Pedogenesis of red soils overlaid coral reef terraces in the Southern Taiwan

Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e15

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Pedogenesis of red soils overlaid coral reef terraces in the Southern Taiwan Wen-Shu Huang a, b, Shih-Hao Jien c, Shiuh-Tsuen Huang d, e, Heng Tsai a, *, Zeng-Yi Hseu f a

Department of Geography, National Changhua University of Education, Changhua, 50058, Taiwan The Center of General Education, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi, 62102, Taiwan c Department of Soil and Water Conservation, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, 91201, Taiwan d Department of Science Education and Application, National Taichung University of Education, Taichung, 40306, Taiwan e Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 40227, Taiwan f Department of Agricultural Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 26 January 2016 Received in revised form 16 August 2016 Accepted 29 September 2016 Available online xxx

Red soils developed above the reef limestones are commonly observed in the world. Their characteristic properties of high contents in clays and iron-oxides, reddish hue are usually classified themselves as Inceptisols, Alfisols, Ultisols or Mollisols in Soil Taxonomy. The genetic contexts between the soils and beneath limestone have been revealed for gauging paleo-landform surface processes relating to paleoclimatic shifts since the late Pleistocene. There are levels of reef marine terraces in altitude in the Hengchun Peninsula of Taiwan. Their surfaces are covered by thick reddish soil enriched with iron-oxides. However, these terra rossa-like soils distributed on the reef limestone are actually developed from heterogeneous detrital materials, instead of developing from the insoluble residue of the limestone. According to the Soil Taxonomy, the soils on the higher terraces are classified as the Typic Paleudults or typic Kandiultults. They are equivalent to the Alisols in WRB system. The soils on the lower terraces are classified as Typic Udipsamments and Lithic Eutrudepts, and they are equivalent to the Arenosols and Cambisols respectively. This study suggests that the terra rossa-like soils in the study are developed from the parent materials of fluvial deposits which are subject to the landform surface processes during the Interglacial. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Terra rossa-like soils Reef terraces Pedology Soil geomorphology

1. Introduction Red color soils covering on reef limestones were traditionally regarded as Terra Rossa soils. Those soils, characterized by high contents of clays and iron-oxides, rubification, were distributed in warm and humid areas over the world (Olson et al., 1980; Birkeland, 1999; Muhs, 2001; Mee et al., 2004; Muhs and Budahn, 2009). These soils were usually classified as Inceptisols, Alfisols, Ultisols or Mollisols in Soil Taxonomy (Yaalon, 1997; Durn et al., 1999; Durn, 2003). However, their genetic contexts between the soils and underlain limestones have been a long-standing dispute (Muhs et al., 1987; Yaalon, 1997; Yassoglou et al., 1997; Birkeland, 1999; Durn, 2003; Mella and Mermut, 2010). For instances, Muhs et al. (1987) summarized four possible

* Corresponding author. No. 1, Chinte Road, Changhua, 50007, Taiwan. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Tsai).

parental materials for the Terra Rossa like soils as following: (1) the insoluble residuum of the carbonate limestone, (2) the alluvial sediments from topographic higher positions, stuffing up lower karstified depression (3) the volcanic ash from neighboring volcano fallen above the carbonate surface (4) the eolian dust transported from distant arid regions. Furthermore, Feng et al. (2009) gave six possible theories: (1) The residual theory; (2) The allochthonous theory; (3) The overlying non-carbonate rocks weathering theory; (4) The eolian theory; (5)The iso-volumetric weatherin g theory; (6) The polyoriginal theory. In fact, these hypotheses could be ascribed to two opposite points of view, mainly differed by the residual and the  stersi detrital origin (Su c et al., 2009). In addition, once the genetic relationships between the soils and the beneath reef were revealed, pedo-geologists gauged the paleoclimatic and landform surface processes based on soil genesis and the properties of the soils. For examples, Merino and Banerjee (2008) suggested that the limestone weathering processes could be

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a vital mechanism of formation of soils over limestones (Merino and Banerjee, 2008). Many parent materials of the terra rossa-like soils overlaid reef in the western Atlantic and the Mediterrian were input by long-distant eolian from the Saharian (Muhs et al., 1990; Foos, 1991; Yaalon, 1997; Muhs and Budahn, 2009; Fujie et al., 2007; Fujita et al., 2007). However, others proposed that deposits by fluvial, alluvial or local aeolian processes were the  stersic parent materials of soils overlaid reef (Mee et al., 2004; Su et al., 2009). The terra rossa-like soils also developed on the southern Taiwan, where marine terraces are widely distributed. A soil chornosequence with consistency of parent materials had been identified for the marine terraces in the eastern Taiwan (Tsai et al., 2007; Huang et al., 2010). However, in the Hengchun Peninsula, Southern Taiwan, thick and enriched iron-oxide soils, overlying the levels of reef marine terraces delineated based on the altitudes and geomorphic features, have been in controversy of the parent materials and pedogenesis. The soils had been regarded as terra rossalike soils for the past decades (Hsu, 1989). Parent materials of the soils were prevailingly suggested to be attributed to the insoluble residue of the weathering reef-limestone, whereas the chronological pathway of the pedogenesis was proposed to be from insoluble residues to Inceptisols, Alfisols as well as Utltisols (Hsu, 1989; Liu, 1992; Hseu et al., 2004). However, some geologists believed that depositional materials superimposing reef limestone dominated the parent materials of the soils, such as fluvial sediments (Chen et al., 1985; Hsu, 1986) or eaolian sand-dune deposits (Liew and Lin, 1987), or the addition of source material by the alongshore current (Birkeland, 1999). Actually, our previous work about pedogenesis of soils over marine reef terraces in the Kengting area of the Hengchun Peninsula suggested that soil properties varied with terrace ages and there was a pedogeomorphic relation between the soil formation and reef terraces (Huang et al., 2016). Thus, it is a good opportunity to investigate all soils on the reef terraces in the Hengchun Peninsula, including of the eastern mountain range (the Kengting area, hereafter, EMR) and the West Hengchun Hill (hereafter, WHH). The aim of this study is to discover the pedogenesis of the soils and to postulate the chronological pathway of the soils associated with the landform surface development. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Geologic settings The Hengchun Peninsula, locats at the southernmost tip of Taiwan, is the youngest terrain of the orogenic belt along the accretionary prism by the collision of the North Luzon Arc against the Eurasian continent since late Miocene (Biq, 1973; Bowin et al., 1978; Huang et al., 1997; Teng, 1992) (Fig. 1A). The Hengchun Peninsula were divided into two blocks, the EMR and the WHH, by the Hengchun fault. The Hengchun fault is a reverse fault northward connecting to Chaochu fault as a geologic boundary separating the Central Range from the coastal plain (Chen et al., 1985). EMR represent the southern extension of the Central Range. It consists of strata from Miocene shale and sandstone to PliocenePleistocene mudstone with exotic blocks (Chen et al., 1985) (Fig. 1B), giving the source of the sediment yields transported by the river (Fig. 1C). The continuing tectonic movement results in multi-levels of marine terraces at the EMR. Moreover, the surfaces of the Pleistocene reefed marine terraces near Oluanpi were slightly warped (Fig. 1B and C) (Chen et al., 1985; Liew and Lin, 1987; Chen and Liu, 1993). In contrast, WHH consists of the strata of Pleistocene reeflimestone and the synchronous deposits of lagoon-mudstone

