines the changes in weather conditions are also of significance. The latter is especially relevant in the case of cities in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) where unfavourable weather conditions such as low temperatures, strong winds, heavy rains and snowfalls hinder vehicular traffic for a significant part of the year. This region, however, has been rarely considered in previous research. It also needs to be noted that traffic exposures in the region may be affected by a relatively high percentage of old used vehicles and outdated transportation network and infrastructure (Eurostat, 2019; Taczanowski et al., 2018). The aim of this study is to estimate the contribution of traffic-related particles to the particle doses inhaled by pedestrians on a sidewalk of a busy road in Lublin, Eastern Poland during the day and at night in four seasons of the year.
2. Materials and methods The measurements were performed in Lublin, a large city in eastern Poland with almost 350,000 inhabitants and the area of 147 km2 with the average yearly temperature of 7.6 ºC (2018). In terms of the existing transportation network, Lublin may be considered, in many respects, as a typical city in the CEE. However, despite a relatively large number of vehicles and high traffic intensity, it lacks adequate transportation infrastructure and therefore is one of the most congested cities in Europe (TomTom Traffic Index, 2017). Its transportation fleet mainly includes relatively old, used, gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles i.e. cars, vans, trucks and buses and some electric trolleybuses. Cars older than 15 years make up over 50% of all passenger cars and an average public transportation bus is 21 years old (CSOP, 2017). The conducted study involved mobile and fixed-site measurements which were performed along a 2.1 km route which is part of one of the busiest streets in the city with 3- to 4-storey buildings located on each side of the street. The monitored four-lane road has three 4-way intersections (TIs) with traffic lights. The traffic pattern on the road does not differ from a typical bimodal pattern in almost all urban areas, with maxima during the morning and afternoon/evening peak hours. The maximum traffic intensity is usually in the morning between 7:00–8:00 and afternoon between 15:00-16:00. During that time the traffic volume at
5 each of the examined intersections exceeds 2000 vehicles per hour (maximum reported vehicle number is 3000) (RBA, 2018). The traffic intensity is considerably lower during offpeak hours and in the summer. Fig. 1. Location of Lublin in Europe and satellite image (Google Earth) with the mobile monitoring route and the fixed-site measurement points on the sidewalk along the route.
A detailed description of the route (shown in Figure 1) and the location of the sampling points, instruments and measurement procedures have been presented elsewhere by Połednik et al. (2018) and Piotrowicz and Polednik (2019). In brief, the Mobile Air Pollution Analytic Laboratory (MAPAL) installed in a Renault Kangoo was used during the measurements. MAPAL was equipped, among other things, with the Grimm Aerosol Spectrometer 1.109 with Nano Sizer 1.321 (Grimm Aerosol, Germany), P-Trak ultrafine particle counter model 8525 (TSI Inc., USA), OPS 3330 optical spectrometer (TSI Inc., USA), DustTrak DRX aerosol monitor model 8533 (TSI Inc., USA). Air samples were supplied to MAPAL through tubes with endpoints located in the middle of the vehicle, on the left side, at the height of approximately 1.7 m. The logging interval for the instruments was 6 seconds. All instruments were calibrated by their manufacturer at the beginning of the measurements. The position and speed of the MAPAL vehicle was continuously recorded using a Global Positioning System (GPS; Garmin Nuvi 2460LMT). A HD 1080P Wide angle 170° camera located on the windshield of the car was used to collect the traffic flow data at the time of measurements. The air temperature and relative humidity were measured outside and inside the car cabin with the use of thermo-hygrometer LB-520 (LAB-EL, Poland). This paper only analyzes data of ultrafine particle number concentrations (PN0.1) measured with the use of the Grimm Aerosol Spectrometer, submicron particle number concentrations (PN1) determined using PTrak and mass concentrations of fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM10) particles measured by DustTrak DRX. The ambient air particulate sampling was performed during runs in both directions along the route. Fixed-site measurements were carried out in 11 sampling points that were distributed on the sidewalk along the route. Six of such points were located on the sidewalk in the section near 4-way TIs (RS-I) with intensive traffic, and five sampling points were located away from 4-way TIs with less intensive traffic (RS-II). 5-minute measurements were performed at each point, at which time MAPAL was parked on the sidewalk, on the curb. Background particle concentrations were measured away from the route, approximately 350 m from the considered monitored street and relatively far from other streets, near a green area
