Physical oceanography in Scandinavia

Physical Oceanography in Scandinavia O c e a n o g r a p h y h a s old t r a d i t i o n s in the S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s a s a n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e of the s e a - f a r i n g and f i s h e r y i n t e r e s t s of t h e s e c o u n t r i e s . Since m o d e r n o c e a n o g r a p h i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b e g a n in the l a s t d e c a d e s of the 19th c e n t u r y , S c a n d i n a v i a h a s taken a continued i n t e r e s t in t h i s s c i e n c e . In the following, s o m e i n f o r m a t i o n is given on r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s in o c e a n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h in the individual S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s .

DENMARK T h e D a n i s h I n s t i t u t e f o r F i s h e r y and Sea R e s e a r c h , l o c a t e d at the C h a r l o t t e n l u n d C a s t l e , u n d e r t a k e s o c e a n o g r a p h i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s in i n n e r D a n i s h w a t e r s , in the N o r t h Sea, and in the n o r t h e r n N o r t h Atlantic (with s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s on the w a t e r s n e a r the F a r o e I s l a n d s and G r e e n l a n d } T h e r e s e a r c h v e s s e l s a r e " D a n a " and "Adolf J e n s e n " . T h e l a t t e r is a m i n o r boat f o r G r e e n l a n d ' s coastal waters. T h e D a n i s h M e t e o r o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e (in C h a r l o t t e n l u n d , n e a r Copenhagen) c o l l e c t s r o u t i n e o c e a n o g r a p h i c data f r o m c o a s t a l s t a t i o n s and light v e s s e l s in D a n i s h w a t e r s , and s u r f a c e - w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s f r o m c o m m e r c i a l v e s s e l s plying the n o r t h e r n N o r t h Atlantic. F u r t h e r m o r e , inf o r m a t i o n on ice in G r e e n l a n d w a t e r s is c o l l e c t e d and p u b l i s h e d r e g u l a r l y . A l s o in C h a r l o t t e n l u n d is the S t a n d a r d Sea W a t e r S e r v i c e , developed at the b e g i n n i n g of the c e n t u r y b y M a r t i n K n u d s e n and now w o r k i n g u n d e r the a u s p i c e s of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n of P h y s i c a l O c e a n o g r a p h y . It p r e p a r e s S t a n d a r d Sea W a t e r w h i c h is u s e d in l a b o r a t o r i e s all o v e r the w o r l d a s a s t a n d a r d f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the s a l i n i t y of s e a - w a t e r s a m p l e s . A few y e a r s ago, a c h a i r in p h y s i c a l o c e a n o g r a p h y w a s s e t up at the U n i v e r s i t y of Copenhagen. T h e h o l d e r of it, P r o f . D r . Nils J e r l o v , c a r r i e s on h i s w e l l - k n o w n r e s e a r c h on m a r i n e o p t i c s there. W a v e s , and h a r b o u r and b e a c h h y d r a u l i c s a r e s t u d i e d b y the L a b o r a t o r y f o r H a r b o u r Building.

