Permian of Southeast Asia: an overview

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 (2002) 567±588

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Permian of Southeast Asia: an overview Henri Fontaine 8 alleÂe de la Chapelle, 92140 Clamart, France Received 15 October 2000; accepted 14 June 2001

Abstract Permian rocks are widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia. Because of the tropical±equatorial climate the rocks are commonly deeply weathered and covered by dense vegetation over much of the region. Elsewhere, Permian rocks are well exposed and easy to access, particularly where limestone outcrops have weathered to form spectacular, castellated, tower karst. Many limestone outcrops, containing abundant fusulinaceans, were early recognized to be of Permian age, but many outcrops without fusulinaceans, erroneously assigned to the Permian, were found subsequently to be of Triassic age, and more careful studies have established the Permian age of rocks of other lithologies. It is now recognized that different depositional environments are represented by the Permian deposits in various parts of the region. Massive limestones, widespread throughout the region, represent extensive carbonate platforms; local occurrences of thick bedded cherts indicate deposition in deep marine environments, coal, bauxite and clastic sediments with vertebrate remains in North Vietnam and Laos indicate deposition in a continental environment, and pebbly mudstones in Myanmar, Peninsular Thailand, northwest Malaysia and Sumatra, are considered to have been formed in a glacial environment. Volcanic rocks are absent in northwest Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand, but are extensively developed in North Vietnam, Sumatra, the eastern Malay Peninsula and Timor. Fossils, representing many fossil groups, are often proli®c in Permian sediments, with fusulinaceans, for example, occurring in astronomical numbers in many limestone outcrops. Age-diagnostic fossils demonstrate that the whole of the Permian is represented in different areas of Southeast Asia. Fossil faunal and ¯oral assemblages have been used to establish climatic conditions and environments of deposition, to de®ne distinct crustal blocks and to provide the basis for reconstructing the palaeogeography during Permian times. q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Volcanic rocks; Permian; Limestone; Fossils; Environments; Bauxite

1. Introduction For more than a century, research on the Permian has been carried out almost continuously in Southeast Asia. Much of this work has been the routine work of systematic geological mapping, often not leading to studies that are more detailed. This steady progress has been punctuated by occasional bursts of activity aimed at resolving particular problems. New data are still continually being obtained. The Permian of Southeast Asia has been found to show a multitude of facets. It is by no means homogeneous from China to Timor, as Fromaget claimed in 1931. It has also been discovered that the Permian was not a time of complete tectonic quiescence, as was previously assumed by some geologists. In addition, it is now possible to look at the whole span of the Permian Period in several parts of Southeast Asia. Since the 1970s, the geological history of Southeast Asia has been reviewed in the context of plate±tectonic theory. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Fontaine).

Southeast Asia is presently considered to be made up of an amalgamation of allochthonous continental terranes rifted from Gondwana. The history of Gondwana dispersion and Asian accretion (IGCP Project 321; Metcalfe, 1995) is complex and still a subject of some contention. Other papers of this publication will be focused on this problem.

2. First steps in the study of the Permian of Southeast Asia As early as 1875, fusulinaceans were discovered in limestones in Central Sumatra; they were considered to be of Carboniferous or Permian age (Verbeek, 1875). Fusulina verbeeki was described by Geinitz in 1876 and became the type species of genus Verbeekina Staff 1909, a presently important Guadalupian genus. Volz (1904) introduced the genus Sumatrina, another important marker of the Guadalupian. In the same way, the ®rst Permian fossils found in other areas of Southeast Asia were commonly assigned to the

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Carboniferous, to the Carboniferous and Permian, or to the `Anthracolithic'. As early as 1856, limestone was described exposed near Moulmein in Myanmar. Later on, fossils indicating a Permo-Carboniferous age were identi®ed in these rocks. In the Shan States, the upper part of the `Plateau Limestone', a name given by La Touche in 1908, yielded fossils, which were considered belonging to an age corresponding to the middle and upper parts of the Productus Limestone, previously described from the Salt Range. The word `Permian' is surprisingly absent from the titles of almost all the studies published on Myanmar up to the present day. During short periods of ®eldwork in southern Vietnam and western Cambodia in 1869 and 1870, Petiton failed to recognize the Permian, although he visited the Permian limestones of the Hatien area. These limestones were assigned either to the Devonian or to the Silurian. Fusulinaceans were discovered in Cambodia for the ®rst time in 1912. As early as 1896, vertebrates (Dicynodon) were found in Laos near Luang Prabang; initially, they were assigned to the base of Triassic, but they actually belong to Upper Permian. This was the ®rst discovery of Permian continental beds in Southeast Asia. These vertebrates have been the subject of recent study. New specimens of Dicynodon have been found, and the history of the previous studies has been summarized (Battail et al., 1995). Fusulinaceans collected from limestone in the same area were studied by Douville (1906); they included Sumatrina and, what will be called a few years later, Verbeekina. In 1899, fossils were collected from limestone at Khao Sak in the Chon Daen District, central Thailand (Fig. 1). The following year, they were studied by Newton at the British Museum. This palaeontologist identi®ed a foraminifer as Valvulina bulloides Brady, indicating a Carboniferous age. Valvulina bulloides is presently the type species of genus Globivalvulina, a genus ranging from Middle Carboniferous to the end of the Permian. The Khao Sak limestone is actually Permian in age (Fontaine and Salyapongse 1999). Before the end of the 19th century, rich fossil assemblages started to be discovered in Permian limestones, marls and subordinate shales, associated with volcanic rocks in Timor. These fossil assemblages consisted of fusulinaceans, corals, sponges, bryozoans, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, ammonoids, trilobites and echinoderms. Ammonoids and crinoids attracted special attention. The fossils were considered to constitute the richest Permian fauna in the world. The fauna was actively studied during the ®rst half of the 20th century and the results were published in many papers. As a result of these studies a series of books, Palaontologie von Timor was published between 1915 and 1929. Six distinctive faunal zones were recognized in the Permian of Timor (Marks, 1956). At the beginning of the 20th century, many fossils were collected from limestones, widely distributed in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam (Fig. 2). They showed some similarities with fossils of the `Productus Limestone' earlier described

Fig. 1. Thailand. A great part of Northeast Thailand is covered by Mesozoic continental strata and does not display Permian outcrops.

from the Salt Range in Pakistan. In comparison, which did not pretend to be precise, the term Productus Limestone began to be used in geological papers on Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. In reality, the term was not sharply de®ned, but was used as a synonym of Permo-Carboniferous, or more commonly, restricted to the `Uralian' and `Permian'. In a palaeontological paper, mainly concerned with brachiopods, Mansuy (1913) proposed that the faunas of the Salt Range were peculiar, because they had lived under particular conditions in `relative geographical isolation'. He concluded that the faunas of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam were not similar to those of the Salt Range; on the contrary, they showed more af®nity (Mansuy, 1913; 1916), or at the most equal af®nity (Mansuy, 1914), with the Ural faunas. Deprat, before arriving at Hanoi in 1909, already had an opportunity to study some fusulinaceans from Greece. In Hanoi, he started almost immediately to carry out research on these fossils, getting samples from Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Yunnan (China). He wrote the ®rst paper on this research as early as 1911. From 1911 to 1915, he published four thick memoirs. Colani (1924) gave some additional information on fusulinaceans collected mainly from northern Vietnam (Pho Binh Gia, Dong Van and Muong The areas), more rarely from Cambodia and Yunnan. Fusulinaceans became a popular group for study by geologists working in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. With the evolution of the research in these countries, the

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term Productus Limestone came to be used for limestones rich in brachiopods (with Productus), and also rich in fusulinaceans. It was alternatively called `Fusulinacean Limestone' and there were no more references to the Salt Range. Fromaget (1931) considered that the limestone of central Laos (Cammon Province) was the best example of the Productus Limestone, because it was delimited by two unconformities. In these outcrops, the limestone ranged from Upper Moscovian to Permian age. However, the palaeontological evidence was not very strong; the boundary between the Uralian and the Permian was arbitrary. The base of the Permian was marked by the appearance of Neoschwagerina (Fromaget, 1931). The Uralian included all the present Lower Permian and the Upper Permian (Lopingian) was ignored. Fromaget (1931) was surprised that he did not ®nd traces of glaciations, similar to that known in Gondwanaland. Later on, the term Productus Limestone was practically abandoned. Saurin (1956) divided the marine Permian of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam into four parts: Sakmarian, Artinskian, Kungurian and Kazanian.