6 at the river with almost no motor vehicle traffic. Therefore, background measurements were not or were only slightly affected by traffic pollutants. The average particle concentration obtained from two 5-minute background measurements taken at the beginning and after the end of each run was used as the background value for the given run. Concentrations of trafficrelated particles at each sampling point during the individual run were determined as differences of the measured total size-fractionated particle concentrations and their background concentrations. The monitoring campaigns were performed on several consecutive days in the spring, summer and fall of 2017 and in the winter of 2018. The mean ambient temperatures in those seasons in Lublin were 9.4 ºC, 19.1 ºC, 9.5 ºC and -1.6 ºC, respectively (https://www. weatheronline.com). A relatively high average temperature in winter resulted from a very warm December; however, there were days when the average temperature was well below zero. On each test day six runs were performed at fixed times in 4-hour intervals. The times were selected to account for the morning and afternoon peak hours, as well as the off-peak hours in the evening and at night. On average, one full run took approximately 95 minutes to complete, however, it varied depending on the time of the day and the traffic. This paper analyzes the measurement results obtained during six consecutive runs in one representative day for the particular season. In the given day, the runs were performed under relatively stable meteorological conditions with natural temperature and relative humidity differences resulting from the time of the day. In the adopted approach it was assumed that the traffic conditions during each run were the same. The respiratory dose (RD) of particles inhaled by pedestrians during the exposure was estimated based on the simplified methodology presented in Qiu et al. (2019a) with the use of the following equation (1): RD = VT . f . PC .t
(1)
where VT is the tidal volume, f is the breathing frequency, PC is the averaged particle number or mass concentration and t is the duration of exposure. The calculations were performed based on the assumption that the tidal volume for both a male and female adult pedestrian amounted to 1100 cm3 per breath and the breathing rate equaled 21 per minute (Hinds, 1999).
7 Descriptive statistics were used to characterize particle concentrations and relative pedestrian exposure grouped according to the particle size, part of the route, time of the day and season.
3. Results and discussion The results obtained in this research confirm the explicit relationship between the concentrations of traffic-related particles on the road and its vicinity and the traffic intensity, which is reported in previous studies. Table 1 presents average total number concentrations of ultrafine and submicron particles (PN0.1, PN1) and average total mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of the route section near 4-way TIs (RS-I) and route sections away from 4way TIs (RS-II) during the day and at night in four seasons. Table 1. Average total number concentrations of ultrafine and submicron particles (PN0.1, PN1) and average total mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of RS-I – route section near 4-way TIs and RS-II – route sections away from 4-way TIs with less intensive traffic during the day time (measurements at 8:00, 12:00, 16:00) and at night time (measurements at 20:00, 0:00, 4:00) in four seasons.
It can be seen that the particle concentrations on the sidewalk are significantly affected by the traffic intensity which, in turn, is related to the time of the day and, to some extent, to the season of the year. A certain impact of other particle sources located in the vicinity, including residential coal and biomass combustion appliances may also not be ruled out (Polednik, 2013; Marczak, 2017). Higher total concentrations of almost all considered particles were observed during the day and in RS-I than at night and in RS-II. The highest total PN0.1, PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations were measured on the sidewalk of RS-I during the day in the fall and their average values amounted to 23.3 x 103 pt/cm3, 77.9 µg/m3 and 81.5 µg/m3, respectively. The highest average total PN1 concentration was also obtained on the sidewalk of RS-I during the day, but in the winter and it amounted to 47.4 x 103 pt/cm3. In turn, the lowest total concentrations of all of the examined particles were recorded on the sidewalk in the winter and at night and their average levels were similar in both route sections i.e. PN0.1 - 4.6 x 103 pt/cm3, PN1 - 10.1 x 103 pt/cm3, PM2.5 - 47.2 µg/m3 and PM10 - 48.9 µg/m3. Figure 2 presents the contribution of traffic-related particles to the total particle number and mass concentrations measured on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II at different times of the day and in different seasons.