(Fig. 1B) (Chen et al., 1985; Hsu, 1986; Chen and Lee, 1990). There are two-levels of marine terraces developed on the late Pleistocene reefs (Hsu, 1989). The terraces in the WHH were tilted and plunged toward the east by the Western Coastal Fault (Chen et al., 2005) (Fig. 1B and C). Some outcrops of the stratigraphies on the terraces in the WHH and the EMR (Fig. 1 B and Fig. 2) show weathered rudaceous sediments. Imbricate beddings were identified from the weathered rudaceous sediments. Approximate direction of the paleo-flow is from north to south based on the imbricate bedding (Fig. 2A and B). Based on UeTh dating method (Hsu, 1986) or by Electric spin resonance (ESR) method (Shih et al., 1989) or by the C14 dating (Liew and Lin, 1987; Chen and Liu, 1993) to the beneath reef limestone, it was suggested that the reef limestone formed during the interglacial or the interstadial with relative higher sea levels than the glacial or stadial (Hsu, 1986, 1989). The calibrated age of the reef limestone for the soils at the EMR was 195, 130, 125e84 and about 60 ka respectively, whereas the calibrated age of the reef limestone at the WHH was 125e84 and about 60 ka respectively (Hsu, 1986). Furthermore, the latest terraces were probably abandoned since 9 ka (Hsu, 1986; Liew and Lin, 1987; Chen and Liu, 1993). The ages of these reef terraces yield an uplifting rate of 3e5 mm yr
1 (Hsu, 1986; Liew and Lin, 1987; Chen and Liu, 1993). However, these ages dated by the beneath reef limestone were the maximum age of the soil overlaid the reef terraces. The age of the soils should be later than that of the beneath reef limestone. The present climate in the study area is tropical monsoon which mean annual temperature (MAT) and mean annual precipitation (MAP) are 24  C and 2200 mm respectively (Central Weather Bureau, 2012). Because of MAT and MAP, the soil temperature and moisture regimes are respectively classified as hyperthermic and udic according to Soil Survey Staff (2006). Moreover, the vegetation in the study area is dominated by the coastal herbaceous grass, short shrubs and monsoon forest. The characteristics of the climate and vegetation in the study area were shown in our previous work (Huang et al., 2016). 2.2. Soils and carbonate rock sampling Six soil pedons were sampled in the EMR of the Hengchun Peninsula, labeled as KT-1 to KT-5 based on the descending terrace levels (Fig. 1C; Table 1). Selected morphologies and properties had been presented in our recently published work (Huang et al., 2016). Moreover, another five limestone rocks, KT-1-R to KT-4-R, were sampled in the vicinities of KT-1 to KT-4 soils respectively in order to determine the contents of the insoluble materials of the reeflimestone (Fig. 1C; Table 1). Six soil pedons were also sampled in the WHH of the Hengchun Peninsula. Four of these soils, labeled as HT-1a to HT-1d, were on the same level terrace with higher elevations, whereas HT-2a and HT-2b were on the lower level (Fig. 1C; Table 1). Two limestone rocks, HT-1a-R and HT-1c-R, were also sampled in vicinities of HT1a and HT-1c soil for the determination of the insoluble material content (Fig. 1C; Table 1). The ages of the terraces estimated by UeTh dating, or by ESR method, or by C14 dating of beneath reef-limestone ranged from more than 200 ka to about less than 9 ka with the descending altitudes of the terrace levels (Table 1) (Hsu, 1986; Shih et al., 1989; Liew and Lin, 1987; Chen and Liu, 1993). All these age estimations could be maximum soils ages, because soil development had initiated some time after the marine terraces were abandoned by the sea-level. The soil sampling sites were carefully selected on the area of minimum human impacts (mainly by agricultural activities) of the soils. The soil morphological characteristics were described based on the US Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff, 1993).

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Fig. 1. The geological settings of the Hengchun Peninsula; (A) The Hengchun Peninsula represents the youngest part of the orogenic belt along the accretionary prism by arccontinent collision in Taiwan. (B) The primary geological-strata in the Hengchun Peninsula. The Terra-Rossa like soils at the peninsula were assigned as the late-Pleistocene red-earth. (C) The marine-reef terraces in the Hengchun Peninsula had abandoned from sea level since late-Pleistocene. One or two representative soils and reef-limestone were sampled at each level terrace.

2.3. Laboratory analyses Limestone rock samples were ground and sieved for powder less than 0.14 mm. The powder was then dissolved based on the acetic acid method by Perrin (1964) in order to determine the insoluble contents of limestone.

Soil samples were collected from each horizon for physical and chemical analyses. Bulk density (BD) of the soil and rock sample was determined by the paraffin method (Blake and Hartge, 1986). Particle size distribution of the soils (<2 mm) followed the pipette method (Gee and Bauder, 1986) after removing the organic matter by 35% hydrogen peroxide solution as well as iron-oxide by

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Fig. 2. Outcrops of the weathered rudaceous sediments on the terraces show the imbricate beddings in the Hengchun Peninsula. The imbircate beddings indicate the approximate direction of the paleo-flow from north to south. (A) the outcrop in the EMR. (B) the outcrop in the WHH.

dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate (DCB) method (Mehra and Jackson, 1960). The clay fractions (<2 mm) of the samples were collected for examining clay minerals by X-ray diffraction latter. The pH of air-dried samples (<2 mm) was determined in a mixture of soil/ deionized water (1:1) by glass electrode (McLean, 1982). Organic carbon (OC) content was measured by the Walkley-Black wet oxidation method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Cation exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable bases were measured with the ammonium acetate method (pH 7.0) (Rhoades, 1982). Carbonate contents in the soils were determined by gravimetric method (Allison and Moodie, 1965). Exchangeable Al was extracted by 1N of KCl (Thomas, 1982). Free Fe (Fed) and acid oxalate-extractable Fe (Feo) were extracted by the DCB method (Mehra and Jackson, 1960) as well as by 0.2 M ammonium oxalate (pH 3.0) (McKeague and Day, 1966) respectively. Eventually, contents of metal ions in the extracts were determined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (Hitachi Z8100, Japan). Moreover, the quality control for the soil analyses was

the quality control for the soil analyses was checked by the method blank and the duplicate method for the relative percent difference (Swyngedouw and Lessard, 2006). X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed on the oriented potassium (K)- and magnesium (Mg)-saturated clay samples. Expansion properties of the Mg-saturated samples were determined by ethylene glycol solvated at 65  C for 24 h. The K-saturated samples were further subjected to successive heat treatments of 110  C, 350  C, and 550  C for 2 h. The oriented clays were examined with an X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku D/max-2200/PC type, Japan) and nickel (Ni)-filtered CueK radiation generated at 30 kV and 10 mA. The XRD patterns were recorded ranging from 5 to 45 (2q) with a scanning speed of 1.0 min
1. The identification of the clay minerals were based on the difference of reflection patterns from the K-saturated, Mg-saturated, glycolated, heated, and air-dried samples, and semi-quantitative determination of minerals using differences of diffraction intensity of peak for each identified mineral under different treatments (Johns et al., 1954; Brindley,

Table 1 Information about the marine terraces and soils on the Hengchun Peninsula. Pedon

Terrace levela

Elevation m (asl)

Soil classification Soil taxonomyb

WRBc

KT-1 KT-2 KT-3a

1st 2nd 2nd

180e300 130e160 100e130

Typic Paleudults Typic Paleudults Typic Udipsamments (0 e200 cm) Typic Paleudults (200e600 cm)