FINLAND Oceanographic work is concentrated at the Institute of Marine Research (Merentutkimuslaitos) in Helsinki. It is directedby Prof. Dr. Ilmo Hela. The chief region of investigation is the Baltic. Objects of investigation are the general characteristics of the water and their fluctuations, which are mainly caused by the exchange of water through the Danish Sounds.Available for work at s e a is the i c e b r e a k e r " A r a n d a " , which s e r v e s a s a p a s s e n g e r boat d u r i n g s u m m e r t i m e . F u r t h e r m o r e , o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e c o l l e c t e d r e g u l a r l y f r o m s o m e light v e s s e l s and a g r e a t m a n y coastal stations. Much i n t e r e s t is s h o w n in m a r i n e c h e m i s t r y , and i m p o r t a n t l a b o r a t o r y w o r k h a s b e e n done on m e t h o d s f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the c o n s t i t u e n t s of s e a w a t e r . A s the n o r t h e r n p a r t of the Baltic is i c e - c o v e r e d f o r a g r e a t p a r t of the y e a r , it is only n a t u r a l that ice s t u d i e s have p l a y e d a g r e a t r o l e in the a c t i v i t i e s of the I n s t i t u t e of M a r i n e R e s e a r c h . F l u c t u a t i o n s of s e a level have a l s o b e e n i n t e n s e l y studied. M a r i n e geology is one of the r e s e a r c h s u b j e c t s of the G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ( G e o l o g i n e n T u t k i m u s laitos) in Otaniemi. ICELAND B e c a u s e of the o v e r w h e l m i n g l y i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n that f i s h i n g h a s a s s u m e d f o r the national e c o n o m y of I c e l a n d , o c e a n o g r a p h y m u s t , by n e c e s s i t y , c a r r y a high p r i o r i t y i n I c e l a n d i c s c i e n c e . In fact, m u c h o c e a n o g r a p h i c w o r k h a s b e e n done in r e c e n t y e a r s in the s e a s a r o u n d the i s l a n d u n d e r the d i r e c t i o n of D r . U n n s t e i n n S t e f d n s s o n , ( h e a d of the o c e a n o g r a p h i c s e c t i o n of the D e p a r t m e n t of F i s h e r i e s at the Reykjavik U n i v e r s i t y ' s R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e (Atvinnudeild H~lsk61ans, F i s k i d e i l d ) . A v a i l a b l e f o r t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e the r e s e a r c h v e s s e l "Mari~i J d l i a " and the patrol vessel "AEgir". A new and e x c i t i n g s u b j e c t f o r r e s e a r c h is the o c e a n o g r a p h i c c h a n g e c o n n e c t e d with the e m e r gence of the v o l c a n i c i s l a n d S u r t s e y , south of I c e l a n d . NORWAY F o r m a n y y e a r s B e r g e n h a s b e e n an i m p o r t a n t c e n t e r f o r r e s e a r c h in p h y s i c a l o c e a n o g r a p h y . N a m e s s u c h a s B. H e l l a n d - H a n s e n and H.U. S v e r d r u p w e r e c o n n e c t e d with the Geoph.ysical I n -

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s t i t u t e ( U n i v e r s i t y of B e r g e n ) , now headed by Prof. Dr. H. Mosby. Highly s i g n i f i c a n t work on, for i n s t a n c e , the i n t e r a c t i o n between s e a and a i r , on o c e a n o g r a p h i c i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , and on the o c e a n o g r a p h y of t h e N o r w e g i a n Sea in g e n e r a l i s being m a d e t h e r e . T h e i n s t i t u t e h a s the r e s e a r c h v e s s e l WT H e l l a n d - H a n s e n " at its d i s p o s a l . I m p o r t a n t work in p h y s i c a l o c e a n o g r a p h y , m a i n l y for the benefit of the f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y , h a s a l s o b e e n c a r r i e d out f r o m a n o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n of B e r g e n , viz. the o c e a n o g r a p h i c d e p a r t m e n t of the F i s h e r i e s D i r e c t o r a t e h e a d e d by Dr. J. Eggvin. T h e i n s t i t u t i o n c o m m a n d s a n u m b e r of r~s e a r c h v e s s e l s of which "G.O. S a r s ' , , " J o h a n H j o r t " , and "G.M. D a n n e v i g " should be mentioned. At the O c e a n o g r a p h i c I n s t i t u t e of the U n i v e r s i t y of Oslo, P r o f . Dr. J . E . F j e l d s t a d h a s c a r r i e d out p i o n e e r i n g t h e o r e t i c a l work, e s p e c i a l l y on i n t e r n a l w a v e s . T h e c h a i r is now held by Dr. O.H. S~elen. A l s o s i t u a t e d at Oslo is the Norwegian P o l a r I n s t i t u t e , w h e r e work on ice f o r e c a s t i n g , the o c e a n o g r a p h y of the A r c t i c Ocean, and the heat content of the ocean h a s been c a r r i e d out. O c e a n o g r a p h i c w o r k h a s , in r e c e n t y e a r s , been c a r r i e d out a l s o by the Norwegian D e f e n c e R e s e a r c h E s t a b l i s h m e n t . It c o m m a n d s the v e s s e l ' H . U . S v e r d r u p " which is d e s i g n e d for p h y s i c a l o c e a n o g r a p h y with p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to a c o u s t i c s . SWEDEN T h e d o m i n a t i n g o c e a n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h c e n t e r in Sweden i s the O c e a n o g r a p h i c I n s t i t u t e at GSteborg, e s t a b l i s h e d by the late P r o f . D r . H a n s P e t t e r s s o n and now d i r e c t e d by Prof. Dr. B. K u l l e n b e r g . E x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t work h a s b e e n c a r r i e d out on a v a r i e t y of s u b j e c t s : m a r i n e optics, r a d i o - c h e m i s t r y , and study of ocean s e d i m e n t s . B a s i s of the l a t t e r w a s the c o n s t r u c t i o n o.f the f a m o u s K u l l e n b e r g c o r e r . I m p o r t a n t o c e a n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h , m a i n l y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the Baltic and the Skagerak, is a l s o going on at the F i s h e r i e s B o a r d of Sweden(GSteborg). T h i s i n s t i t u t e h a s at its d i s p o s a l the r e s e a r c h v e s s e l s " S k a g e r a k " and " T h e t i s " , the f i r s t of which is a l s o u s e d b y the O c e a n o g r a p h i c Institute. T h e r o u t i n e o c e a n o g r a p h i c o b s e r v a t i o n s f r o m Swedish light s h i p s a r e c a r r i e d out u n der the a u s p i c e s of the F i s h e r i e s Board. T h e o r e t i c a l work on the d y n a m i c s of the ocean (and the a t m o s p h e r e ) is c a r r i e d out at the In-