8 Fig. 2. Percentage contribution of traffic-related particles to the total particle concentrations measured on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II at different times of the day and in different seasons.
The contributions of traffic-related particles to the total particle number and mass concentrations measured on the sidewalk near intersections were in most cases higher than away from the TIs. Moreover, the percentage contributions of these particles were greater during the day than at night. Relatively high contributions of traffic-related particles to the total particle number concentrations were measured in three seasons, i.e. in the fall, winter and summer. However, the highest values for PN0.1 and PN1 concentrations were obtained in the winter during the morning peak hour (7:00 - 8:00) in RS-I and they amounted to 81.5 ±0.3% and 88.1 ±2.1%, respectively. In the case of PM2.5 and PM10 mass concentrations, the highest contributions of traffic-related particles in RS-I were obtained in the spring in the afternoon peak hour (15:00 -16:00) and they reached 80.1 ±9.1% and 59.7 ±12.4%, respectively. Similar relations in terms of increasing particle concentrations in the vicinity of traffic intersections were reported in many previous studies, e.g. elevated concentrations of traffic-related particles in close proximity of intersections were observed, among others, by Goel and Kumar (2015). Data obtained by Ćwiklak at al. (2009) in Zabrze (Upper Silesia, Poland) near a busy street intersection indicated that the average increase of PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations as compared to the urban background amounted to 46.9% and 44.9%, respectively. Lower contributions of vehicle-generated particles to total particle concentrations which were observed at night may result, apart from the obvious less intense traffic, from lower air temperatures which contribute to an increase in air relative humidity. This, in turn, may lead to the condensation of water vapor on the generated and aggregated traffic-related particles which facilitates their deposition and results in limited spreading. Condensation of water vapor may also take place on the usually cooler ground-level surfaces, including the road, sidewalk and the particles deposited thereon, thus hindering particle resuspension. Lower mass concentrations of vehicle-generated fine and coarse particles observed in the fall and winter may also be attributed to the greater humidity of the road surface resulting from more frequent precipitation in these seasons (Olszowski, 2016; Zalakeviciute et al., 2018). In order to better characterize the observations made, ratios of traffic-related particle concentrations on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II to background concentrations were calculated. Statistical information on the ratios of traffic-related particle number (PN0.1, PN1) and mass (PM2.5, PM10) concentrations measured on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the day and night in four seasons to background levels is presented in Table 2.
9 Table 2. Ratios of traffic-related ultrafine and submicron particle number concentrations (PN0.1, PN1) and mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the day (at 8:00, 12:00, 16:00) and at night (at 20:00, 0:00, 4:00) in four seasons to background levels.
The determined ratios of the particle concentrations of all the considered sizes were in the majority of cases higher on the sidewalk of RS-I than on the sidewalk of RS-II. They were also significantly higher during the day than at night. During the day the highest mean ratios of traffic-related PN0.1 concentrations to background PN0.1 concentrations were obtained on the sidewalk of RS-I in the spring and fall and they equaled 3.2 and 3.1, respectively. The maximum ratios reached 8.5 and 7.5, while the coefficients of variation (CV) amounted to 98% and 68%, respectively. The lowest ratios of these particle concentrations were observed in the summer with a mean value of 1.3. During the day the traffic-related PN1 concentrations were greater than the background PN1 concentrations in all seasons. The maximum mean value of PN1 concentration ratios was obtained in the winter and amounted to 5.0. In the spring and fall mean ratios equaled 4.2 and 3.8, respectively. The lowest mean value, similarly like in the case of PN0.1 concentration ratios, was observed in the summer and amounted to 1.4. As regards traffic-related to background ratios of PM2.5 and PM10 mass concentrations, the highest mean values during the day were obtained in the spring and summer and reached 2.7 and 2.7 respectively for PM2.5 as well as 1.3 and 0.9 respectively for PM10 concentrations. CV values in the spring and summer amounted to 104% and 63% respectively for PM2.5 and 92% and 110% respectively for PM10. In the fall and winter, traffic-related particles had relatively little impact on the PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations on the sidewalk of both considered route sections. During the day, they on average constituted approximately 1/3 of the total measured PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations, with an even lower contribution at night. Moreover, no differences in the concentration ratios of the considered particles were observed on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II. This may indicate that non-traffic-related particles had significant contributions in the fall and winter. Rogula-Kozłowska et al. (2014) investigated seasonal variability of the mass concentration of urban air particles in three locations in Poland. They found that the winter average PM2.5 concentration was almost twice as high as the average in the non-heating period and three times as high as the average obtained in the summer. Similar observations in terms of such trend were made in other studies e.g. by Marczak (2017) in Lublin, Poland, and by Meng et al. (2019) in Urumqi, China.