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3. Palaeontology, biostratigraphy, palaeogeography After 1960, geological publications started to show palaeobiogeographical differences in Southeast Asia, even if there was no mention of these differences. For instance, the fusulinaceans of Central Thailand were studied more actively because of their abundance and high diversity, in contrast to the fusulinaceans of Peninsular Thailand. On the other hand, in Peninsular Thailand, brachiopods were mainly studied. The history of the Southeast Asian Permian appeared to become increasingly complex. Although the Middle Permian was recognized very quickly over large areas of Southeast Asia (Toriyama et al., 1975), in 1975 the Lower Permian (Asselian±Sakmarian) and especially the Upper Permian (Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian) were still rather poorly known. At that time, the boundaries between the Permian and Carboniferous or Triassic were commonly considered to be marked by marine regressions, depositional breaks or unconformities. In this paper, only shallow marine and continental sediments shall be considered. The sub-division of the Permian used follows the proposals of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (Jin, 1996). It is slightly different from the sub-division proposed by Leven (1981) and adopted by Fontaine (1986c). The Lower Permian or Cisuralian is considered to extend from the Sphaeroschwagerina zone to the Brevaxina and Misellina zones. The Middle Permian or Guadalupian ranges from the Cancellina, Armenina and Praesumatrina zones to the Lepidolina zone. The Upper Permian or Lopingian corresponds to the Colaniella and Palaeofusulina zones.

4. Permian of Thailand

Fig. 2. Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Main Permian exposures.

In 1960, limestone widely distributed all over Thailand (Table 1) was called the Ratburi Limestone. It was considered to be of Permo-Carboniferous age. Some fusulinaceans, corals and brachiopods had been found at a few localities in southern, central and northern Thailand. They did not provide strong biostratigraphical information. It was considered that the age of the Ratburi Limestone was impossible to be de®ned precisely. In the Stratigraphic Lexicon (CNRS, Paris, 1956), Sethaput concluded: ªComprehensive studies of fossil faunas through a number of sections are needed before any attempt can be made to distinguish faunal zones or to correlate the whole, or parts of the Ratburi Limestone, with the late Paleozoic rocks of neighboring regionsº. This proposal by a high-ranking geologist was very in¯uential. Subsequently, intensive research was undertaken in the ®eld and in laboratories. At the outset, the research was focused mainly on the limestones and Bunopas (1983, p. 40) for example, considered that the ªPermian rocks are dominantly limestonesº. This remark has to be slightly moderated as the result of more recent research.

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Table 1 Summary of the data on the Permian of Thailand

4.1. Peninsular Thailand Permian limestone is widely distributed in Peninsular Thailand, where it is called the Ratburi Limestone, a term presently limited to the limestone of this area, which is different from other limestones in Thailand. However, it extends to the southwards into northwest Peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 3) and northwards into eastern Myanmar. It has been studied especially in the Phatthalung, Phangnga, Chumphon, Bang Saphan, Prachuabkhirikhan, Phetburi, Ratburi, Kanchanaburi and Thong Pha Phum areas (Yanagida, 1970; Waterhouse and Piyasin, 1970; Grant, 1976; Bronnimann et al., 1978; Waterhouse et al., 1981; Fontaine and Suteethorn, 1988; Fontaine, 1986b; 1989; IngavatHelmcke, 1993; Baird et al., 1993; Dawson et al., 1993; Ueno et al., 1996; Fontaine et al., 1998b; Archbold, 1999). The Ratburi Limestone ranges in age from late Early to late Middle Permian, that is to say from Artinskian± Kungurian to Midian. Locally, it extends up into the Wuchiapingian; for instance, Colaniella has been found at Tham Ling in the Phangnga area (Ingavat-Helmcke, 1993). The upper part of the limestone is locally dolomitic and not well dated. Fusulinaceans play a minor role in the Permian of Peninsular Thailand. Although Asselian fusulinaceans have been reported in the Chumphon area (IngavatHelmcke, 1993), they actually appear referable to younger taxa (Ueno et al., 1996). The Sakmarian age suggested by Sakagami (1969) for the limestones of Prachuabkhirikhan appears unlikely, following the study of more abundant material from the same localities (Fontaine and Suteethorn, 1988). Peculiar foraminifera have been reported from Peninsular Thailand. The porcellaneous pillared Shanita and the

strange Rectostipulina with angular shape have been found at several localities from Kanchanaburi to Trang, whereas the fusulinacean Eopolydiexodina is known so far only in Kanchanaburi Province (Fontaine and Suteethorn, 1988; Ingavat-Helmcke, 1993; Dawson et al., 1993). Coral faunas of Peninsular Thailand are different from those known from the other parts of Thailand (Fontaine and Suteethorn, 1988; Fontaine, 1989). Brachiopods are in abundance at many places. The Ratburi Limestone is underlain by shale and sandstone. This sequence (Kaeng Krachan Group or Phuket Group, similar to the Singa Formation of Northwest Peninsular Malaysia), ranges from Carboniferous to Lower Permian and is Late Sakmarian in age at its top (Waterhouse et al., 1981). It is characterized by the presence of pebbly mudstone containing a cool water brachiopod fauna, considered Late Asselian± Early Sakmarian in age (Waterhouse, 1982; Shi and Archbold, 1998). In Peninsular Thailand, at Pak Meng 30 km west of Trang, a small collection of continental plants consisting of branchlets of Walchia has been found 15 m below the base of the Ratburi Limestone (Fontaine, 1986c). This occurrence has only limited phytogeographical signi®cance as Walchia is not associated with other plants (Li and Shen, 1996). Both in Peninsular Thailand and northwest Peninsular Malaysia, there was a complete absence of volcanism during the Permian. 4.2. Western Thailand The Permian is exposed in a few areas in western Thailand, but has not been extensively studied. The Permian rocks include shale, siltstone, sandstone, calcareous

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Fig. 3. Peninsular Malaysia or West Malaysia. In East Malaysia, Permian is known only in a single small area of Sarawak.

sandstone and limestone. Along the road from Mae Sot to Umphang, 40 km south of Mae Sot, shale is very rich in fossils: bryozoans and brachiopods with a few trilobites (Fontaine et al., 1988). Limestone yields the most important fossils. Ingavat and Douglas (1981) have reported the occurrence of Monodiexodina in limestone and calcareous sandstone near Ban Mae Ka Sa, 20 km northeast of Mae Sot, at Lang Sang in Tak area and west±southwest of Mae Sariang. At Doi Pha Daeng east of Mae Sot, the limestone contains Neoschwagerina, Afghanella, Sumatrina, Kahlerina and other fusulinaceans indicating a Murgabian age (Fontaine and Suteethorn, 1988). Neoschwagerina also occurs between Tha Song Yang and Mae Sariang in a limestone outcrop otherwise poor in fossils (Fontaine and Suteethorn, 1988). Near Umphang south of Mae Sot, a limestone outcrop contains Neoschwagerina, Sumatrina and Pseudodoliolina, indicating a Murgabian age (Ingavat, 1984). 4.3. Northwest Thailand The part of Thailand to the northwest of Chiang Mai has been considered to belong to the same tectonic block as Peninsular Thailand, but displays different sediments and fossils. Limestone is widespread, and ranges in age from Lower Carboniferous to end-Permian (Fontaine et al., 1993b). It is locally rich in fusulinaceans of Early to Late Permian age. It contains such genera as Sphaeroschwager-

ina, Neoschwagerina, Verbeekina, Sumatrina and Afghanella. Smaller foraminifera include Hemigordiopsis. Corals have also been found, and consist of solitary, fasciculate: Waagenophyllum and massive Rugosa: Multimurinus (Fontaine et al., 1993b; Flugel, 1997). Many of these taxa are either poorly known or unknown in Peninsular Thailand. 4.4. Northern Thailand The Permian is well-documented in some areas of northern Thailand, and is apparently complete, from Asselian to Changhsingian. The Late Permian (Huai Thak Formation) has been studied extensively at Doi Pha Phlung, northeast of Lampang, after the discovery of late Late Permian (Changhsingian) faunas. Foraminifers consist of Palaeofusulina, Colaniella, Gallowayinella, Reichelina and other genera (Sakagami and Hatta, 1982; Ueno and Sakagami, 1991). Brachiopods are characterized by the abundance of Oldhamina; they are close to the Lopingian fauna of south China (Waterhouse, 1983). Ammonoids include Paratirolites, Tapashanites and Pseudogastrioceras (Ishibashi and Chonglakmani, 1990; Ishibashi et al., 1997). Palaeofusulina has been found in another area 13 km southwest of Phrae (Ingavat, 1984). It possibly occurs 20 km west of Amphoe Wiang Sa south of Nan (Hahn and Siebenhuner, 1982).