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t e r n a t i o n a l M e t e o r o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e in S t o c k h o l m w h i c h w a s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e l a t e P r o f . D r . C.G. R o s s b y a n d i s now d i r e c t e d by P r o f . D r . B. Bolin. INTER-SCANDINAVIAN COLLABORATIONIN OCEANOGRAPHY T h e S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s w e r e a m o n g t h e f i r s t to r e a l i z e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s of o c e a n o g r a p h y a n d f i s h biology h a d to be s t u d i e d on a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a s i s . T h u s , t h e y took t h e i n i t i a t i v e in t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in 1902 of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c i l f o r the E x p l o r a t i o n of t h e Sea, t h e o l d e s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l o c e a n o g r a p h i c o r g a n i z a t i o n in t h e w o r l d . T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h i s s t i l l a c t i v e in o c e a n o g r a p h y a n d f i s h b i o l o g y , h a s , f r o m t h e s t a r t , had i t s c e n t r a l office in C o p e n h a g e n . A m o n g t h e f o u n d e r s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c i l w e r e s u c h o c e a n o g r a p h e r s a s M a r t i n K n u d s e n ( D e n m a r k ) , F r i d t j o f N a n s e n ( N o r w a y ) a n d Otto P e t t e r s s o n (Sweden). T h e c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s in m a n y m a t t e r s , m e d i a t e d now m a i n l y by t h e N o r d i c C o u n c i l , w o u l d s e e m to m o t i v a t e a c l o s e r e g i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n a l s o in p h y s i c a l o c e a n o g r a p h y in t h e s a m e w a y a s h a s e x i s t e d f o r a n u m b e r of y e a r s in m a r i n e biology. A s a m a t t e r of fact, s u c h i d e a s a r e at p r e s e n t u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . P r e l i m i n a r y p l a n s c o m p r i s e a c e n t e r f o r m o d e r n o c e a n o g r a p h i c i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n in B e r g e n , t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s in S t o c k h o l m , a n d j o i n t e x p e d i t i o n s with G b t e b o r g a s a c e n t e r . J . SMED