10 The mean daily contributions of traffic-related particles to the total amount of particles inhaled by pedestrians on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II in the individual seasons are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Mean percentage contributions of traffic-related particles to the total amount of particles inhaled by pedestrians on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II in four seasons.
It was assumed in the study that 70% of the time spent by a typical pedestrian on commuting on the sidewalk falls between 8:00 to 20:00 i.e. during the day and 30% of that time is at night (20:00 to 8:00). The results confirm that pedestrian exposure depends on the given location along the route and the related traffic intensity. Regardless of the season, the number and mass of traffic-related particles inhaled by a pedestrian in proximity to 4-way TIs was greater than away from these intersections. In the spring, fall and winter in RS-I the mean daily contributions of traffic-related PN0.1 and PN1 to the total inhaled PN0.1 and PN1 derived from all sources exceeded 60%. The highest mean daily contribution of traffic-related PN0.1 and PN1 was obtained in the fall and winter and amounted to 68.6 ±8.5% and 79.9 ±5.9%, respectively. In turn, the lowest, albeit still relatively high contributions of number of ultrafine and submicron traffic-related particles to the total inhaled PN0.1 and PN1 were obtained in the summer and amounted respectively to 39.9 ±25.4% and 41.8 ±31.7%. Throughout the day, the greatest mass of traffic-related PM2.5 and PM10 was inhaled by pedestrians in RS-I in the spring. Respective contributions to the total mass of inhaled PM2.5 and PM10 were equal to 40.4 ±2.7% and 36.9 ±4.7%. The lowest mass of traffic-related PM2.5 and PM10 was inhaled by pedestrians in RS-I in the fall – contributions decreased to respectively 26.4 ±19.5% and 24.7 ±19.2%. From the presented data it can be concluded that pedestrians received greater traffic-related particle doses in the part of the route with heavier traffic. Furthermore, pedestrians inhaled lower numbers of traffic-related particles in the summer and lower doses of traffic-related particle mass in the fall. Figure 3 presents the estimated percentage contribution of traffic-related particles inhaled by pedestrians on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II in the individual seasons to the total amount of these particles inhaled by them during the entire year. Fig. 3. Percentage contribution of traffic-related particles inhaled by pedestrians in the individual seasons to the total amount of these particles inhaled by them on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the entire year.