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Northeast of Lampang at Ban Cham Ka and southeast of Lampang at Phra That Muang Kham, limestone contains Colaniella and fasciculate corals. It appears to belong to the Wuchiapingian (Fontaine and Vachard, 1988). In the Nan area north of Tha Wang Pha, Colaniella is again present in a small limestone outcrop between Ban Song Kwae and Chiang Klang (new data). Permianella, a Wuchiapingian brachiopod, has been found between the Colaniella locality and Tha Wang Pha (Yanagida (and a research group) 1988). The Middle Permian is not strongly documented in Lampang area, but is currently being studied in the Nan area. East-southeast of Nan at Doi Pha Buang, a Midian limestone is very rich in diverse fossils, including large fusulinaceans such as Colania, Yabeina and Lepidolina (new data). North of Nan at Doi Pha Sing and Doi Pha Toob, limestone contains fusulinaceans, fasciculate (Pseudohuangia) and massive (Wentzelella) corals (new data). The fusulinaceans indicate an age ranging from Artinskian to Kubergandian. Lower Permian (Asselian±Sakmarian) has been described from the Kiu Lom Dam in the Lampang area (Ingavat, 1984; Fontaine and Vachard, 1988). Asselian and Sakmarian are unknown so far in Nan area. 4.5. Central Thailand In Central Thailand, the Permian is represented in castellated limestone hills, which are widely distributed from Saraburi to Phetchabun and Uthai Thani. The limestones range mainly from the Misellina zone to the Colania zone; they have been divided into ten biozones (Ingavat et al., 1980). They are rich in algae and fusulinaceans, which

Fig. 4. Sumatra. Although the Permian is not very widespread in this island, some exposures are very interesting from different points of view. Black squares represent Permian localities.

have been actively studied. Diverse corals are sporadically abundant. Older Permian limestones, as old as Asselian, have been described at a few localities in the Khao Somphot area northeast of Saraburi and in the area south of Phetchabun. Marine beds, younger than the Colania douvillei zone, are so far unknown in Central Thailand. About 50 km south±southwest of Phetchabun in the Nong Phai area at Khlong Wang Ang, fragments of fossil plants were collected from black shale. Eight species were identi®ed and considered to be of Cathaysian af®nity, although they include species of Glossopteris and Palaeovittaria, suggesting some migration from Gondwana (Konno, 1964). This migration was a problem. Later on, a new study was carried out in the ®eld and laboratory. Only a Cathaysian ¯ora was found, without any connection with Gondwana. This ¯ora is closer to the Jambi Flora of Sumatra (Fig. 4) than to the typical Gigantopteris ¯ora (Asama, 1966). Fossil wood has been reported from the same area, with an identi®cation of a specimen as Dadoxylon (Chonglakmani and Fontaine, 1990). 4.6. Nam Duk Basin The elongated N±S trending Nam Duk Basin separates Central Thailand from Northeast Thailand. From bottom to top, it displays deep marine to shallow marine and marginal marine sediments, widely exposed along the Lomsak± Chumphae Highway, where the outcrops have been actively studied by Helmcke and his collaborators. The Nam Duk Basin has been considered the eastern external zone of a vast Variscan orogen (Helmcke and Kraikhong, 1982; Helmcke, 1982; Helmcke and Lindenberg, 1983; Helmcke et al., 1985). It is actually located between Central Thailand or the Khao Khwang Platform and Northeast Thailand or the Pha Nok Khao Platform (Wielchowski and Young, 1985). This present geographical distribution is explained by a displacement, caused by a N±S trending strike-slip fault (Helmcke, 1994). From another point of view, it is dif®cult not to think of a locally developed intracontinental basin, during an extensional event, including the rifting of western Bac Bo in Vietnam. However, the Nam Duk Basin displayed important shoals during the Permian, especially at its eastern margin along the Pha Nok Khao Platform. According to a current study, limestone is more than 600 m thick in Khao Tham Yai area, north of the Lomsak±Chumphae Highway. It is very rich in diverse fossils: algae with green algae, fusulinaceans in abundance, proli®c corals in the lower part and brachiopods. These fossils indicate a shallow marine environment. The limestone ranges from Murgabian to Late Midian; it contains Lepidolina at its top (Fontaine and Salyapongse, 2001). It appears to be overlain by black shale, and then, by a relatively small body of limestone, which contains foraminifera, but without fusulinaceans so far, and might belong to the Triassic (Fontaine and Salyapongse, 2001).

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4.7. Northeast Thailand

4.8. East Thailand

The Permian is widely distributed in northeast Thailand, and consists of shale, sandstone and mainly limestone, deposited on the `Pha Nok Khao Platform'. The limestone is called the Nam Maholan Formation in the Loei area and the Pha Nok Khao Formation in the Chumphae area. These two formations are apparently identical. They are locally rich in fossils: algae, foraminifera, corals, brachiopods and, locally, trilobites. They range from Asselian to Middle Murgabian (Yanagida, 1966; 1976; Igo, 1972; 1974; Kobayashi and Hamada, 1979; Fontaine and Suteethorn, 1992; Ueno et al., 1993; 1995; Fontaine et al., 1994a, b; Charoentitirat and Ueno, 1999). They overlie the Carboniferous conformably, and the boundary between the two systems appears to be locally in limestone (Fontaine and Suteethorn, 1995; Charoentitirat and Ueno, 1999). In the Khorat Plateau, under the Mesozoic continental cover, Permian limestone ranges from Late Wolfcampian to Guadalupian (Wordian). It is an important gas-bearing rock and has been studied carefully. Several depositional sequences have been recognized (Kozar et al., 1992). West of the road from Chiang Khan to Loei and Wang Saphung, the Permian is less rich in fossils and is a continuation of the Nam Duk Basin. Its lower part corresponds to a relatively deep marine facies and consists mainly of shale and chert; Sakmarian±Artinskian limestone occurs in Nam Piang Din Waterfall area to the south (new data). Its upper part is shallow marine (with limestone rich in Codonofusiella at Khao Pha Phung and Khao Pha Bao Pha Sao; new data) to continental. Along the highway from Loei to Dan Sai (9 km), black shale with thin interbeds of sandstone contains a typical Cathaysian Gigantopteris ¯ora. Sixteen species have been identi®ed (Asama et al., 1968).

The Lower Permian has not so far been documented in eastern Thailand. However, Permian limestone is widespread, and forms large hills along the Cambodian (Table 2) border. It is an extension of the Permian limestone known in the western part of Cambodia. It is rich in diverse assemblages of fossils: algae, foraminifera with Lepidolina and locally Colaniella, corals (fasciculate and massive Rugosa), and brachiopods. These limestones are of Midian, and very locally of Wuchiapingian age (Pitakpaivan and Ingavat, 1980; Fontaine and Salyapongse, 1997; Fontaine et al., 1997). To the west near the road from Chanthaburi to Sakaeo (or Sra Kaeo), Permian exposures consist of chert, silici®ed shale and relatively small bodies of limestone. The limestone is commonly less rich in fossils and sometimes appears to form exotic blocks. At several localities, it belongs to Kubergandian, at rare localities to Murgabian and in a few places to the Midian (Fontaine and Salyapongse, 1997; Fontaine et al., 1997). Further to the west, Permian exposures are rare, and are known near Chonburi (very poorly dated limestone 7 km south of Chonburi), near Sri Racha (limestone lens in shale assigned to a Kubergandian±Murgabian age) and near Klaeng (very interesting limestone and shale). In the Klaeng area, shales are locally rich in Leptodus and limestone contains a rich assemblage of foraminifera, including Palaeofusulina, Reichelina and Colaniella. These shales and limestone, clearly belonging to the Upper Permian, are overlain by Triassic limestone (Fontaine et al., 1999b).

Table 2 Summary of the data on the Permian of Vietnam and Cambodia

5. Myanmar Permian exposures are widespread in Eastern Myanmar

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(Eastern Highlands). Bender (1983) recognized two different tectonic units, the Karen±Tenasserim Unit (probably extending to the north as the West Kachin Unit) to the west and the East Kachin±Shan Unit to the east. The Karen±Tenasserim Unit consists of the Mergui (or Taungyo) Series, composed of shales, pebbly mudstones and sandstones, and of the Moulmein Limestone, which contains Shanita and Hemigordiopsis south±southeast of Mandalay. This unit is similar to the Phuket Group and the Ratburi Limestone of Peninsular Thailand. The East Kachin±Shan Unit covers very large areas. It is mainly built up of limestone, the Plateau Limestone, and corresponds to a marine shelf region. The upper part of this limestone has been considered Permo-Carboniferous in age, but few fossils have been studied so far. Some Permian fusulinaceans such as Pseudoschwagerina might suggest similarities with the limestones of adjacent Northwest Thailand; if this is the case, a large region covering Northwest Thailand and Northeast Myanmar displays faunas similar to those of Central Thailand, or more widely, to those of the Indochina Block. 6. Laos In Laos, the Permian is widespread from Phong Saly in the north to Saravan in the south. At different localities, it is marine, marine and continental or completely continental. In most northerly Laos, in the Phong Saly area, important continental deposits, with coal seams, not exceeding 1 m in thickness, are known along Nam Ou River, a tributary of the Mekong. They seem to span all the Permian and are underlain by Carboniferous black shale. They have yielded plant imprints at Sop Pong and at Bun Tai, localities respectively north and south of Phong Saly. These plants were tentatively identi®ed in the past (Fromaget, 1933), but have been studied more recently, in 1977, by Vozenin-Serra and found to include Gigantopteris. The Permian is widespread, but discontinuously exposed between Nam Ou River and the Myanmar border. It is composed of shale, sandstone, prominent limestone, and volcanic rocks (andesite). It crops out along the lower valley of Nam Ou River up to Muong Ngoi 100 km north±northeast of Luang Prabang. To the west, it extends to Con Tagne and to Na Mo about 125 km, respectively northwest and north±northwest of Luang Prabang. Limestone is locally rich in fossils, which have been studied in a few areas, for instance near Con Tagne or along the Nam Ou River. The Permian has been mentioned in other places of northwest Laos, but not always with strong palaeontological evidence. Near Luang Prabang, the Permian is extensively exposed; it extends to Van Vieng 100 km, south of Luang Prabang. It is rich in limestone containing diverse fossils: algae, foraminifera, corals, brachiopods, and bivalves. Among the identi®ed fossils, it is possible to mention some fusulinaceans (Neoschwagerina, Verbeekina, Sumatrina and Pseu-