Industrial Activities in the Earth Sciences in Scandinavia

T h e p r e s e n t i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s in t h e e a r t h s c i e n c e s in S c a n d i n a v i a a r e d e r i v e d f r o m , a n d a r e m a i n l y c o n n e c t e d with, m i n e r a l p r o s p e c t i n g , m i n i n g a n d e n g i n e e r i n g g e o l o g y . T h e r e c e n t , in m a n y a s p e c t s e x p l o s i v e , i n t e r e s t in t h e p r o s p e c t i n g f o r h y d r o c a r b o n s in t h e B a l t i c a n d on t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f , h a s , h o w e v e r , c a u s e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n - at l e a s t in a n e c o n o m i c s e n s e - of a c t i v i t y in t h e a p p l i e d e a r t h s c i e n c e s . W h e n s t u d y i n g t h e p r e s ent s i t u a t i o n it is of i m p o r t a n c e to r e v i e w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y of m i n i n g . In t h e p a s t c e n t u r y t h e g e n e r a l a n d v e r y i n t e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s a l s o m a d e i t s w a y in t h e m i n i n g i n d u s t r y , a n d m o d e r n s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g o p e n e d n e w p a t h s in t h e s o l i d b u t e m p i r i c a l k n o w l e d g e . In p r o s p e c t i n g a n d m i n i n g , t h e n o n - f e r r o u s m e t a l s c a l l e d for a greater diversification than the iron, which, however, dominated quantitatively and economic a l l y . T h e r e l a t e d s c i e n c e s w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d on m i n i n g g e o l o g y a n d one b r a n c h of g e o p h y s i c s magnetometry. T h e e c o n o m i c e v o l u t i o n of t h i s c e n t u r y , w i t h ' n e w d e m a n d s on m e t a l s , c a l l e d f o r p r o s p e c t i n g -and m i n i n g of l o w - g r a d e m i n e r a l s w h i c h , f r o m g e o p h y s i c a l a n d g e o l o g i c a l v i e w p o i n t s , w e r e l e s s s p e c t a c u l a r in c o m p a r i s o n with b a r r e n r o c k . T h e t e c h n i q u e s of p r o s p e c t i n g a s well a s t h e m i n i n g a n d p r o c e s s i n g of t h e m i n e r a l s n e e d e d a t h o r o u g h s c i e n t i f i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d r e s u l t e d in a d e v e l o p m e n t of new s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h e s , i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d m e t h o d s : T h e p r o s p e c t i n g for oil, on t h e c o n t r a r y , w a s until r e c e n t y e a r s l i m i t e d t o m i n o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s in D e n m a r k a n d to a l e s s e r e x t e n t in s o u t h e r n S w e d e n . T h e w o r k w a s c o n c e n t r a t e d at s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d f o r e i g n oil c o m p a n i e s . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of g e o p h y s i c a l m e t h o d s f o r oil p r o s p e c t i n g in t h e o i l - p r o d u c i n g f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s w a s r e f l e c t e d in s o p h i s t i c a t e d a p p l i c a t i o n s of g r a v i m e t r y a n d s e i s m o l o g y in S c a n d i n a v i a n o r e p r o p s p e c t i n g a n d e n g i n e e r i n g geology. It is not p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e a s t r i c t b o r d e r b e t w e e n t h e s c i e n t i f i c w o r k i n i n d u s t r y a n d t h e s a m e a c t i v i t y in official i n s t i t u t e s , m a i n l y f o r two r e a s o n s : (1) i n d u s t r i a l a n d a c a d e m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s v e r y often c o o p e r a t e in t h e e x c h a n g e of w o r k a n d i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d (2) p a r t i c u l a r l y in F i n l a n d a n d Sweden t h e s t a t e i s d i r e c t l y , o r t h r o u g h s t a t e - c o n t r o l l e d c o m p a n i e s , a c t i v e in p r o s p e c t i n g a n d m i n i n g , a n d , in a l i b e r a l w a y , u s e s o f f i c i a l i n s t i t u t e s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s a s t h e g e o l o g i c a l s u r v e y s to w o r k s p e c i f i c a l l y o r with p r i o r i t y f o r t h e s t a t e , s i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s . G E O L O G Y AND G E O C H E M I S T t { Y IN MINING Considerable work of detailed geological mapping is carried out in the metallogenetic provinces, not only with regard to ore deposits, but also for the general understanding of the ore genesis in relation to the geological history of the provinces. The same is true for geochemistry, with

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