KT-3b

2nd

Alisols Alisols Arenosols (0e200 cm) Alisols (200 e600 cm) Alisols

KT-4

3rd

60e80

Typic Udipsamments (0 e150 cm) Lithic Eutrudepts (>150 cm)

HT-1a HT-1b HT-1c HT1d HT-2a HT-2b

2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd

60e190

Typic Typic Typic Typic

3rd 3rd

Typic Paleudults

60e150

30e50

Kandiudults Paleudults Paleudults Paleudults

Typic Udipsamments Typic Udipsamments

Arenosols (0e150 cm) Cambisols (>150 cm) Alisols Alisols Alisols Alisols Arenosols Arenosols

Parent materials

Reef limestone aged ka

Limestone samples

Fluvial deposits Fluvial deposits Dune sands and Fluvial deposits

195 130 125e84

KT-1-R KT-2-R KT-3a-R

Dune sands and Fluvial deposits Dune sands and fluvial deposits

KT-3b-R ~60

KT-4-R

Dune and beach sands Dune and beach sands Dune and beach sands Dune and beach sands

125e84

HT-1a-R e HT-1c-R e

Dune and beach sands Dune and beach sands

~60

e e

a

Terrace levels were correlated based on geomorphic features (Hsu, 1989) and pedogenetic degrees. Based on the Keys to Soil Taxonomy of Soil Survey Staff (2006). c Based on IUSS Working Group WRB (2006). d The age of the reef-limestone beneath the marine terraces was determined by UeTh dating method (Hsu, 1986) or by Electric spin resonance method (Shih et al., 1989). The age should be regarded as the maximum age of the soil over the reef-limestone. The real age of the soil could be younger than this dating age after the reef terrace was abandoned from the sea level. b

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1980). Besides, sand-size fraction particle, limestone rock and sediment samples were ground and passed through the sieve less than 200 mesh (<0.075 mm). The ground samples were obtained the mineralogical composition by XRD (Rigaku D/max-2200/PC type, Japan) and nickel (Ni)-filtered CueK radiation generated at 30 kV and 10 mA. The XRD patterns were recorded ranging from 10 to 80 (2q) with a scanning speed of 1.0 min
1.

2.4. Micromorphology Undisturbed soil blocks were collected by Kubiena boxes for micromorphologies of the soils. After air drying, vertical oriented thin sections with a thickness of 30 mm were prepared with cutting (AbrasiMatic 300 Abrasive Cutter) and polishing (CL-40 polishing machine) by Spectrum Petrographics, Inc., Washington, USA. Thin sections were observed for all horizons under a polarized microscope and described according to the terminology of Bullock et al. (1985).

3. Results 3.1. Insoluble residues Seven reef-limestone rocks were sampled in the vicinity of the soil sampling sites in order to determine the contents of insoluble residues. The contents of insoluble residues were about 4e8% in most limestone rocks except for KT-3a-R and KT-4-R which contents were 13 and 21% respectively (Table 2). The higher contents of KT-3a-R and KT-4-R were probably ascribed to fluvial processes after reef formation. The pedo-stratigraphies of the KT-3a and the KT-4 soil revealed that C horizons of the soils consists of fluvial deposits overlying the reef-limestone. We, further, broke the KT3a-R and KT-4-R samples. We found that pores of reef-limestones were stuffed with more undersized fluvial deposits. It meant that while the KT-3a-R and KT-4-R formed and uplifted, or slightly later, the inland fluvial deposit had lasted to cover on the reef-limestones likewise. Moreover, the contents of insoluble residues indicated that the formation of 1 m thick soil could be required least 4e15 m thick reef-limestone in the Hengchun Peninsula (Table 2).

5

3.2. Field morphologies and micromorphologies The soils in the Hengchun Peninsula were rubified with the increasing age of the marine terraces (Table 3). The less rubification was identified as the soils with hue of 10 YR, on the last emerged terraces, whereas the soils on the higher terraces were more rubified. The morphologies of the soils in the EMR had been presented in our recently published work (Huang et al., 2016). Thus, the study only shows the morphologies of the soils in WHH (Table 3). Polygenetic morphologies were commonly identified in the soils that we investigated in the study. The polygenetic morphologies of the soils with bi-or tri-developmental sequence revealed that since the terrace had emerged, the soils were formed and then subsequently overlapped by alluvial-deposits eroded from the highland or by beach sands transported by local wind. For instance, bisequence characters were recognized in the KT-3a, KT-4 and HT1b soils. The further two soils were subjected to the mantle of about 1.5e2 m thick contemporary aeolian sands without pedogenesis (the data of the KT-3a and KT-4 soil was not presented here), whereas the last HT-1b soil was covered by the eroded soils from the higher sites to form an A-Bw-2Bt-2C sequence (Table 3). Besides, the HT-1d soil characterized as tri-sequence characters of BA-BC-2Bw-3BA-3Bt revealed that the soil had been successively overlaid by beach sands and eroded materials from higher land (Table 3). Overall, the variety of soil morphologies agreed with the age of marine terraces in the Hengchun Peninsula in substance. The soils on the higher/older terraces revealed higher developmental characters, such as fine texture with corresponding strong sub-angular blocky structure, sticky and plastic consistence as well as common amounts of clay coatings, whereas the soils, KT-4, HT-2a and HT-2b on lower/younger terraces were characterized by coarse texture and less evidence of structure (Table 3). Besides, the upmost soil (1A-1C) of the KT-3a soil, just like KT-4, HT-2a and HT-2b soils were the latest aeolian sands characterized as structureless and sandy texture. The observations of micromorphologies by thin section agreed with the field morphological features. The microphological difference between the soils on the terraces was time dependent. The soils, KT-4, KT-5, HT-2a and HT-2b, on the lower altitude terraces were found abundant single skeletal grains without apparently

Table 2 The contents of insoluble residue and the estimated thickness of limestone required to produce 1 m thick soil. Limestone in varied sites Hengchun Peninsula KT-1-R KT-2-R KT-3a-R KT-3b-R KT-4-R HT-1a-R HT-1c-R Southern Indiana, USA Epirus, Greece Jerusalem, Israel Rota Island Istria, Croatia Delamere, South Australia Coonawarra, South Australia Edwards Plateau, central Texas Valdelsa Basin, Italy West Timor, Indonesia a

Insoluble residue (%)

The required thickness of limestone for producing 1 m soil (m)

8.0 8.4 13.1 8.4 21.2 4.7 7.5 0.6e2.8 0.2 1 0.1 0.1e2.2 e 7.3 1 0.8 1.3e2.0

7 7 6 8 4 15 9 56 325 e 1000 e 375 17 100 63 58/70a

Reference This study

Olson et al. (1980) Macleod (1980) Danin et al. (1983) Birkeland (1999) Durn et al. (1999) Foster and Cittleborough (2003) Mee et al. (2004) Cooke et al. (2007) Priori et al. (2008) Mella and Mermut (2010)

It is required 58 m thick limestone to produce 1 m Mollisol and 70 m thick limestone to produce 1 m Alfisol (Mella and Mermut, 2010).