The highest amount of traffic-related PN0.1 is inhaled by pedestrians in the fall. In RS-I it corresponds to 40.3%, while in RS-II to 34.3% of the annual traffic-related PN0.1 dose. The
11 amount of inhaled traffic-related PN1 in this season is also high and exceeds 30% of the annual dose. The greatest mass of traffic-related particles is inhaled by pedestrians in the winter. In both considered route sections, it constituted roughly 35% and 37% of the annual average dose of traffic-related PM2.5 and PM10. In turn, the lowest number and mass of trafficrelated particles (less than 15%) is taken in by pedestrians in the summer. It is difficult to directly compare the obtained results, since the previous studies performed in other urban areas in the CEE primarily concerned other aspects of traffic-related health hazards. In turn, a comparison with other studies conducted worldwide is not entirely justified, as they were carried out in a different climate and weather conditions. However, it can be noted that studies performed by Arkouli et al. (2010) in the urban area of Buenos Aires indicated that average diurnal patterns of PM2.5 show a clear seasonal variation. Concentrations in the winter were on average 1.4 times higher than in the summer. In turn, Alharbi et al. (2015) obtained results to the contrary in studies carried out in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. They reported that the concentrations of particulate matter were about 84% higher in the summer, which may be ascribed to dust storms that occur frequently in that season. Studies of Srimuruganandam and Shiva Nagendra (2010) near an urban road way in Chennai, India showed clear diurnal, weekly and seasonal cycles of particular matter concentrations. In turn, Adeniran et al. (2017) determined the seasonal variations and composition of suspended particulate matter emitted at major intra-urban traffic intersections in Ilorin, Nigeria. The average on-road respiratory deposition dose rates of PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 during the dry season at TIs was found to be about 24%, 9% and 25% higher than those obtained during the wet season. Summing up, the results of the study confirm that traffic-related particle number and mass concentrations measured on the sidewalk of the monitored route directly depend on the traffic conditions that differ depending on the time of the day and the season. These conditions may have a significant effect on pedestrian exposure and may be of importance while balancing health benefits from active travel with the negative health consequences related to the increased intake of air pollution. Practical implications include, among other things, the necessity to raise awareness concerning the health hazards related to traffic-related pollution. Results reported in this paper also indicate that, in the absence of other options, physical activity near a road will be least harmful during the summer and in the evening. The results also can be useful for making informed decisions on urban development and on redesigning or delineating new sidewalks away from heavy traffic.
12 Simultaneous, multi-point and extended research should focus on determining the dependency between particle concentrations and pedestrian exposure under different weather conditions in the individual seasons in order to devise effective ways of eliminating health risks.