dodoliolina) and some corals (Pseudohuangia, Ipciphyllum, Laophyllum, Multimurinus). These fossils suggest strongly a Guadalupian age. Locally, older fossils have been collected and indicate ages as old as `Sakmarian' (Saurin, 1956). Northeast of Luang Prabang, shales exposed at the western side of the Phu Loi massif contain Middle Permian ammonoids. Near Luang Prabang, terrigenous sediments become prominent above the Guadalupian limestone. At ®rst, they are marine deposits, with brachiopods (Leptodus and others) and trilobites. Later, they become continental and contain a coal seam, 1 m thick, as well as plant imprints and remains of Dicynodon. Near Ban Sang, northwest of Luang Prabang, green sandstone has yielded a few fragments of reptile bones, possibly suggesting another occurrence of continental Upper Permian in northern Laos. In the Plain of Jars, in the Xieng Khouang and Ban Ban areas (Tran Ninh), volcano-terrigenous sediments and limestone are exposed and build up the Khang Khay Formation. They do not contain very rich faunas. Some foraminifers (with fusulinaceans), brachiopods, gastropods and bivalves have been noticed. These fossils are rather poorly preserved, but indicate mainly a Permian age. In the Kamkeut and Thakkek areas (`Cammon Province' of the past, presently divided into Bolikhamsay Province to the north and Khammouan Province to the south), the Permian is widely exposed and is locally very rich in fossils. It was studied in the ®eld in 1912 and 1913 by Dussault (1919) and from 1923 to 1927 by Fromaget (1927). Fusulinaceans have been studied by Deprat (1913a, b) and Colani (see Fromaget, 1927). Brachiopods were described by Mansuy (1913). This fauna considerably stands in contrast to the correlative faunas of Peninsular Thailand, and is indicative of tropical waters (Waterhouse, 1987). The studies have been more important in the Kamkeut area, where Deprat (1915) introduced a new stratigraphic unit, the `Cammonian'. In the Saravan area, Permian sediments consisting of limestones, shales, siltstones, sandstones and tuffaceous rocks overlie Carboniferous shale and sandstone containing coal seams (Hoffet, 1933; Komphasouk et al., 1986). The limestones have not been studied in detail. They display a horizon rich in diverse algae and foraminifera. The fusulinaceans clearly indicate two biozones of the Kubergandian: the Misellina confragaspira zone of Early Kubergandian age and the Maklaya saraburiensis zone of very early Late Kubergandian (Fontaine et al., 1999a). 7. Cambodia and South Vietnam (Nam Bo) Cambodia and the most southerly part of Vietnam display similar exposures of Permian, but more widespread in Cambodia than in South Vietnam (or Nam Bo). Gubler (1935a, b), carried out research, limited to southern and western Cambodia, where the Permian is widely

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exposed. Gubler (1935a) suggested that the Permian was delimited by an underlying Hercynian unconformity, and an overlying unconformity, marked by a thick conglomerate in many places. A transition from Permian to Triassic without a break was described as possibly occurring in a few small areas, for instance in Kompong Speu area. Limestone was the prominent deposit with some interbeds of clastic rocks, siliceous shales and cherts. Gubler (1935b) collected diverse fossils: algae, foraminifera (with fusulinaceans in abundance), corals, sponges, bryozoans, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, ammonoids, trilobites and a ®sh tooth. He distinguished three horizons in the Cambodian Permian: (1) beds with Neoschwagerina craticulifera, (2) beds characterized by N. multiseptata (presently Lepidolina multiseptata), and (3) beds rich in brachiopods. Later on, some of the Permian fossils (gastropods, Oldhaminids, foraminifera) collected by Gubler in the 1930s were studied by other geologists (Delpey, 1940; 1941; 1942; Termier, 1959; Nguyen, 1979). From 1960 to 1981, ®eldwork was carried out by several geologists in different areas of Cambodia and South Viet Nam. New fossils were collected and studied (Saurin, 1959; 1962; 1965; Le, 1959; Tran, 1961; Fontaine, 1961; 1967; Ishii and Nogami, 1964; Ishii et al., 1969; Nguyen, 1970, 1979; Nguyen, 1970; Ishii and Murata, 1974; Nguyen, 1981). A good section ranging from Murgabian to Midian was described near Sisophon in West Cambodia; it overlies andesitic rocks (Saurin, 1959; Fontaine, 1961; Ishii et al., 1969). Fossil wood was collected from the base of the Lepidolina zone of this section (Serra, 1966; Vozenin-Serra, 1977) from a horizon containing bauxite. Misellina and Praesumatrina were found in limestone at Phnom Sup Trup 45 km northeast of Sisophon, and this limestone was assigned clearly to the Permian for the ®rst time (Saurin, 1965); it is the oldest well-dated Permian limestone of Cambodia. Murgabian±Midian limestone exposures, with fusulinaceans and corals, were discovered in Treng area, about 75 km south of Sisophon (Fontaine, 1964). In southern Cambodia, fusulinaceans from Phnom Cau Lan were identi®ed and included Yabeina and Lepidolina (Saurin, 1958). Algae and corals were described for the ®rst time at many localities of Cambodia and Vietnam (Nguyen, 1970; Fontaine, 1961; 1967). In South Vietnam, algae, fusulinaceans and corals were almost unknown before 1959; they were the subject of some studies (Le, 1959; Fontaine, 1969; Nguyen, 1970; Nguyen, 1970; Vu Khuc et al., 1984). Colaniella and Reichelina were discovered in Kompong Trach area of eastern Cambodia; Palaeofusulina was found in Kampot area of eastern Cambodia and along the Saigon River north-northeast of Tay Ninh in the western part of South Vietnam (Ta Thiet Limestone). Accordingly, Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian were con®rmed for the ®rst time in Cambodia and South Vietnam (Nguyen, 1979; Nguyen, 1982). Although the middle and upper parts (Kubergandian to Changhsin-

575

gian) are presently known in Cambodia and South Vietnam, there is no information on the lower part of the Permian. 8. North Vietnam The Permian is widespread in North Vietnam (Bac Bo); it is restricted to a few areas in Central (Trung Bo) and South (Nam Bo) Vietnam, as recently shown by Nguyen et al. (1989) and Vu Khuc et al. (2000). A detailed bibliography of the geology of Vietnam has been published recently (Vu Khuc et al., 1998). 8.1. North Vietnam (Bac Bo): northern and littoral Bac Bo In northern and littoral Bac Bo, the Permian is known from Pho Bang to the west, through the Cao Bang and Lang Son areas, to Ha Long Bay in the east. It is complete from Asselian to Changhsingian. It is conformably overlain by Triassic shale belonging to the Lang Son Formation (Phan , 1986; Phan and Dickins, 1995). Asselian to Midian limestones are common. They conformably overlie Carboniferous sediments, rich in limestone, with which they form the Bac Son Formation. The Permian limestones are rich in fusulinaceans, and the whole sequence contains diverse fossils: algae, smaller foraminifera, corals, brachiopods, trilobites and others. These fossils have been studied by different authors (Deprat, Colani, Mansuy, Patte, Saurin, Fontaine, Nguyen, Le Hung) over many papers; the results of their studies have been partially summarized in a book (Duong et al., 1980). In northern Bac Bo, the Upper Permian or Dong Dang Formation overlies the Bac Son Formation with an unconformity. It is largely different from the underlying Bac Son Formation. Its lower part consists of shale and siltstone containing anthracite lenses and bauxite beds. The bauxite represents an economic resource; it indicates a hot, humid climate during its formation. The upper part of the Dong Dang Formation is a black siliceous limestone containing Palaeofusulina. The Dong Dang Formation is equivalent to Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian. Palaeofusulina is widely distributed at the top of the north Bac Bo Permian. Samples from the Lang Son Province where this genus was ®rst discovered have been studied by Nguyen (1974) and have improved our knowledge of this genus. Towards the east in littoral Bac Bo, the Upper Permian is richer in terrigenous sediments with thin coal seams. 8.2. North Vietnam: western Bac Bo In western Bac Bo, the Permian is again widespread, but differs in the presence of thick volcanic rocks. Important rifting activities have been suggested during the Permian in that region (Le, 1982; Tran, 1986). The Permian limestones and the conformably underlying Carboniferous limestones make up the Da Mai Formation.