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Table 3 The soil morphologies of marine terraces in the Hengchun Peninsula.a Pedon

Horizon

Depth (cm)

Textureb

Munsell color Moist

Dry

Structurec

Consistenced Dry

Moist

Wet

Clay coatingse

Gravel and pebble (%)

WHH HT-1a BA Bt1 Bt2 Bt3 Bt4 Bt5 Bt6 Bt7 BC C1 C2 C3

0e15 15e30 30e50 50e90 90e115 115e150 150e190 190e220 220e270 270e320 320e370 370e420

5 YR 4/6 5 YR 4/6 5 YR 4/6 5 YR 4/6 5 YR 4/6 5 YR 4/6 5 YR 4/6 7.5 YR 4/6 7.5 YR 4/6 7.5 YR 4/6 10 YR 4/6 10 YR 5/6

5 YR 5/6 5 YR 5/6 5 YR 5/6 5 YR 5/6 5 YR 5/6 5 YR 5/6 5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 5/6 10 YR 5/4 10 YR 6/6

SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL LS

2, f&m, sbk 2, f&m, sbk 2, f&m, sbk 2, f&m, sbk 2, f&m, sbk 2, f&m, sbk 2, f&m, sbk 2, f&m, sbk 1, f&m, sbk 1, f&m, sbk 1, f, gr&sbk m

sh h h h h sh sh h h h sh so

fr fr fr fr fr fr fr fr fr fr lo lo

ss, ps ss, ps ss, ps ss, ps ss, ps ss, ps ss, ps s, ps ss, ps so, ps so, po so, po

e e e v1fpo v1fpo v1fpo 1fpo 1fpo e e e e

e e e e e e e e e e e e

A Bw1 Bw2 Bw3 2Bt1 2Bt2 2Bt3 2Bt4

0e10 10e40 40e65 65e90 90e130 130e180 180e230 230e260

1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2,

f, gr&sbk f, gr&sbk f, gr&sbk f, gr&sbk f&m, sbk f&m, sbk f&m, sbk f&m, sbk

lo sh sh h h h h h

lo lo vfr vfr fr fr fr fr

so, po so, po so, po ss, ps s, p s, p s, p s, p

e e e e v1fpo v1fpo 1fpo 2fpo

e e e e e e e e

260e300

SCL

2, f&m, sbk

vh

fr

s, p

2fpo

e

2Bt6

300e350

SCL

2, f&m, sbk

h

fr

s, p

e

e

2Bt7

350e370

SCL

2, f&m, sbk

vh

fr

s, p

e

e

2BC

370e400

SCL

2, f&m, sbk

h

fr

s, p

e

e

2C

400e440

10 YR 6/4 10 YR 6/4 10 YR 5/4 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 6/6 7.5 YR 6/6 7.5 YR 6/6 10G 3/1 7.5 YR 6/6 10G 3/1 7.5 YR 6/6 10G 3/1 2.5Y 7/4 7.5 YR 6/6 N 3/1 2.5Y 7/4 7.5 YR 6/6 5GY 3/1 2.5Y 7/4 7.5 YR 6/6 5GY 4/1 2.5Y 7/4

SL SL SL SC SC SC SC SCL

2Bt5

10 YR 4/4 10 YR 4/4 10 YR 3/4 7.5 YR 4/6 7.5 YR 4/6 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 5/6 10G 2.5/1 (3%) 7.5 YR 5/6 10G 2.5/1 (5%) 7.5 YR 5/6 10G 2.5/1 (5%) 2.5Y 7/6 (5%) 7.5 YR 5/6 N 2.5 (20%) 2.5Y 7/6 (20%) 7.5 YR 4/6 5GY 2.5/1 (10%) 2.5Y 7/6 (20%) 7.5 YR 5/6 5GY 2.5/1 (5%) 2.5Y 7/6 (5%)

SCL

2, f&m, sbk

h

fr

ss, ps

e

e

A Bt1 Bt2 Bt3 Bt4 Bt5 BC1 BC2 C

0e25 25e40 40e60 60e110 110e160 160e205 205e240 240e270 270e290

5 YR 3/4 5 YR 3/3 5 YR 3/3 2.5 YR 3/4 2.5 YR 3/4 2.5 YR 3/6 2.5 YR 3/6 2.5 YR 3/6 2.5 YR 3/6

5 YR 5/4 5 YR 5/4 5 YR 5/3 2.5 YR 5/6 2.5 YR 5/4 2.5 YR 4/6 2.5 YR 4/6 2.5 YR 4/6 2.5 YR 5/6

SL SL SCL SCL SCL SCL SC SCL SL

2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2,

sbk sbk sbk sbk sbk sbk sbk sbk sbk

sh h vh vh h vh vh vh eh

vfr fr fr fr fr fr fr fr fr

so, po so, po ss, ps s, p s, p s, p s, p ss, ps ss, ps

e e e v1fpo v1fpo e e e e

e e e e e e e e e

BA BC 2Bw 3BA 3Bt1 3Bt2 3Bt3 3Bt4 3Bt5

0e20 20e50 50e70 70e90 90e120 120e170 170e205 205e240 240e290

1, f&m, sg 2, f&m, 2, f&m, 2, f&m, 2, f&m, 2, f&m, 2, f&m, 2, f&m,

gr&sbk sbk sbk sbk sbk sbk sbk sbk

sh lo so sh h sh h vh vh

lo lo fr fr fr fr fr fr fr

so, po so, po so, po so, po ss, ps s, p ss, ps ss, ps ss, ps

v1fpo e e e

e e e e e e e e e

290e340

SCL

2, f&m, sbk

vh

fr

ss, ps

e

e

3BC

340e390

7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5YR5/6 5 YR 5/6 5 YR 5/6 5 YR 5/6 5 YR 5/6 N 3/1 2.5Y 7/4 5 YR 5/6 N 3/1 2.5Y 7/4 2.5 YR 5/6 10G 3/1 10 YR 7/8

SL LS SL SL SL SCL SCL SCL SCL

3Bt6

7.5 YR 4/6 7.5 YR 5/6 7.5 YR 4/6 7.5 YR 4/6 7.5 YR 4/6 5 YR 4/4 5 YR 4/4 5 YR 4/4 5 YR 4/4 N 2.5 (15%) 2.5Y 6/6 (10%) 5 YR 4/4 N 2.5 (15%) 2.5Y 6/6 (10%) 2.5 YR 4/6 10G 2.5/1 (10%) 10 YR 6/8 (15%)

SCL

2, f&m, sbk

vh

fi

s, p

e

e

A BC1 BC2 BC3 C

0e20 20e70 70e110 110e150 >150

10 10 10 10 10

10 10 10 10 10

LS SL SL SL SCL

sg 1, f, sbk 1, f, sbk 1, f, sbk sg

lo sh sh sh sh

lo lo lo lo lo

so, so, so, so, so,

e e e e e

e e e e e

HT-1b

HT-1c f&m, f&m, f&m, f&m, f&m, f&m, f&m, f&m, f&m,

HT-1d

HT-2a YR YR YR YR YR

4/4 4/4 4/4 4/4 4/4

YR YR YR YR YR

6/4 6/4 6/4 6/4 6/4

po po po po po

HT-2b

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7

Table 3 (continued ) Pedon

Horizon

Depth (cm)

Moist A C1 C2 C3 C4

0e20 20e40 40e70 70e100 100e130

Textureb

Munsell color

10 10 10 10 10

YR YR YR YR YR

Structurec

Dry 4/4 4/4 4/4 4/4 4/4

10 10 10 10 10

YR YR YR YR YR

5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4 5/4

LS LS SL SL SCL

sg sg sg sg sg

Consistenced Dry

Moist

Wet

so so h h h

lo lo lo lo lo

so, po so, po ss, ps ss, ps so, po

Clay coatingse

Gravel and pebble (%)

e e e e e

e e e e e

a

Morphologies of the soils in the EMR were not shown here and had been presented in our recently publised work (Huang et al., 2016). Using the US system; SL ¼ sandy loam, SCL ¼ sandy clay loam, C ¼ clay, CL ¼ clay loam, SiC ¼ silty clay. c o ¼ none structure, sg ¼ single grain. 3 ¼ strong, 2 ¼ moderate, 1 ¼ weak, f ¼ fine, vf ¼ very fine, m ¼ medium, c ¼ coarse, gr ¼ granular, abk ¼ angular blocky, sbk ¼ subangular blocky, vc ¼ very coarse, sg ¼ single grain. d lo ¼ loose, so ¼ soft, sh ¼ slight hard, h ¼ hard, vh ¼ very hard, eh ¼ extremely hard, fir ¼ firm, fr ¼ friable, v ¼ very, w ¼ weak, o ¼ none, so ¼ none sticky, ss ¼ slight sticky, s ¼ sticky, vs ¼ verysticky, po ¼ none plastic, ps ¼ slight plastic, p ¼ plastic, vp ¼ very plastic. e 1 ¼ few, 2 ¼ common, 3 ¼ many, f ¼ faint, d ¼ distinct, p ¼ prominent, pf ¼ ped face; po ¼ line tubular or interstitial pores. b

microstructure and pedofeatures (thin section photos of these soils were not present in this study). In contrast, the soils on the higher terraces were found the relatively high developed B-fabrics and pedofeatures. The sub-surface horizons of KT-2, KT-3a (200e600 cm) and KT-3b showed connected subangular blocky, bridged coatings or clay coatings on the wall of the channel as well as on skeletal grains (Fig. 3). Illuvial clay coatings of the pedofeatures were also found in sub-surface horizons of HT-1a, HT-1b, HT1c and HT-1d soils (Fig. 4). The pedofeatures of these soils were corresponding to the criteria of the argillic horizon. 3.3. Physio-chemical analysis The properties of the soils in the EMR were presented and discussed in our recently published work (Huang et al., 2016). The study doesn't show the data of the soil properties in the EMR. Among the soils in Hengchun Peninsula, except for the particle size distribution and Fed, most properties indicated no evidently chronological trends. Since the late Pleistocene, the relative-warm and humid climatic conditions have induced stronger chemical weathering for the soils with higher altitudes (age), which encouraged formations of the secondary clays and vertically mechanical movements of the clays from top-to subsoils within the profiles of the soils. Thus, the older soils met with the criteria of the argillic horizon that clay contents enriched in the subsoil horizons (Table 4). The clay contents of the soils in the Hengchun Peninsula decreased chronologically with descending terraces altitudes. In contrast, the sand contents increased against the soils age. Bulk density of all soils was about 1.2e1.8 Mg m
3. Except for KT-2 soil, most soils have higher base saturation percentage (BSP) values (about 50e100%) (Table 4) due to the input of sea salts from strong local wind. The lower BSP of KT-2 soil (<35%) was probably attributed to strong base-leaching from the soil and to the lee site where the KT-2 soil located at and less sea-salts added. Overall, the soils in the Hengchun Peninsula with high BSP were slight acidic to alkaline (pH 5.3e8.5) and had less or zero Al-saturation. Low CEC values were determined for all soils (Table 4). The up-soil of the KT3a soils (0e200 cm), KT-4, HT-2a as well as HT-2b have high contents of sand size particles which lead to low CEC, whereas less than 12 coml (þ) kg
1 soil
1 of most horizons of other soils were resulted from stronger weathering degrees characterized as higher contents of clay minerals, such as kaolinites, gibbsites and ferric oxides, etc. Thus, CEC/clay of the most soil horizons was less than 30 cmol (þ) kg
1 clay
1. Organic materials of all soils enriched in the surface horizons and then decreased with depth. The contents of organic material among soils showed no chronological trends (Table 4). Moreover, no evident relation was identified between CaCO3 contents among

soils and terrace age (Table 4). CaCO3 contents of the soils could be derived from the aeolian inputs of shell or limestone fragments, or release from the dissolution of limestone beneath the soils, whereas the highest contents of CaCO3 determined in the topsoil of HT-1d were due to the overlaid beach sands with lots of shell fragments. DCB-extracted Fe (Fed) of the soils increased chronologically with the terraces altitudes, which met with the enrichments of the clays in the subsoil horizons of the soils on the higher terraces. About 25e30 g kg
1 Fed was identified in the subsoil horizons of the HT-1a~1d soils, whereas other younger soils were less than 18 g kg
1 Fed (Table 4). The amounts of ammonium oxalate extracted Fe (Feo) of the soils were less (Table 4). 3.4. Sand and clay mineralogy The mineralogical components of the sand size particles of the soils in the WHH were examined to confirm the similarity of the parent materials (Fig. 5). The mineralogical components of the sand size particles of the soils in the EMR and of the reef fragments were presented in our previous work (Huang et al., 2016). The XRD patterns of the soils in both areas showed similar sand-size mineralogical components which were abundant quartz but few mica, feldspar and plagioclase (Fig. 5). The mineralogical compositions of the sand size particles of the soils (Fig. 5) met with those of the sand dune and beach sands which the former originated from the near river mouth and the major source of the latter was from the sediments of near river mouth and mixed with sea shell fragments (Shih et al., 1994). In our previous work of the soils in EMR, the clay mineralogical components were determined by XRD (Huang et al., 2016). In the study, we selected the XRD patterns of clay minerals of horizons of KT-2 and HT-1a as the example to present the mineralogical components (Fig. 6). Soils on the higher terraces in both EMR and WHH areas have similar clay mineralogical components but vary in abundance. Vermiculite, vermiculiteeillite interstratified minerals, illite, kaolinite, quartz, and gibbsite (Table 5). Furthermore, the soils on the higher terraces had more kaolinite and gibbsite than those on the lower terraces, which indicative of the developmental degrees of the soils (Table 5). The detail statements about determination of the XRD patterns of clay fractions had been presented in our previous work (Huang et al., 2016). 4. Discussion 4.1. The possible scenarios of parent materials The soils over the reef-limestone in the Hengchun Peninsula

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Fig. 3. Selected micrographs of the thin section for the soils in the EMR; The subangular blocky, bridged coatings and clay coatings were along the wall of the channel in (a) the Bt2 horizon of the KT-2 soil, whereas illuvial clay coatings on the wall of the channels or voids were also clearly identified in (b) the 2Bt4 horizon of the KT-3a soil and (c) the Bt2 horizon of the KT-3b soil. The micrographs were observed under plane-polarized light.

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Fig. 4. Selected micrographs of the thin section for the soils in the WHH; Illuvial clay coatings were apparently shown, such as coatings on the wall of the root channels, or crescent coatings on the bottom of the chamber, or coatings on the skeleton grains. The micrographs were observed under plane-polarized light. (a) the Bt7 horizon of HT-1a soil; (b) the 2Bt1 horizon of HT-1b soil; (c) the Bt5 horizon of HT-1c soil; (d) the 3Bt2 horizon of HT-1d soil.

derived from the heterogeneous materials rather than the indigenous residues dissolved from the reef-limestone. The contents of insoluble residue from reef limestone in the Hengchun Peninsula were about 5e21% (Table 2). Thus, the required thickness of limestone for producing 1 m soil with insoluble siliceous materials was about 4e15 m (Table 2). Comparing with the insoluble residue from reef limestone and the unreasonable required thickness of limestone for producing 1 m soil in varied areas worldwide (Table 2), the contents of the insoluble residue are more and the required thickness is less in the Hengchun Peninsula. However, the thickness of the soils over the reef limestone in the Hengchun Peninsula is more than 2 or 3 m. It means that if the soils developed from insoluble residues of the reef limestone, about 20e50 m thick limestone was required for producing the overlaid soils. Based on field observations, the thickness of the reef limestone in the Hengchun Peninsula is about several to decades meters and no more than 100 m. Therefore, it is unreasonable that extra 20e50 m thick limestones, a large proportion of the reef limestone in the Hengchun Peninsula, were dissolved for producing soils. Furthermore, the sampling soils directly overlaid the reef limestone by unconformity, or the fluvial pebbly deposits. For example, KT-1~KT-4 and HT-1a ~ HT-1b overlaid the fluvial deposits and KT-3b soil contained lots of pebbles, which the parent material was fluvial deposit rather than reef limestone. Besides, 0e200 cm of the KT-3a, 0e150 cm of the KT-4, HT-2a and HT-2b soils, the latest soils with structureless morphologies and high amounts of sand-size fractions, were regarded as a derivation of aeolian sands. Shih et al. (1994) suggested that the aeolian sands coming from the sandy-deposits poured by the rivers in the vicinity, such as the Gangkou River, Wansha River and Baoli River etc., have been picked up from the sea shore and then deposited over the lower terraces and partial higher terraces by the local strong monsoon wind in winter. Moverover, the sand contents of the topsoils were high and then decreased with the soil depths. It indicated that the sandydeposits were transported by the strong local wind and covered the soils (Table 4). The strong local wind (the highest the velocity is

more than 20 ms
1) over the Hengchun Peninsula every year from October till MarcheApril the next year is caused by the winter monsoon and brings sandy-dusts into sky and sweeps over the coastal area of the Hengchun Peninsula (Hong and Hu, 1990). Thus, the soils have no genetic relationship with the underlay reef limestone. This result is also supported by the mineralogical components of the sand size particle for the soils. The mineralogical components of the sand size particle for the soils are quartz, mica, feldspar, plagioclase, similar with fluvial deposits (KT-3b), beach and aeolian sands over terraces (Fig. 4). In contrast, the mineralogical components of the reef limestones in Hengchun Peninsula were mainly carbonates with few amounts of quartz (Fig. 4). Therefore, the most possible scenario that the soils on the reef terraces in the Hengchun Peninsula developed from fluvial deposits, or beach, or aeolian sands. It agrees with the heterogeneous scenario proposed by Muhs et al. (1987) and Feng et al. (2009), instead of the insoluble residue from dissolution of reef limestone. Actually, the heterogeneous scenario of the parent materials for the soils we studied in the Hengchun Peninsula was not a unique instance. In the varied coastal areas worldwide, soils analogously overlaid limestone derived from heterogeneous materials of aeolian sand, or loess, or dust, or volcanic ash, or fluvial debris deposits, etc. (Table 6). It suggests that the origins as well as genetic nature of the soils overlaid limestone in the coastal areas could be revealed to gauge the dynamic landform surface process interactive with the paleoclimatic conditions (Birkeland, 1999; Mee et al., 2004). 4.2. Soil classifications and genetic pathway The soils in this study are classified as three orders, Entisols, Inceptisols and Ultisols according to the Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006), tantamount to Arenosols, Cambisols and Alisols respectively, based on WRB (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006) (Table 1). These three orders were related to the weathering degrees of the soils and approximately to the marine terrace

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W.-S. Huang et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e15

Table 4 Selected Physic-chemical properties of the soils on the marine terraces in the Hengchun Peninsula.a Pedon

BD

BSPb

CEC

Mg m
3

%

71 70 74 69 69 65 60 54 69 65 66 81

1.6 1.5 1.3 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.5 NA NA NA NA

13 11 14 14 14 13 13 4 9 12 10 12 7

70 73 71 58 46 49 51 58 56 56 59 57 59

20 19 22 23 28 27 39 34 28

10 23 17 19 14 19 12 8 15

0e20 20e50 50e70 70e90 90e120 120e170 170e205 205e240 240e290 290e340 340e390

16 14 15 14 19 24 22 21 28 31 33

A BC1 BC2 BC3 C

0e20 20e70 70e110 110e150 >150

A C1 C2 C3 C4

0e20 20e40 40e70 70e100 100e130

Horizon

Al Satc

OCd

cmol (b) kg
1

%

g kg
1

100 88 72 93 100 83 91 82 93 95 77 100

1.7 2.8 2.9 2.5 1.5 3.6 4.3 4.2 4.0 4.2 5.9 3.0

7 11 13 10 5 11 13 12 15 16 28 25

0 11 16 8 7 6 2 5 5 5 2 0

7.4 3.7 4.9 2.5 2.5 3.7 2.5 3.7 3.1 2.5 1.2 1.2

1.2 1.6 1.7 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 80

1.6 0.3 0.6 1.8 4.5 4.3 3.9 4.9 5.4 4.9 6.1 4.5 7.5

9 2 4 6 10 10 11 13 16 15 20 15 22

0 0 0 7 6 6 5 5 3 2 0 0 0

69 57 60 58 58 54 49 58 57

1.4 1.4 1.4 NA NA NA NA NA NA

100 66 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

4.6 9.4 4.7 4.2 2.3 2.6 4.7 3.7 4.0

23 47 21 18 8 9 12 11 14

4 2 14 10 12 8 12 11 11 21 18

80 84 71 76 69 68 66 68 61 48 49

1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.7 NA NA NA

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

1.6 1.9 4.4 3.8 4.8 5.2 5.8 2.9 5.3 8.3 11.5

12 14 15 17 24

3 4 3 14 13

85 82 82 69 63

NA NA NA NA NA

100 100 100 76 56

12 11 18 20 26

5 1 7 11 7

83 88 75 69 67

NA NA NA NA NA

76 71 74 65 63

Depth

Clay

Silt

(cm)

%

BA Bt1 Bt2 Bt3 Bt4 Bt5 Bt6 Bt7 BC C1 C2 C3

0e15 15e30 30e50 50e90 90e115 115e150 150e190 190e220 220e270 270e320 320e370 370e420

25 26 22 25 28 33 33 34 27 27 21 12

4 4 3 6 3 2 7 11 4 8 13 7

A Bw1 Bw2 Bw3 2Bt1 2Bt2 2Bt3 2Bt4 2Bt5 2Bt6 2Bt7 2BC 2C

0e10 10e40 40e65 65e90 90e130 130e180 180e230 230e260 260e300 300e350 350e370 370e400 400e440

17 16 15 28 40 38 36 38 34 32 31 31 34

A Bt1 Bt2 Bt3 Bt4 Bt5 BC1 BC2 C

0e25 25e40 40e60 60e110 110e160 160e205 205e240 240e270 270e290

BA BC 2Bw 3BA 3Bt1 3Bt2 3Bt3 3Bt4 3Bt5 3Bt6 3BC

Sand

CEC/Clay

pH

CaCO3

Fed

%

g kg
1

Feo

5.3 5.1 4.9 5.3 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.4 5.7

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

17 20 14 14 17 16 24 25 18 20 14 8

0.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.5

14.7 6.1 4.9 6.1 4.9 3.7 2.5 3.7 2.0 2.6 2.6 1.3 2.0

5.8 6.2 6.3 5.8 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.3 5.8 5.7

0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1

8 8 10 16 27 24 23 23 25 22 20 21 20

0.5 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.3 1.5 0.5

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

11.9 11.9 9.3 6.6 7.9 6.6 5.3 3.3 5.3

7.7 8.0 7.8 7.4 6.5 6.0 5.9 5.5 5.8

2.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 1

17 18 16 18 25 24 28 30 25

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.0 1.9

10 14 29 27 25 22 25 14 19 27 35

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

9.3 6.6 9.3 6.6 5.3 4.0 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 4.0

7.9 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.0 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.0 8.2

59.9 53.4 18.2 6.8 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.3

10 7 10 10 14 18 14 14 17 26 26

0.3 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.5 1.1 1.1

1.6 0.2 1.5 3.0 6.1

13 1 10 17 25

0 0 0 0 0

7.9 4.0 4.0 1.3 1.3

5.6 5.9 6.5 6.3 5.9

0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3

6 8 9 9 17

0.4 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.7

4.5 3.4 5.7 6.4 5.6

37 31 32 32 21

0 0 0 0 0

4.0 1.3 2.6 1.3 2.6

6.7 6.9 6.6 6.2 6.0

0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

9 7 16 18 16

0.6 0.5 1.0 1.1 1.0

WHH HT-1a

HT-1b

HT-1c

HT-1d

HT-2a

HT-2b

NA: non analysis. a Physic-chemical properties of the soils in the EMR were not shown here and presented in our recently published work (Huang et al., 2016). b BSP: base saturation percentage. c AL Sat.: Al saturation. d OC: organic materials.

elevations/age. The Entisols was identified for the upper soil (0e200 cm) of KT-3a, KT-4, HT-2a and HT-2b soils which were the youngest and parent materials were the unweathered aeolian

sandy deposits. Due to the texture in sand or sandy loam (more than 70% sand size grains) (Table 2), these soils were classified as Typic Udipsamments. The Lithic Eutrudepts for the beneath soil of

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Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction patterns of sand-size particle minerals. The selected soil horizons of HT-1a~1d, HT-2a, HT-2b and beach sands. The XRD patterns of the soils in the EMR were not shown here and presented in our recently publsihed work (Huang et al., 2016). Abbreviations: C: carbonate minerals; F: feldspar; M: mica; P: plagioclase; Q: quartz.

the KT-4 (>150 cm) was formed from fluvial deposits with lots of pebbles slightly weathered and rubified. It suggested that this soil older than the upper soil of the KT-4 (0e150 cm) agreed with the age of the reef terrace where the KT-4 soil covered on. Moreover, the soils on the terraces with higher elevations show higher weathering degrees, such as argillic horizon, low CEC/clay values, higher contents of Fed, etc. In particularly, high BSP values were determined for most soils. However, referring to the low CEC values and the clay mineral compositions with higher kaolinite contents (Tables 4 and 5), the high BSP values could be the inputs of sea salts instead of the characteristics inherited from parent materials while the soils have been evolved. Thus, KT-1~KT-3a and HT1a~HT-1d soils are classified as the Typic Paleudults or Typic Kandiudults. Our work about properties of the soils on the reef terraces in the Hengchun Peninsula suggests that there is a chronologically genetic pathway of the soils on the terraces in ascendant of elevation/age. Instead of the hypothesis that soils originate in the insoluble residue from reef limestone (Hsu, 1989; Liu, 1992; Hseu et al., 2004), we propose that the genetic path way through time is from the parental materials of fluvial deposits, beach sands and aeolian sands, which mineralogical components were similar, to Entisols, Inceptisols and Ultisols. 4.3. Further implications to landform surface process Our work about morphologies, physio-chemical properties, mineralogies and genesis of the soils overlaid the reef terraces in the Hengchun Peninsula of Taiwan indicates that these soils were

heterogeneous source. The heterogeneous sources had been dominated by landform surface processes, such as alluviations or eopositions, which could be related to the paleoclimatic conditions during the interglacial or the interstadials. According to the dating information (Table 1), the ages of the beneath reef limestone for the reef terraces, 1st, 2nd, 3rd level, in the Hengchun Peninsula were respectively correlated to the interglacial, probably tantamount to the marine oxygen isotope stage (MIS) 7, 5, and 3 (Hsu, 1986). The MIS 7, 5 and 3 were the interglacial, characterized as relative higher sea level and relative higher temperature than the glacial (Emiliani, 1966; Broecker and van Donk, 1970; Lambeck and Chappell, 2001; Lambeck et al., 2002; Siddall et al., 2003). Marine coral reef terraces were thought to be indicative of high sea level during the interglacial, because coral reef grew up and shore platform was formed while the sea level reached the highest (Hsu, 1986; Lambeck and Chappell, 2001; Lambeck et al., 2002). Moreover, relative warm and humid climatic conditions during the interglacial could induce more mass wasting and erosion at the upstream basins of rivers. Recent studies suggest that frequently tectonic activities as well as high precipitations in the relative warm durations since late Pleistocene were responsible for higher suspended loading of rivers associated with mass wasting, huge flood events and high erosive rates in Taiwan (Dadson et al., 2003; Hsu et al., 2006; Huang and Montgomery, 2012). Therefore, it is reasonably proposed that more detrital materials were transported by rivers from the upstream to the downstream or the river mouth during the interglacial. The detrital materials would cover reef terraces or be the source of sand dune distributed in the seashore areas.

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Fig. 6. X-ray diffraction patterns of clay minerals for selected soil horizons. (A) KT-2 Bt3 75e110 cm; (B) HT-1a Bt5 115e150 cm. Abbreviations: K-air: K saturation at 25  C; K-110  C: K saturation at 110  C; K-350  C: K saturation at 350  C; K-550: K saturation at 550  C; Mg-air: Mg saturation at 25  C; Mg-Gly: Mg saturation with glycerol treatment.

We further illustrate the landform surface processes in the Hengchun Peninsula with the soils, KT-2~KT-3b at the EMR and HT1a~1 d at the WHH, on the 2nd level terrace (Fig. 7). At the EMR, after fringing reef grew up and reef platform formed along the shore line during the interglacial with high sea level and warm sea surface temperature, flood events caused by warm and humid climate transported alluvial deposits to over the fringing reef

platforms (Fig. 7A). On the other hand, the barrier reef at the WHH formed during the interglacial with the high sea levels, whereas a lagoon was between the barrier reef and the EMR area (Fig. 7A). The lagoon had been gradually silted to formed flooded littoral plain by sediments transported by rivers (Fig. 7A), such as paleo-Baoli and Wangsha River from the EMR (Fig. 1C). Thus, parent materials of the soils, HT-1a~1d, at the WHH were detrital sand transported to

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W.-S. Huang et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e15 Table 5 The clay mineral composition of selected soil horizons on the marine terraces in the Hengchun Peninsula.a Pedon

Horizon

Depth cm

I

K

V

Q

G

V-I

Bt5

115e150

þþ

þþþ

þ

þ

þ

þ

1Bw2 2Bt4

40e65 230e260

þþþ þþþ

þþ þþþ

þ þ

þþ þ

þ þ

þ þ

Bt2 BC1

40e60 205e240

þþ þþ

þþþ þþþ

þþ þ

þ þ

þþ þþ

þ þ

1BC 3Bt3 3BC

20e50 170e205 340e390

þþþ þþþ þþ

þ þþþ þþþ

þ þ þ

þ þ þ

þ þ þ

þ þ þ

BC1

20e70

þþ

þ

þ

þþ

e

þ

C2

40e70

þþ

þþ

þþ

þ

þ

þ

HT-1a HT-1b

HT-1c

HT-1d

HT-2a HT-2b þþþ: 25e50%; þþ: 10e25%; þ: <10% clay mineral compositions of the soils in the EMR were not shon here and presented in our recently published work (Huang et al., 2016). a Abbreviation: I: illite; K: kaolinite; V: vermiculite; Q: quartz; G: gibbsite; VeI: Interstratified minerals of vermiculite-illite.