4. Conclusions The research on the pedestrian exposure to traffic-related particles conducted in four seasons on a sidewalk along a busy road in Lublin, a typical CEE city indicated that the results were mainly affected by the traffic conditions, which depend on the time of the day and the season. The highest number and mass of traffic-related particles were inhaled by pedestrians during the day on the sidewalk of the route section near 4-way TIs. The highest contribution of traffic-related particles to the total number of inhaled ultrafine particles was estimated in the fall and equaled 68.6 ±8.5%. The highest relative contribution of trafficrelated PM2.5 amounted to 40.4 ±2.7% and was obtained in the spring. The lowest doses of traffic-related particles were received in the summer. Further, more detailed comprehensive studies are necessary to determine and minimize the health risk for pedestrians in different seasons and under diversified weather conditions.
Acknowledgements The work was financially supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education under grant no. S-13/WIS/2018.
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Table 1. Average total number concentrations of ultrafine and submicron particles (PN0.1, PN1) and average total mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of RS-I – route section near 4-way TIs and RS-II – route sections away from 4-way TIs with less intensive traffic during the day time (measurements at 8:00, 12:00, 16:00) and at night time (measurements at 20:00, 0:00, 4:00) in four seasons. Season Time Spring Day Night Summer Day Night Fall Day Night Winter Day Night
Route section
x
PN0.1 103 pt/cm3
x
PN1 103 pt/cm3
PM2.5 µg/m3
PM10 µg/m3
I II
14.1 (8.2)13.9/25.9 9.8 (7.9)7.3/33.6
34.3 (16.4)36.1/54.5 21.8 (15.0)19.5/63.3
26.1 (23.2)14.9/69.7 16.0 (13.2)10.4/38.8
32.1 (25.5)17.7/83.3 21.0 (14.4)16.5/47.5
I II
8.0 (3.0)6.8/12.6 6.7 (2.0)6.0/11.3
15.8 (6.2)16.2/24.9 13.2 (5.9)13.1/27.0
38.0(9.5)39.9/51.9 37.3 (13.1)33.2/79.2
42.3 (10.8)43.1/59.1 40.9 (14.4)36.1/85.1
I II
10.0 (6.1)7.2/18.2 7.2 (2.3)6.9/12.0
18.6 (13.5)15.4/45.3 14.4 (4.2)15.4/22.7
13.1 (15.2)3.4/32.4 10.0 (12.0)1.7/30.3
17.2 (17.9)6.4/40.3 15.3 (16.2)5.1/45.4
I II
5.6 (1.8)4.7/9.2 4.8 (0.9)4.6/7.0
11.6 (4.3)12.8/17.4 8.7 (3.3)7.4/16.5
20.0 (8.0)20.5/29.3 20.4 (9.5)21.3/43.4
24.2 (7.8)26.9/32.7 25.2 (10.3)27.2/51.7
I II
23.3 (11.0)23.5/41 12.5 (5.6)12.3/30.4
38.3 (17.3)36.5/63.5 24.5 (12.3)22.3/65.2
77.9 (45.0)66.1/144 68.0 (40.9)44.4/146
81.5 (45.9)70.4/149 71.7 (41.9)46.2/153
I II
9.7 (5.0)7.1/19.1 6.7 (1.6)6.3/11.1
21.4 (13.9)20.9/48.3 12.8 (8.1)8.3/30.4
70.8 (21.6)77.5/93.5 70.7 (20.6)82.5/89.9
73.0 (21.1)78.9/95.2 72.9 (20.5)84.9/91.5
I II
16.1 (5.8)19.7/23.1 10.0 (3.7)8.6/22.5
47.4 (17.5)50.0/68.0 24.3 (10.7)20.2/48.4
66.4 (13.8)65.5/82.7 63.9 (14.4)66.8/89.1
72.1 (14.3)73.4/89.7 68.6 (14.2)69.5/93.6
47.2 (11.1)41.5/67.5 48.2 (17.8)41.6/106
48.9 (11.3)43.5/68.9 50.0 (18.2)43.5/109
I 4.6 (2.1)3.8/8.0 10.2 (5.8)7.8/19.6 II 4.8 (3.2)3.5/17.0 10.1 (8.5)6.2/38.0 Arithmetic average (SD)median/maximum
Table 2. Ratios of traffic-related ultrafine and submicron particle number concentrations (PN0.1, PN1) and mass concentrations of fine and coarse particles (PM2.5, PM10) on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the day (at 8:00, 12:00, 16:00) and at night (at 20:00, 0:00, 4:00) in four seasons to background levels. Season Time Spring Day Night Summer Day Night Fall Day Night Winter Day Night