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They extend from Lai Chau, Son La to Thanh Hoa. Along the Da River limestone is less developed. The Permian mainly consists of shale, sandstone and basalt, and is described as the Ban Diet Formation. Basalts, tuff, shale and sandstone unconformably overlie the Da Mai Formation; they are called Cam Thuy Formation. The basalts correspond to the Omeishan basalts of eastern Yunnan and western Guizhou in China. The Cam Thuy Formation is conformably overlain by the Yen Duyet Formation. The lower part of this formation is composed of shale, locally with coal seams, and argillaceous limestone; it has yielded brachiopods, which have been the subject of a recent paper (Shi and Shen, 1998), and some plant imprints including Gigantopteris. The upper part of the Yen Duyet Formation is a black to gray limestone containing Palaeofusulina. Along the Da River, the Upper Permian basalts are thicker than elsewhere. In the associated shale and sandstone, plant fossils occur and include Lobatannularia and Gigantopteris. 8.3. Central Vietnam (Trung Bo) The Permian is not extensively developed in Central Vietnam. Northwest of Dong Hoi, the Quy Dat and La Khe areas display the largest Permian exposures in Trung Bo. Carboniferous and Permian limestones are widespread. They are assigned to the Muong Long Formation. The Permian limestones range in age from Asselian to Murgabian. Shale and sandstone exposed along a stream 2 km southwest of Cam Lo in Quang Tri Province are fossiliferous. They contain Permian brachiopods (Fontaine, 1960; Tran, 1962), which are most likely of Wuchiapingian age (Shi and Shen, 1998). In the southern part of Trung Bo, northwest of Ban Me Thuot, the Dak Lin Formation is composed of shale, siltstone, sandstone and intermediate to acidic volcanics, with limestone lenses at the top containing Verbeekina (Phan, 1991; 1993; Phan and Dickins, 1995), but is not widely exposed. 9. Malaysia 9.1. Northwest Peninsular Malaysia In northwest Peninsular Malaysia, Permian sediments are known in three areas with different sedimentary sequences: (1) Perlis and northern Kedah, to the north; (2) the Kinta Valley in Perak, to the south; and (3) central Kedah, to the east (Fig. 3). In Perlis and northern Kedah, the Permian consists of an important limestone (Chuping Limestone) overlying the Singa and the Kubang Pasu Formations, clastic formations, Permian in age at their top and corresponding to two different sedimentological facies, more sandy in the Kubang Pasu Formation. Fossils were collected from a few localities

during geological mapping (Jones et al., 1966; Jones, 1979). They consisted of algae, foraminifera, brachiopods, bryozoans and molluscs. Bryozoans from Pulau Jong, a small island of Langkawi Archipelago, were studied by Sakagami (1963). Later on, other studies were carried out. In Perlis, fusulinaceans from calcareous sandstone near Bukit Wang Pisang have been identi®ed as Monodiexodina, indicating a late Early Permian age (Basir and Koay, 1990; Basir, 1991). They are the oldest fusulinaceans of northwest Peninsular Malaysia. From Bukit Mata Air, Middle Permian foraminifera and algae have been reported, whereas foraminifera and algae from Bukit Manek indicate only a Permian age, without more precision (Fontaine and Vachard, 1988). Early Permian (Sakmarian) brachiopods have been collected from pebbly mudstones of the upper part of the Singa Formation at two localities (Kilim and Batu Asah) in Langkawi Island. They have been compared with faunas of periGondwanan `Cimmerian' terranes, in particular with faunas of Peninsular Thailand, and even the faunas of Australia (Shi et al., 1997). A few bryozoans have been collected from the Singa Formation at Bukit Durian in Langkawi Island (Basir et al., 1992). In the Kinta Valley in Perak, the Permian is composed mainly of limestone (Nam Loong Beds and H.S. Lee Beds). The H.S. Lee Beds contain more diverse faunas (Suntharalingam, 1968). At the H.S. Lee Mine, fusulinaceans include Misellina claudiae in the upper part of the limestone and Pseudofusulina kraffti in the lower part (Ishii, 1966b), as well as Cancellina (Maklaya) ex gr. pamirica Leven, according to samples stored at the Geological Survey of Malaysia (Fontaine and Ibrahim, 1994). These fusulinaceans point to a Kungurian age, with possible extension to the top of Artinskian and the base of Kubergandian. Ammonoids indicate a similar age (Lee, 1980). A fasciculate Rugosa (Waagenophyllum) and two solitary Rugosa (Iranophyllum and Pavastehphyllum) have been identi®ed (Jones et al., 1966). A well-preserved alga has been described (Elliott, 1968). A rich gastropod fauna (52 genera, 91 species) includes many specimens unknown outside Malaysia (Batten, 1972; 1979; 1985). Very large bivalves (Alatoconchidae) occur (Runnegar and Gobbett, 1975; Yancey and Boyd, 1983; Yancey, 1985). From a 4.5 m thick horizon of the Nam Loong Beds, Early Permian (Sterlitamakian, Sakmarian Stage), brachiopods have been reported (Shi and Waterhouse, 1991); they share elements with Gondwana and moderately with the Urals. From the northern end of Gunung Kanthan, a locality of the northern part of Kinta Valley, Metcalfe (1981) isolated Lower Permian (Wolfcampian) conodonts from a condensed sequence ranging from Early Devonian to Early Permian. The Kinta Valley Permian is rather different from the Permian of Perlis and Kedah States. In central Kedah, the Semanggol Formation is made of chert, shale, sandstone and conglomerate. It is mainly Triassic in age and contains Daonella and Halobia in its upper

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part. Its lower part or the `Chert Member' consists of chert and silici®ed shale with rare occurrences of small limestone lenses. It is a deep-sea facies, very different from the Permian to the west. It has yielded Middle and Late Permian radiolarians (Sashida et al., 1993; 1995; Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995a; Basir, 1996). In Selangor, 40 km south of Kuala Lumpur, an ammonoid (Agathiceras) has been found in argillaceous rocks. This fossil suggested a Lower to Middle Permian age (Abdullah Sani, 1985). This interesting result unfortunately remains the only record from Selangor. 9.2. East Peninsular Malaysia Shallow marine Permian sediments of eastern Peninsular Malaysia are known from many localities in Kelantan, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan, Terengganu and Johor. They range possibly from Sakmarian, certainly from Artinskian to Changhsingian in age, but Asselian has not been recorded up to now. A few plant fragments have been found in south Kelantan at Sungai Chiku (Edwards, 1926; Fontaine, 1990) and at Sungai Berok (Umar Hamzah, 1995); they are not dated precisely and seem to belong to the Upper Carboniferous-Lower Permian. Along the road from Kuala Lumpur to Kuantan, two localities east of Mentakab are very well known: (1) Bukit Kepayang quarry at Kampung Awah, displaying limestone embedded in andesite; (2) Jengka Pass showing a section of shale and limestone exposed in a road cutting. These localities are rich in diverse fossils (algae, foraminifera, corals, bryozoans, brachiopods and bivalves), which have been studied by several authors (Cummings, 1965; Gowda, 1965; Ichikawa et al., 1966; Ishii, 1966a; Igo, 1967; Sakagami, 1973; Nakazawa, 1973; Kato and Ezaki, 1986; Fontaine, 1986c; Fontaine et al., 1988). They belong to the Guadalupian (Late Murgabian±Early Midian). At Jengka Pass, the upper part of the section consists of shale and sandstone, containing 24 species of Upper Permian plants including Gigantopteris and Lobatannularia, showing Cathaysian af®nities (Konno and Asama, 1970). Three other localities are known in the Jengka Pass area. From Sungai Jengka, 2 km southwest of Jengka Pass, Cummings (1965) identi®ed Neoschwagerina and Padangia, indicating a Middle Guadalupian age. At Sungai Pahang, 20 km south±southeast of Jengka Pass, drillholes investigating the foundations for a bridge bottomed in fossiliferous limestone belonging to Murgabian (Fontaine et al., 1994a, b). Limestone exposed near Mengapur 35 km northeast of Jengka Pass is locally fossiliferous; it is of Murgabian age (Basir and Che, 1991; Fontaine et al., 1994a, b). To the southeast of Mentakab, a new Permian rock unit, the Bera Formation, has been introduced recently for a sequence of mudstone, shale, siltstone and sandstone, with subordinate conglomerate (Leman et al., 2000). Fossils consist of brachiopods, cephalopods, trilobites, bivalves, gastropods, fusulinaceans and plants. Brachiopods (17

577

species including lyttoniids in the highest strata) and cephalopods (with predominant Agathiceras) are associated with fragments of a plant belonging to Taeniopteris (Sone and Leman, 2000; Sone et al., 2001). A Middle Permian age has been proposed for the Bera Formation, which is considered unconformably overlain by Triassic strata. In North Pahang, the Permian has been described from several localities. From Sungai Atok, Permian fusulinaceans and corals have been collected; they include Verbeekina (in abundance), Sumatrina annae, Kahlerina and others (Igo, 1964), indicating a Murgabian±Midian age. Brachiopods, bivalves, bryozoans, corals and a trilobite were found in shale at Sungai Spia and indicated a late Middle Permian age (Igo, 1964). Changhsingian faunas, including foraminifera Reichelina, Colaniella, Palaeofusulina and others, were collected from Gua Panjang (a limestone hill) 12 km south of Merapoh and from a few localities of the lower basin of Sungai Kenong east of Kuala Lipis (Fontaine et al., 1994a, b). Near and south of Gua Panjang, many Upper Permian (Changhsingian) brachiopods were collected from shale; they included Leptodus, Oldhamina, Haydenella and 40 other species (Leman, 1993; 1994). In the Lower Changhsingian beds between Kuala Lipis and Merapoh, a Lobatannularia ¯ora is associated with brachiopods, in particular with Oldhamina decipiens (Leman, 1993, p. 211). Brachiopods were collected from shale in Kuala Lipis area and included genus Leptodus (Jones et al., 1966). Near Raub, interbedded siltstones, mudstones and limestones have yielded a conodont (Neogondolella rosenkrantzi Bender and Stoppel) indicating a Late Guadalupian± Dzhul®an age; a structural discontinuity is mentioned between these sediments and the Triassic Semantan Formation (Metcalfe, 1993). From Sungai Pertang area in Negeri Sembilan, limestone samples collected by the Geological Survey of Malaysia are rich in Colania, indicating an Early Midian age (Fontaine et al., 1994a, b). Kelantan is probably the most interesting state of Malaysia because of an apparently continuous section, from Middle Carboniferous to Triassic, in the southeastern part of the state. Permian sediments have been found at many localities along Sungai Lebir, Sungai Aring, Sungai Relai, Sungai Paloh, Sungai Badong and other smaller rivers. They contain diverse fossils of which foraminifera and brachiopods have been identi®ed. The Permian fossils belong to several horizons from Sakmarian to Changhsingian (Cummings, 1965; Jones et al., 1966; Aw, 1972 published in 1990; Aw et al., 1977; Yanagida and Aw, 1979; Fontaine, 1990). Asselian has not been identi®ed and might correspond to a marine regression and to beds with continental plants. Lepidolina occurs at Sungai Aring but is unknown elsewhere in Malaysia up to now. This genus indicates a Late Midian age. In the southwestern part of Kelantan, Permian sediments occur at a few localities along Sungai Galas and Sungai Nenggiri in Gua Musang area. Murgabian foraminifera have been found in a sample collected from Sungai Wah.

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In Terengganu, in the past, Carboniferous rocks were considered very widespread. The Permian was known certainly only at Bukit Biwah (Cummings, 1965). Recently, the same locality has been the subject of new studies (Kato and Ezaki, 1986; Fontaine et al., 1988). In addition, the Permian has been identi®ed at Bukit Taat, a hill near Bukit Biwah (Fontaine, 1990). Furthermore, limestone, largely concealed by Quaternary alluvium in the Sri Bandi area, has been unearthed during the extension of an oil palm plantation. It is an important deposit as it contains rich faunas indicating a late Early Permian (Artinskian±Kungurian) age (Fontaine et al., 1998a). In Johor, limestone was discovered in two areas: (1) in a mine hole near Sungai Lenggor; and (2) in the Sungai Sedili area (Rajah, 1970). The limestone of Sungai Lenggor is somewhat crystalline, and has been doubtfully assigned to the Permian, without a study of the fossils. In Sungai Sedili area, limestone (Sungai Sedili Limestone) is widely exposed on the southeastern slopes of Gunung Sumalayang 17 miles from Kota Tinggi. It is the most southerly limestone locality so far found in Peninsular Malaysia. It is embedded in a thick series of argillaceous rocks including also lava and tuff. It contains a fusulinacean assemblage indicating a time interval corresponding to the Misellina Zone and to a slightly older age (Igo et al., 1979). From the Gunung Blumut area, 25 km northwest of Gunung Sumalayang, Konno et al. (1970) described the `Linggiu Flora' including Lobatannularia, Gigantopteris and other genera. 9.3. East Malaysia In east Malaysia (Table 3), the Permian is known only in a small area of Sarawak south of Kuching near Terbat, at Gunung Selabor and along the Kedup River, near that localTable 3 Summary of the data on the Permian of Malaysia

ity. It is part of the Terbat Formation, made of prominent limestone and subordinate shale. Fossils occur and are locally in moderate abundance. Foraminifera and conodonts have been studied (Krekeler, 1932; 1933; Cummings, 1955; 1961; Sanderson, 1966; Metcalfe, 1985; Fontaine, 1990). They indicate a Carboniferous to Permian age. An Early Permian age corresponding to the Pseudoschwagerina zone was suggested by Cummings (1955; 1961). Asselian, especially Middle±Upper Asselian, has been clearly recognized (Vachard in Fontaine, 1990). The limestone extends upwards into younger stages, as indicated by two samples containing Langella, a foraminifera suggesting probably a Kungurian age.

10. Indonesia and the island of Timor 10.1. Sumatra After suggestions, in the 1920s, of Late Permian and Late Carboniferous ages for a sedimentary sequence in the Jambi area of central Sumatra (Table 4), an Early Permian age was de®nitely established by Thompson (1936). This Early Permian (Asselian±Sakmarian) is known in Sumatra only in Jambi area, in the valleys of Sungai Mesumai and Sungai Merangin. Algae and fusulinaceans (Pseudoschwagerina, Darvasites and others) are in abundance (Fontaine and Vachard, 1984; Fontaine and Gafoer, 1989). Corals have been found at four localities in the valley of the Mesumai River and include Kepingophyllidae (Fontaine, 1986a; Fontaine and Gafoer, 1989). This Lower Permian sequence is composed of shale, sandstone, limestone, tuff and volcanic rocks (commonly intermediate). It contains some

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579

Table 4 Summary of the data on the Permian of Sumatra area

continental interbeds with thin coal lenses, plant imprints and fossil wood. In 1925, a rich ¯ora was discovered in Jambi area in the valleys of the tributaries of the Merangin River. It consisted of 35 genera and 86 species with 2 species of Gigantopteris (Jongmans and Gothan, 1935). No trace of a Gondwana ¯ora was found (Jongmans, 1937). Later on, no typical species of the Gigantopteris Flora were recognized in the Jambi Flora, probably because of a difference in age (Asama, 1966). Fossil wood is locally in abundance. A few specimens from Telok Gedang along the Merangin River have been studied by Vozenin-Serra (Fontaine et al., 1986c; Fontaine and Gafoer, 1989). They do not show growth rings and suggest a tropical climate. The bases of tree trunks, complete with roots, have been found in their original place. Marine Middle Permian (Murgabian) sediments are exposed to the south in the Sungai Tembesi area and to the north in the Batang Tabir area. South of the Jambi area in South Sumatra, the Permian is known only at Bukit Pendopo, a limestone hill in Palembang Province. This limestone is not very rich in fossils. However, it contains fusulinaceans consisting of Cancellina, Armenina asiatica Leven, Neoschwagerina simplex Ozawa and others (Nguyen, in Fontaine and Gafoer, 1989). These fossils indicate a Late Kubergandian±Early Murgabian age. In the Padang Highlands of Central Sumatra, Middle Permian is exposed at several localities. Guguk Bulat is a small limestone hill 3.5 km to the northwest of Singkarak Lake. The limestone is bedded and about 150 m thick. It is very rich in diverse fossils: algae, foraminifera, corals, sponges, gastropods, and brachiopods. After some remarks in older publications, it was the subject of an important study (Lange, 1925). Almost one hundred fossil species were described. Recently, it has been visited again (Fontaine, 1982; 1983; Fontaine and Gafoer, 1989). Corals are diverse and in abundance. They include taxa common on the Southeast Asian mainland, such as Ipciphyllum and Multimurinus. The limestone of Guguk Bulat is Late Murgabian to Early Midian in age. Southeast of Guguk Bulat near Silung-

kang, 16 km east of Solok, the Middle Permian is well exposed. It is composed of limestone, massive or bedded, overlain by shale containing brachiopods. The limestone is not very fossiliferous. In the northern part of Central Sumatra, north of Lubuksikaping in the Muarasipongi area, a few fusulinaceans, corals and bryozoans have been observed. They indicate a Middle Permian age. In northern Sumatra, the Permian is not widespread. It has not been actively studied. Middle Permian (Situtup Limestone) is known 40 km northwest of Takengon, a town on the western side of Tawar Lake. In Laubuluh area, few fossils have been found. In addition, a formation (Bohorok Formation) similar to the Singa Formation of Malaysia has been recognized. The Upper Permian has not yet been identi®ed in Sumatra. 10.2. Belitung The Permian occurs in the basement rocks of Belitung, a small island to the east of Sumatra. It consists of shale, sandstone and chert. It has yielded a few fossils belonging to Lower Permian (Archbold, 1983). 10.3. Island of Timor Timor has a complicated geology. However, the sedimentary sequences are relatively easy to correlate from the west to the east. Bird and Cook (1991), working in West Timor, even adopted the formation names de®ned in East Timor. The oldest sedimentary rocks encountered to date are of Permian in age. They consist of shale, siltstone, sandstone and, locally, limestone and marl. They correspond almost to the whole of the Permian. The limestones have been characterized by the abundance of a certain group of fossils and may be called, for instance, `cephalopod limestone' or `crinoid limestone'. Although the Permian of Timor is characterized by an abundance of fossils, it is different from other parts of Southeast Asia. Fusulinaceans display a low diversity. They have not attracted paleontologists and only four

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short papers have been published. The ®rst paper mentioned only 10 species after the study of important material from 17 collections of samples. Fusulinaceans have not been used for dating. Cephalopods, occurring in abundance in shale and limestone at many localities, have been preferred. Many corals have been collected and the literature concerning them is impressive (Gerth, 1921; 1926; Koker, 1924; Heritsch, 1937; Wang, 1947; Hehenwarter, 1951; SchouppeÂe and Stacul, 1955; 1959; Fedorowski, 1974; 1986). The coral fauna is actually poor; it consists mainly of solitary Rugosa without dissepiments and of some Tabulata. Other corals are very rare massive Rugosa. Genera such as Ipciphyllum and Pseudohuangia, which are common in Central Thailand, Laos or Cambodia, have never been reported from Timor. In his study of Eastern Timor, Audley-Charles (1968, p. 43±44) described limestones of the Maubisse Formation as ªexceptionally rich in reef faunas and debrisº. Fusulinaceans are not given in the list of these faunas, although a following paragraph gives a few names of fusulinaceans taken from the earlier study of Nogami (1963). Ten coral species are mentioned; they are only solitary corals without dissepiments. The diversity of the coral fauna is very low compared with the faunas of Central Thailand. Fusulinaceans and corals are especially mentioned in this paper because they are immediate indicators of the climate. Other fossils must not be forgotten: bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods, echinoderms, trilobites and, in particular, brachiopods; see the bibliography of Skwarko and Yusuf (1982) and a recent paper of Archbold and Barkham (1989) on brachiopods. 10.4. Irian Jaya Irian Jaya is far away from the Southeast Asia mainland and has been considered to be the northeastern part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. Here the Permian shows more af®nities with the Permian of Australia. Although it is locally rich in fossils, it does not contain fusulinaceans, fasciculate or massive corals (Rugosa) for certainty. Brachiopods are common fossils. They were reported for the ®rst time as early as 1911. Since then, they have been mentioned in several papers and, since the paper of Archbold (1981), they have been more actively studied. They are `remarkably similar to those from the Ratburi Limestone of Thailand' and suggest a geographical proximity of Thailand and Irian Jaya during the Permian (Archbold et al., 1982; we must understand that the authors do not refer to whole Thailand, but only Peninsular Thailand). These faunas have also some links with brachiopods of Western Australia and Timor (Archbold et al., 1982). Plant fossils from Irian Jaya belong largely to the Gondwana Flora and include Glossopteris and Gangamopteris. The Permian extends to the east, from Irian Jaya to Papua New Guinea, where limestone containing smaller foramini-

Fig. 5. Western part of the Philippines. Permian exposures do not occur in the other parts of the Philippines.

fera has been known since 1950, and to the west, maybe to Misool Island where unfossiliferous rock has been found under the well-dated Mesozoic (Middle?± Upper Triassic to Cretaceous). 11. Philippines The Permian is known only in the western part of the Philippines (Fig. 5). Before 1980, it had been found in three areas. At the southwestern part of Carabao Island, a small island between Tablas and Panay Islands, a limestone hill contains Middle Permian fusulinaceans, which were observed for the ®rst time by Andal (1966). In the southern part of Mindoro, fusulinaceans were reported from limestone pebbles belonging to a conglomerate younger than Permian. In northwestern Palawan, limestone containing fusulinaceans was found at Bacuit Bay and in small neighbouring islands (Minilog, Matinloc and Dilumacad); it was called the Minilog Formation and was assigned to a Middle Permian age (Hashimoto and Sato, 1973). In the 1980s, Permian limestone was found at small islands of the Calamian Archipelago south of Tara Island; at Malemeglemeg and Botulan Islands, algae and foraminifera were recovered and indicated an Upper Guadalupian age. At Getche Island near Botulan Island, limestone is almost barren of fossils; it might belong to Permian or Early Triassic. In addition to that, new information was provided on Carabao Island (Fontaine, 1986c). In conclusion, only Middle Permian has been recorded from the Philippines.

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12. Some Permian problems 12.1. Deep marine sediments In the past, studies of the Permian sedimentary rocks were commonly restricted to shallow marine and continental facies containing diverse and large fossils. Cherts and other siliceous sediments, poor in large fossils, were commonly ignored. They are locally associated with bodies of serpentinised ma®c and ultrama®c rocks and are commonly thought to be of deep-sea origin. In the past, they were regarded mostly as of Lower to Middle Paleozoic in age. During the last 15 years, they have been actively studied because they provide interesting information on terrane con®guration and the tectonic development of Southeast Asia. They allow the recognition of sites of former oceans or oceanic branches and to establish the duration of oceanic conditions. Research has been focused on radiolarians of a few areas of Thailand. Devonian to Triassic radiolarians have been identi®ed in the Chiang Mai±Fang area. Lower and Upper Permian radiolarians have been found in the Nan area. In the Pak Chom area of Loei Province, radiolarians appear to be only of an Upper Devonian to Lower Carboniferous age. Middle Permian to Triassic radiolarians have been recovered from the Sa Kaeo±Trat area (Caridroit et al., 1992; Caridroit, 1993; Sashida et al., 1993; 1997; 1998; Sashida and Igo, 1992; 1999). Other areas remain to be studied, for instance the Nakhon Sawan area in Central Thailand (Khao Gob Cherts of Bunopas, 1981). In Peninsular Malaysia, Devonian to Permian radiolarians have been observed in cherts of the Bentong±Raub suture zone. Lower±Middle Permian radiolarians have been recovered in Pos Mering area in southwest Kelantan. Middle Permian to Triassic radiolarians occurs in the Semanggol Formation (Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995a,b; Sashida et al., 1995). According to their different stratigraphical ranges, the cherts were probably not deposited in the same ocean, but in a main ocean and smaller temporary branches. 12.2. Permian±Triassic and Carboniferous±Permian boundaries In the past, the Permian boundaries were said to correspond, in many places, to unconformities, or at least, to breaks in sedimentation. They are presently better known in many areas. In Vietnam (Bac Bo), marine sedimentation is commonly continuous from Upper Permian to Lower Triassic. In Vietnam (Nam Bo), the sequence has been recorded in a single area, along the Saigon River (Nguyen, 1982). In Cambodia, the recent discovery of Palaeofusulina in the eastern part of the country (Nguyen, 1979) suggests that a similar sequence may be present. In Thailand, marine sediments ranging from Upper Permian to Lower Triassic have been found in the

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northern (Sakagami and Hatta, 1982; Ishibashi and Chonglakmani, 1990; Ishibashi et al., 1994) and eastern (Fontaine et al., 1999) parts of the country. In central Peninsular Malaysia (Kelantan and Pahang), Upper Permian and Triassic appear to be in continuity in southern Kelantan (Aw et al., 1977), at Sungai Kenong and in the Merapoh area in northern Pahang (Fontaine et al., 1994a, b). In Northwest Peninsular Malaysia (Perlis), the boundary between Permian and Triassic seems to be conformable, and to lie within dolomitic limestone. In the Southern Shan and Kayah States of Myanmar, Anisian ammonites and conodonts have been found in the top of the Upper Plateau Limestone. A new stratigraphical unit, the Kondeik Limestone, has been introduced. Furthermore, dolomitic limestone, the Thigaungdaung Limestone, has been recognized as being enclosed between the Kondeik Limestone and limestone with Permian fusulinaceans. The Thigaungdaung Limestone locally contains a few Triassic foraminifera; it has been assigned to the Triassic, and possibly in part, to the Permian (Gramann et al., 1972). In Cambodia and South Vietnam (Nam Bo), the Carboniferous is paleontologically unknown. It has been identi®ed only at the Pirates Archipelago (Hai Tac Islands), where limestone pebbles of a conglomerate contain Serpukhovian foraminifera. In Sumatra, Lower Carboniferous marine sediments are certainly present, but there is no precise information on Middle±Upper Carboniferous beds. The Bohorok Formation of North Sumatra with pebbly mudstones is correlated with similar formations of Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand. In other areas of Southeast Asia, continuous marine sedimentation has been recorded from Carboniferous to Permian, for instance in North Vietnam (West, North and littoral Bac Bo) and Central Vietnam or Trung Bo (North of Dong Hoi). In Laos, Lower and Middle Carboniferous are well known; the Upper Carboniferous has not actually been proved by paleontological evidence, but appears to occur. In Northeast Thailand, there is a continuous transition from Carboniferous to Permian, currently being studied by T. Charoentitirat. In Central Thailand in the Chon Daen area and east of Lam Narai, there is apparently no gap between the Carboniferous and Permian; Gshelian and Asselian have been recognized in the Khao Somphot area. In eastern Peninsular Malaysia, Carboniferous sediments are common, but the transition to Permian is poorly known. Kasimovian, Gshelian and Asselian have not been identi®ed to date. In Sarawak, the boundary between Carboniferous and Permian is within the Terbat Limestone. 12.3. Sea level changes/tectonic movements In Southeast Asia, the Phong Saly area of northern Laos is apparently an exception in displaying a complete Permian sequence, consisting only of continental beds. Elsewhere, the Permian is not so homogeneous. In Laos (Luang Prabang area), Thailand (Loei area) and Malaysia (Jengka Pass, Linggiu areas), continental

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sediments with plants and locally coal seams were deposited above shallow marine units at the end of Middle Permian and during Upper Permian. A small decrease in sea level, local and maybe due to tectonic movements, was suf®cient to result in a great lateral displacement of the shoreline, because the shelf was shallow before this event. In North Vietnam (Bac Bo), a disconformity/unconformity is characteristic of the base of the Upper Permian (Lopingian). It is marked by the occurrence of bauxite and clastic beds with plants and thin coal lenses. The Permian limestones of Battambang-Sisophon area display a red discontinuous interbed, rich in bauxite and containing from 50 to 60% of Al2O3 (Saurin, 1963). Near Sisophon, this red bed is up to 1.5 m thick; it is located between limestone with Sumatrina and limestone with Lepidolina, and is older than the bauxite of North Vietnam. In other areas of Cambodia, traces of desiccation and limited emergence have been observed (Nguyen, 1979). The marine environment disappeared early in Northeast Thailand, apparently during the Murgabian. The Nam Duk basin is an exception. The top of Khao Tham Yai limestone contains Lepidolina, indicating a Late Midian age (Fontaine and Salyapongse, 2001). The occurrence of Lepidolina is unique, thus far, for Northeast Thailand, and even Central Thailand where the highest marine beds belong to the Colania zone, of Lower Midian age. In Amphoe Phra Phutthabat of Central Thailand, 19 km north of Saraburi, a bed of argillaceous siltstone, 30 to 60 cm thick, is interbedded in limestone and contains fossil plants in abundance. It is immediately overlain by limestone with the fusulinaceans Neoschwagerina, Afghanella, Verbeekina and others (Ingavat and Campbell, 1972). At the end of Lower Permian, ammonoids turn out to be relatively common. They have been found in abundance at localities of Central Thailand (Amphoe Muak Lek and Amphoe Phra Phuttabat). They show af®nities with faunas from Pamir (Glenister et al., 1990; Ishibashi et al., 1997; Zhou and Liengjarern, 1997). Is this occurrence due to a rise in sea level? At Khao Somphot, a limestone hill in Central Thailand, a dolomitic horizon occurs above beds containing Pseudoschwagerina, an Asselian±Sakmarian fusulinacean. The Lower Permian is so far unknown in Cambodia. In Sumatra, it is marine with continental in¯uence. During the Permian, Peninsular Thailand and northwest Peninsular Malaysia (Shan±Thai or Sibumasu Block) differ in the way their sedimentary sequences developed. These sequences are clearly divided into: (1) clastic sediments at the base of the Permian, (2) prominent limestone ranging from the top of Lower Permian to the end of Middle Permian, and even locally, to Wuchiapingian, (3) dolomite irregularly present at the top of the Permian. 12.4. Pebbly mudstones: a glacial marine deposit (?) Pebbly mudstones have been the subject of detailed

studies in Peninsular Thailand and northwest Peninsular Malaysia, since 1978. They extend to eastern Myanmar and probably to northern Sumatra. They characterize the Shan-Thai (or Sibumasu) Block. They are poorly sorted clastic sediments containing pebbles and even blocks in a ®ne-grained matrix. Some studies have favored a glacial marine origin for these sediments. The larger clasts have been considered dropstones rafted by marine ice (Stauffer and Mantajit, 1981; Tantiwanit et al., 1983; Stauffer and Lee, 1986; Waterhouse, 1987). In contrast with this opinion, other authors have interpreted the pebbly mudstones as sediments deposited on a submarine slope with slumping and mixing of sediments of different sizes (Mitchell et al., 1970; Altermann, 1986; Dickins, 1992). Paleontological peculiarities are added to the strangeness of the sediments. The pebbly mudstones contain a cool-water brachiopod fauna in southern Thailand (Waterhouse, 1982), but not typical cold-water Gondwanan elements such as Eurydesma, Atomodesma and others (Dickins, 1985; 1992; Fang, 1994). Because of the absence of this actual cold-water fauna in the Lower Permian, it seems dif®cult to accept that the Shan-Thai Block was still part of Gondwana during the Early Permian. For brachiopod faunas, the changes in marine provinciality during the Permian is considered a consequence of rifting away from Gondwana and drifting towards Indochina and South China Blocks, or alternatively, a consequence of migration of climatic zones (Shi and Archbold, 1995). In the Ratburi and Chuping Limestones overlying the pebbly mudstones, fusulinaceans play a subordinate role, much less important than in central Thailand (Fontaine et al., 1994a, b; Ueno et al., 1996). Peculiar foraminifera (Shanita, Rectostipulina, Eopolydiexodina) have been found in Peninsular Thailand (see above). Corals are not proli®c and not diverse; they are different from those known to the east in central Thailand, Cambodia and Laos (Fontaine et al., 1994a, b). In addition to that, the corals from the base of the Ratburi Limestone display growth bands, whereas the corals at the top of the limestone are devoid of bands (Fontaine and Jungyusuk, 1997). The presence of growth bands appears to indicate a seasonal climate with cold and warm seasons. The absence of growth bands suggests regular growth in a continuously warm climate. Brachiopod faunas indicate also a progressive warming during the Permian. According to the palaeontological results, it appears that the climate was at least cool at the beginning of the Permian (Waterhouse, 1982) and progressively became warm during the rest of the Permian (Shi and Archbold, 1995; Fontaine and Jungyusuk, 1997). Even if there is some disagreement on a glacial marine event, one must accept, at least, that Peninsular Thailand and Northwest Peninsular Malaysia are peculiar from a paleobiogeographical point of view.

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12.5. Shrinking Permian limestone Fusulinaceans are easily recognized and Permian limestones were rapidly recorded during geological mapping surveys. Other limestones without fusulinaceans and poor in fossils were assigned to the Permian because they were exposed near Permian limestones, and were very similar to these limestones; they were considered another facies of the Permian. This assumption has been common in Southeast Asia on land, and, offshore in boreholes (Fontaine et al., 1990 and unpublished data) and on islands (Fontaine et al., 1993). De Coo and Smit (1975) showed that Triassic limestone is widely represented in Kodiang area in northwest Peninsular Malaysia, and a Triassic age was con®rmed by a study of foraminifera (Gazdzicki and Smit, 1977). Later on, Triassic fossils were found at several localities in the Ratburi Limestone of Peninsular Thailand and the Chuping Limestone of northwest Peninsular Malaysia. They have been collected also from other limestone localities in eastern Peninsular Malaysia, in Thailand (northern, central and eastern parts of the country), and in southernmost Vietnam in an island of the Hatien area. 12.6. Severe biotic crisis of the end of the Permian This extinction event is easily recognized at several localities in Southeast Asia, even by people not specializing in paleontology. Detailed information is not given in this paper, only spectacular facts are mentioned: (1) Large fusulinaceans, easily visible with the naked eye, disappeared abruptly at the end of the Midian. Before disappearing, Lepidolina was already affected and displayed strange forms of growth, indicating a tenacious response to adverse conditions; (2) massive Rugosa also disappeared at the end of the Midian; (3) other fusulinaceans and corals disappeared at the end of Changhsingian. Trilobites are not in abundance at many Permian outcrops; their disappearance is not immediately obvious. Acknowledgements The author is very grateful to the reviewers of this publication and is indebted particularly to Dr A.J. Barber for his helpful suggestions. References Abdullah Sani, B.H.H., 1985. Discovery of an ammonoid (Agathiceras) and crinoid stems in the Kenny Hill Formation of Peninsular Malaysia, and its signi®cance. Warta Geologi 11 (5), 205±212. Altermann, W., 1986. The Upper Paleozoic pebbly mudstones of Peninsular Thailand and western Malaysia: continental margin deposits of Paleoeurasia. Geologische Rundshau 75 (2), 317±381. Andal, P.P., 1966. A report on the discovery of fusulinids. The Philippine Geologist 20 (1), 14±22. Archbold, N.W., 1981. Permian brachiopods from Western Irian Jaya,

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