13

overlay the reef platform by local wind from the lagoon or the flooded deposits in the vicinity. Fallowing tectonic uplifts as well as sea level descending in the glacial left the reef platforms behind the sea level (Fig. 7B). The fluvial deposits over the reef platforms have been weathered to form the soils, KT-2, KT-3a (200e600 cm) and KT-3b with higher pedogenic degrees. Moreover, at the WHH HT1a~1d soils have also been weathered since barrier reef platform have been uplifted by thrust of the Western coastal fault (Chen et al., 2005). Meanwhile, the flooded plain between the WHH and EMR grew up due to siltation of the lagoon. In addition, it suggested that long-distantly transported dust from the mainland China could be the partial parent materials of soils over reef terraces, distributed in the Western Pacific, such as Liuchiu Island in southern Taiwan (Cheng et al., 2011), Ishigaki Island and Yonaguni Island of Okinawa in Japan (Fujie et al., 2007; Fujita et al., 2007). Therefore, the possibility of parent materials of the dust transported from the mainland China long-distantly wouldn't be excluded based on our work. Further works for the determination of amounts of dust inputting to the soils in the Hengchun Peninsula are necessary. 5. Conclusion This study suggests the soils above the reef limestone in the Hengchun Peninsula were derived from heterogeneous detrital

Table 6 Origins of the soils overlaid limestone in varied coastal areas worldwide. Location

Parent materials

Climate

Soil classificationa

Reference

Hengchun Peninsula, Taiwan

Fluvial deposits, aeolian and beach sands Sahara dust Sahara dust, St. Vincent volcanic ash, fluvial debris deposits

Tropical monsoon climate

Paleudualfs, Paleudults

This Study

Mediterranean climate Tropical marine humid

Alfisols or Ultisols Typic Chromuderts; Typic Hapludoll; Haplustoxs

Subtropical monsoon climate

Dystrochrepts

Macleod (1980) Muhs et al. (1987); Muhs et al. (1990); Foos (1991); Muhs and Budahn (2009) Simonson (1994)

Mediterranean climate

Rhodoxeralfs

Mediterranean climate Mediterranean climate

e e

Humid tropical savanna climate2

Cambisols Luvisols

Epirus, Greece Barbados, Jamaica; the Florida keys, Bahamas

Okinawa Northwest Morocco Istria, Croatia Coonawarra area, South Australia Yucat an Peninsula, Mexico a

Schist, shale, and quartz sandstone debris Beach sands and inland fluvial deposits loess sediment Aeolianites Aeolianites

Bronger and Bruhn-Lobin (1997) Durn et al. (1999) Mee et al. (2004) ez et al. (2010) Ba

Soil classification based on the Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006) or the World Reference Base (WRB) (IUSS Working Group, 2006).

Fig. 7. Possible scenario of genesis of the soils and landform surface processes in the Hengchun Peninsula.

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14

W.-S. Huang et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e15

materials instead of insoluble residues from dissolving limestone. The insoluble residues are siliceous, which account for 5e21% of the reef limestone. It would take 4e15 m of limestone in thickness to dissolve and accumulate one meter of parental materials for soil development. The soil depths of the study area give an estimation of 20e50 m thick limestone to consume for developing soils. . However, the scenario is unlikely. Moreover, these soils are directly on top of the reef limestone by unconformity or sharp boundary of fluvial pebbly deposits without genetic relationship. The mineralogy of the sand fraction, consisting of quartz, mica, feldspar, and plagioclase, resemble deposits by fluvial, coastal or aeolian processes, in contrast to the carbonates of limestone. According to the Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006), these soils were classified into three orders, Entisols, Inceptisols and Ultisols, which are equivalent to Arenosols, Cambisols, Alisols of WRB (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006). The soil weathering are proportional to the elevations or age of the marine terraces. The soils of higher terraces in altitude show argillic horizon, low CEC/ clay values, higher contents of Fed, etc. Despite BSP values are characteristically high for most soils, judging by the low CEC values and high abundance of kaolinite, the high BSP values indicate an input of sea salts rather than inherited from the parental materials. A chronologically genetic pathway of soil development from Entisols to Inceptisols, and to Ultisols agree with the order of terraces in ascendant elevation and/or age. The peodgenesis of the soils above the reef limestone suggested that landform surface processes work with the paleoclimate at the interglacial or interstadials when higher sea level and higher temperature occurred. The soils, KT-2~KT-3b of the EMR and HT1a~1d of the WHH, on the 2nd level terrace are the product of the landform processes. At the EMR, The plateforms of the fringing reefs along the coast were covered with alluvial deposits by flood events during warm and humid climate. The soil development began when the fallowing tectonic uplifts and sea level drops for reef platforms emerged from the sea. At the WHH, the soils of HT1a~1d have also been weathered through the last GlacialInterglacial cycle since barrier reef platform have been uplifted by thrust of the Western coastal fault (Chen et al., 2005). It suggested that HT-1a~1d was originated from the detritus sand transported and covered the reef platform by local wind from the lagoon deposits or the flood plain in the vicinity. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, for financially supporting this research under Contract No. NSC 99-2116-M-018-002, 100-2116-M-018-001 and NSC 101-2116M-018-001. References Allison, L.E., Moodie, C.D., 1965. Carbonate. In: Blackvd, C.A. (Ed.), Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2, Agronomy Monograph, second ed., vol. 9. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 1379e1400. ez, H.C., Rebolledo, E.S., Sedov, S., Puig, Tpi, Castro, J.G., 2010. Pedosediments of Ba karstic sinkholes in the eolianites of NE Yucat an: a record of late quaternary soil development, geomorphic processes and landscape stability. Geomorphology 122, 323e337. Biq, C., 1973. Kinematic pattern of Taiwan as an example of actual continent-arc collision. Rep. Semin. Seismol. US-ROC Coop. Sci. Program 25, 149e166. Birkeland, P.W., 1999. Soils and Geomorphology. Oxford University Press, London. Blake, G.R., Hartge, K.H., 1986. Bulk density. In: Klut, A. (Ed.), Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1, Physical and Mineralogical Methods. Agronomy Monograph No. 9. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 383e411. Bowin, C., Lu, R.S., Lee, C.S., Schouten, H., 1978. Plate convergence and accretion in Taiwan-Luzon region. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull. 62, 1643e1672. Brindley, G.W., 1980. Quantitative X-ray mineral analysis of clays. In: Brindley, G.W., Brown, G. (Eds.), Crystal structures of Clay Minerals and Their X-ray Identification. Mineralogical Society, London, pp. 411e438.

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