Route section
PN0.1
PN1
PM2.5
PM10
I II
3.2 (3.2)2.2/8.5 1.2 (1.4)0.8/5.0
4.2 (3.2)2.8/8.5 1.9 (2.0)1.6/7.2
2.7 (2.8)2.2/8.1 1.3 (1.9)0.6/7.6
1.3 (1.2)0.8/3.5 0.6 (0.5)0.5/2.4
I II
0.3 (0.2)0.3/0.6 0.2 (0.2)0.1/0.8
0.6 (0.4)0.7/1.3 0.4 (0.4)0.4/1.5
0.5 (0.7)0.3/2.2 0.2 (0.3)0.1/1.1
0.2 (0.1)0.1/0.3 0.2 (0.2)0.1/0.9
I II
1.3 (1.4)0.6/3.2 0.6 (0.5)0.4/1.5
1.4 (1.4)0.2/6.3 0.7 (0.7)0.4/2.0
2.7 (1.7)1.9/6.0 2.5 (3.8)1.1/13
1.0 (1.1)0.7/4.0 0.9 (0.4)0.9/1.8
I II
0.4 (0.5)0.3/1.4 0.3 (0.2)0.2/0.8
1.0 (0.7)1.2/1.8 0.5 (0.6)0.3/2.3
0.2 (0.1)0.2/0.4 0.2 (0.3)0.2/1.5
0.2 (0.1)0.1/0.4 0.2 (0.2)0.2/0.8
I II
3.1 (2.1)3.6/7.5 1.2 (1.2)0.9/5.3
3.8 (2.2)3.7/7.9 2.1 (1.7)1.8/8.1
0.5 (0.5)0.3/1.4 0.5 (0.5)0.2/1.4
0.5 (0.5)0.3/1.3 0.5 (0.5)0.2/1.3
I II
0.7 (0.7)0.5/2.1 0.3 (0.3)0.2/1.4
2.3 (1.8)2.0/5.4 1.2 (1.7)0.5/6.7
0.2 (0.2)0.2/0.5 0.2 (0.1)0.1/0.5
0.2 (0.1)0.2/0.5 0.2 (0.1)0.1/0.5
I II
2.5 (1.7)2.4/4.5 1.1 (0.9)1.0/3.4
5.0 (2.6)4.7/8.5 2.0 (1.4)1.7/4.8
0.5 (0.5)0.3/1.4 0.4 (0.4)0.3/1.7
0.5 (0.4)0.4/1.4 0.4 (0.4)0.4/1.6
1.4 (0.7)1.5/2.2 1.4 (1.6)0.7/5.3
0.3 (0.2)0.3/0.6 0.3 (0.4)0.3/1.3
0.3 (0.2)0.3/0.5 0.3 (0.3)0.2/1.4
I 0.7 (0.3)0.8/1.1 II 0.7 (0.8)0.5/3.5 Arithmetic average (SD)median/maximum
Table 3. Mean percentage contributions of traffic-related particles to the total amount of particles inhaled by pedestrians on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II in four seasons. Season
Route section
PN0.1
PN1
PM2.5
PM10
Spring
I II
61.5 ± 12.1 40.0 ± 9.2
70.5 ± 7.7 53.0 ± 13.1
40.4 ± 2.7 28.0 ± 7.4
36.9 ± 4.7 22.8 ± 6.8
Summer
I II
39.9 ± 25.4 32.0 ± 12.0
41.8 ± 31.7 32.9 ± 19.7
35.7 ± 14.1 34.8 ± 8.8
29.2 ± 9.9 26.4 ± 11.2
Fall
I II
68.6 ± 8.5 44.6 ± 13.6
76.2 ± 7.2 62.7 ± 10.2
26.4 ± 19.5 20.9 ± 19.8
24.7 ± 19.2 20.1 ± 18.4
64.7 ± 11.7 48.9 ± 12.3
79.9 ± 5.9 65.3 ± 4.9
28.2 ± 12.0 26.4 ± 11.8
29.2 ± 10.9 26.9 ± 11.1
Winter
I II Mean ± standard deviation
Fig. 1. Location of Lublin in Europe and satellite image (Google Earth) with the mobile monitoring route and the fixed-site measurement points on the sidewalk along the route.
Fig. 2. Percentage contribution of traffic-related particles to the total particle concentrations measured on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II at different times of the day and in different seasons.
PN0.1 I RS-I
23.8
34.7
38.4
14.0 13.3
12.5
11.1
25.1
31.8
34.3
36.5
30.4 22.1
PM10
14.4
36.6
12.4 40.3 28.7
PM2.5
PN1 22.2
25.1
25.6
34.6
26.2
36.1
RS-II II 14.9
10.4
34.3
Spring
26.8
Summer
12.3
13.0
32.7
Fall
25.4
Winter
Fig. 3. Percentage contribution of traffic-related particles inhaled by pedestrians in the individual seasons to the total amount of these particles inhaled by them on the sidewalk of RS-I and RS-II during the entire year.
Highlights • • • •
Exposure to traffic-related particles depends on traffic conditions. Particle doses inhaled by pedestrians depend on the time of day and season. The highest doses of particles are inhaled during the day near 4-way intersections. The lowest doses of particles are received in the summer.
Bernard Polednik: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing- Original draft preparation, Visualization, Investigation, Resources, Project Administration, Formal analysis, Supervision Adam Piotrowicz: Investigation, Writing - Review & Editing, Methodology
Declaration of interests ☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. ☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: