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Piaget's theory of cognitive development may be useful in deciding what to teach and how to teach it
NuneEducarxv~ Tcday(1991) 11,65-69 0 Longman Group C‘K Ltd 1991
WORK Piaget’s theory of cognitive development may be useful in deciding what to teach and how to teach it John Orr
‘I‘he author
outlines the relevant aspects of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and argues that, far from being restricted to childhood development. the theory has relevance for adult learners. An attempt is made to demonstrate the importance of practice within the educational framework of the student who is learning to become a nurse. It is argued that emphasis should be placed upon the provision of environments which allow the student to practise the schemas which he already possesses in order to provide opportunities for the elaboration of these schemas. Piaget’s view that the existence of ‘schema is motivation in itself and the environment is important insofar as it should be geared to ‘match’ the classroom experiences of the student with the student’s ability to respond to them, is outlined; with the contention that the most important means of growth is through action and through operations that the student himself performs on the environment. The author concludes with a note of caution for curriculum planners in a Project 2000 scenario who may promote theory at the expense of practice.
assimuauon
INTRODUCTION - PIAGET’S THEORY OUTLINED Piaget
considers
development
adaptation
and defines
ation: assimilation
in
two aspects of adapt-
and accommodation.
adaptation
For the
he must learn to between assimi-
According
to Piaget,
that people interact
An individual
wnen
ne uses prevlouslv
displays
that
in
every
applied
without
properties particular
adaptation.
interaction,
are
characteristics
not
01 the varying
and a subsequent
modifies
schema of reaching
Piaget contends schemas
a recognition
of objects
ation. A schema
adapt-
itself acc,oI-ding to the of
the
for and grasping
object;
the
something
must accommodate to the distance of the object and to its size and weight. As a result, no two
.
apphcatlons John Orr MEd BA DASE RMN RGN DipN RCNT RNT Assistant Director of Nurse Education, Eastern Area College of Nursing, Southside, Purdysburn Hospital, Saintfield Road, (Requests for offprints to JO) Manuscript accepted 25 May 1990
learneci
to new stimuli.
When describing
a basic process
c-hild to survive in the world,
with their environment.
responses
of a schema.
however
simple,
are
exactly alike. Nevertheless, there is a basic similarity which gives the schema its organisation. permitting
its repetition
and consequent
growth.
If accommodation were to occur- without assimilation, or vice versa, either chaotic and fi?
66
NURSE EDUCATIOh’
disorganised,
TODAY
or rigid and unchanging
behav-
iour would result. The principle of equilibration involves recognition of the necessary balancing of
the
two
which
must
occur.
ensures that new additions lidated by the process equilibrium Primary
for example,
practice
addition
numbers
(assimilation)
digit
numbers
ample
Equilibration so that an
4
should
recognise
of allowing
on
different before
sets
suggests,
ex-
empha-
sises, the equilibrium resulting from the balance of these two processes is a dynamic one, in that it
features
of the situation
Conversely,
important
characteristic
insofar
as it forms
ence of a schemata
is motivation
presence
of
generates
the need to exercise
need
the basis for the
Piaget’s view is that the exist-
a schema,
to talk about
in itself. The
according
needs,
to
Piaget,
it, so there is no
drives,
or incentives
since he sees acquisition
of skills as necessarily
having
a
component.
sidered
by Piaget,
motivational
motivation
result of assimilation: to include
a greater
also motivating
As
con-
comes about as a
while a schema is growing variety of possibilities,
the individual
it is
to accommodate.
who would subscribe ways of functioning
Malcolm
Knowles
partly support
recognising children
that Piaget it could
(1986)
lates that ‘as individuals capacity
to be
experience
mature,
readiness
was referring that
to this
to utilise
to identify
to learn, and to organise
around
life problems,
infancy
to pre-adolescence,
increases
such
are taught
own
their learning steadily
from
As evidence
for his
cites the work of a number as Bruner
1961,
are
Erikson
of
1964,
1962, Bower and Hollister 1960 and White 1959.
of how many nurse learners
may lead one
adults
their
their
and then increases
rapidly during adolescence’.
young
their need and
self-directing,
in learning,
to at least
view when he specu-
1967, Iscoe and Stevenson
be argued
which change progresses.
appears
a Piagetian
An examination young
that
to Piaget’s theo-
in crucial ways as development
Getzels and Jackson
While
to the situation
is possible, and no accom-
is necessary.
claims Knowles
PRACTICE
is’.
may have schemas
ries would accept the belief that an individual has
authors
PEDAGOGICAL
In
situation may
from ‘where the learner
that are so adapted
Teachers
schemas
to accommodate.
the learner
only assimilation modation
from which
has well-developed
be far removed
b)
in a
might be so
from other situations
learner
prepares the subject for further dis-equilibrium -new learning, This element of Piaget’s theory is child’s motivation.
motivated
such a scenario the classroom
single
As this
and as Piaget
be poorly
for one of two reasons:
that these are unable
to
going on to two-
(accommodation).
further
of
the
the
a child
The
might
situation
different
is reached. school teachers
necessity,
A learner particular
to schemas are conso-
of assimilation,
tasks. In this way it is possible to use Piaget’s ideas to help understand poor motivation.
often
to think treated
that
these
like children
theory of Piaget’s goes to the roots of pedagogi-
because
cal
inappropriate child learning theories. Knowles argues that a pedagogical model is inappropriate for adults as it is based on assumptions that:
practice.
motivation
His
theory
states
basically
that
comes:
a) from the learner b) the environment experiences
only when this presents
closely enough
child’s ability to respond
matched
to the
to them.
Piaget’s theory of motivation may not account so well for differences in motivational level. However, although the term ‘poorly motivated’ is often used as if it were describing a general characteristic of an individual, it is almost always chosen
on the basis of particular
context
and
tutors
a) learners
use teaching
only
need
teachers teach b) the teacher’s concept of a dependant In arguing
methods
to
what
of the learner
the
is that
personality.
for an androgogical
adult learning
know
based on
model for use in
Knowles asserts that:
1) Adults both desire and enact a tendency toward self-directedness as they mature,
NURSE
though
they may be dependent
in certain
situations. learning.
are a rich resource
Adults
learn
more
for
effectively
are
the capacity
solving.
more
generated
by real life tasks or problems.
Adult education should
programmes,
be organised
tion’ categories IO learners’ .4dults
needs
around
and sequenced
readiness
according
are competency
based
learners
in
that they wish to apply newly acquired skills or knowledge stances.
to their immediate
Adults
are,
;mce-centred’
in
therefore, their
circum‘perform-
orientation
to
learning. Knowles declares
‘the psychological
definition
of adulthood
the point at which individuals sel\Tes to be essentially (Knowles, Stephen
perceive
is
them-
self directing.’
this tendency
with Knowles
to self-directedness
that
is not generally
transferred to educational settings by adults. He claims that the task of the facilitator of learning is. therefore. to create an educational programme and setting in which adult students can develop
their latent self-directed
learning
skills.
IHowever, he warns that there are ‘good
grounds
directedness review
of
for
.
cultures
throughout
self
. . and a
the
world
are rigid and
and that they place a primacy
subjugation
(Brookfield, it
that
rarity.
reveals that most social structures heirarchical
may
of
individual
on
options’.
argued
that
latent
self
tiirectedness is less likely to be allowed to prosper in a rigid traditional cultural setting. The nursing profession is often viewed in such a light. Gooch (1984) claims that
describing
her nurse
‘All my sessions are compulsory. afraid no one will turn up
other
Thy
programmes
toda!
self-directed
without
0 rt’
1984).
proper
learning
c-onsideration
given to the fact that man\ factors
militate
against
the
learner
nuI-se
ma\
becoming
self-directed. I have argued elsewhere that the ‘Ghosts of 1860’ still stalk our wal-ds with slavish to tradition
as the chief guide to prac-
tic-e, J Orr (1990).
It could also IX, argued
many
staff
educational
traditional,
are
almost exclusively
profession
towards
remains
rooted
didactic
practicea.
to expect
autonomv
perhaps.
in
yvoung
when theit
rooted in hereronom)~.
are to move forward
that
equally
if it is realistic
to move
If we
again, Piaget
mc’e
may be of value.
IMPORTANCE
OF PRACTICE
the
pace
of development.
emphasis
on
the
provision
which allow the learner which he already opportunities
training,
the schemas
and which provide and linking of’
is created.
for learning
Implied
he places
environments
Piaget.
will come from
within this statement
is the
notion that the teacher must create the optimum learning ‘set’ which is appropriate to the learner’s present level of cognitive development; no easy task. While Piaget asserts that the presenct of a ‘schema is motivation in itself’ and the environment
Tutors are my block
of
for the elaboration
these. If such an environment the learner.
Instead
to practice
possesses,
claims, the impetus
1986) be
and
Piaget’s theory sees little value in trying to force
maintaining
is an empirical
((k~och.
educational
programmes, being
The\.
to tackle role
discussion
our nreds’.
nurse
to newer.
techniques
stress the need to develop
adults
agrees
coffee
mrthods.
or confidence
learning
not merting
to adapt
teaching
semi-structured
One wonders
1980 ~~43-44)
Brookfield
imaginative
devotion
that
dull
Thev seem to underestimatr
lack the knowledge
Most
to learn.
Long,
by impromptu
of learners
experiential
‘life applica-
67
demanding.
broken
us are somnolent.
play,
therefore,
not
)N -I‘OI).~Y
breaks. extended lunches and finishing earl) when disappointed tutors admit that most of
through experiential techniques of education such as discussion or problem.4dults are aware of specific learning
Thus,
are
sessions
Adults’ experiences
the
timetables
EDt’(::\-I’I(
is only
important
insofar
as ir
should be geared to ‘match’ the experiences with the learner’s abilitv to respond to them. it
68
NURSE EDUCATION
appears
almost
TODAY
too obvious
to state
that
the
learner should be provided with an appropriate learning environment. Similarly in providing practice,
as stated in Piaget, one can identify
need for reinforcement, and for generous new connections.
in order
structure.
Piaget explains of operations
manently
that it is the systematic
mental
repeatedly
a
stresses
framework.
He
the importance
of
on
the
imperative
programmes centred,
patient.
which makes them a per-
learned
(Piaget)
set of operations;
learner
dependency
it seems
and aligned
schema which is systema-
tically linked with a broader
learner’s
Therefore cational
to ‘stamp’ in
Piaget defines the term ‘opera-
tion’ as an internalised
linkage
the
the
for the use of satisfiers,
practice
argue that the appropriate way would be to adopt a progressivist ideology which decreases
should
be progressively
must be relatively unstructured
to the needs of the student
Any androgogical
approach
must not be exclusively
or practical
by written
examinations. In order to facilitate ideology,
such
nursing education
a progressivist
would require
tions are to be removed,
educational
being
should aim for change;
to prepare
per-
be
of progress
reconstructionist
by the here-and-now
and the must
discussive, open plan and assessment
the existence of a ‘firm’ permanent set of cognitive structures for preventing an individual from overwhelmed
educator.
that new edu-
in outlook.
‘free’ society; be anti-elitist
If outmoded
to be tradi-
programme learners
and express
for a
everday
ceptions of a situation, and for allowing past experience to be brought to bear on a situation.
life. If Gooch and other students’ needs are to be
Piaget clearly
met then education
believes
that the most important
means of growth is through operations
that
environment. Peel (1976)
the
learner
action and through performs
on the
learner
must be made joyful.
must be facilitated
of education
through
to experience
a variety
The
the fun
of experiential
techniques. suggests
that for continuing
edu-
Place in an over-formal,
exclusively
cation learning should not ‘considerably outpace thinking, material and all subjects should be
orientated
starved of the practical experience
which serves
graded
as the raw material for his thinking.
If we restrict
larly
accordingly, the
period
keeping of
in mind
maximum
descriptive-repetition
particu-
growth
to imaginative
from
-
expla-
nation’. Peel also argues that in the education adolescents
the ultimate aim must be imaginative
thought
and experience
through
language
tion of established be linked
of
must be made articulate
and abstraction:
the applica-
ideas to new situations
with this process.
should
Peel contends
that
environment,
his experience, However,
the
teacher-
constructing
such
difficult
teacher.
reasoning
is the need
programmes
will be
we restrict his conceptualisation.
may be extremely experienced
learner
an environment
for even
Implied
the most
within
for ‘individual
for each learner.
this
learning
In large classes
such an ‘ideal’ may not be achieved. Piaget’s
developmental
emphasises
that a learner
model
of
thinking
must master the sche-
learning a subject requires competence in grasping a ‘multiplicity of affairs’ and to ensure
mata at the earlier levels if he is to go on to more
understanding
advanced
requires
teacher
sensitivity,
not
instructional rigidity. The lesson for teachers may be that the changing ‘quality’ of intelligence would support the notion of a ‘spiral curriculum’ where
it would
be possible
to return
to topic
areas with a greater conceptual repertoire more mature form of intellectual enquiry. David
Fontana
suggests
that
Piaget’s
and
work. This is not just a question
failing to master the patterns of thinking necessary for success in a wide range of educational endeavours. 2000 scenario
work
would indicate that the ‘scope enjoyed by teachers for accelerating learners progress may be greater than was at first thought, provided that material is presented to them in the appropriate way’. Mezirow (1981) would probably
of the
learner missing the groundwork in a particular subject, but the much more fundamental issue of
Curriculum be warned;
Planners
in a Project
generous
practice will
still be necessary in what is generally college based course.
viewed as a
Part of the argumentiveness shown by adolescents is often occasioned by the fact that abstract concepts such as ‘freedom’, ‘justice’, ‘truth, ‘altruism’ and so on now begin to take on a newer
NURSE EDUCATION
and deeper
meaning
theirjudging elders.
for them, and may lead to
and rejecting
New curricula
these concepts
role
of their
which are seen to foster
may thus bring conflict with older
members of the profession. new educational structures nish
the standards
conflict
There is a need for which seek to dimi-
in a Project
2000
training
arena. Piaget’s
theory
useful in deciding it. While
of cognitive
recognising
arguments
and
that
criticisms
findings will continue to teachers
development
is
what to teach and how to teach there of
are his
to be relevant
counterwork,
his
and helpful
and, while Piaget has been criticised
for his clinical
interview
may see this approach
method,
TODAY
69
Hill W R 1973 Leanring. University Paperback, USA Iscoe I, Stevenson W W 1960 Personality Development in Children’ University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas Knowles M 1984 The Adult Learner - A Neglected Species 3rd ed. Houston, Texas: London, Gulf Mezirow J 198 1 A critical theory of adult learning and education. In: Tight M ed 1983 Education for Adults. Adult Learning and Education Vol 1. Croom Helm. London Orr J 1990 Project 2000 V tradition. Nurse Education Today 10. 1: 58-62 Peel E A (quoted in) Piaget, psychology and education. Ved P, Williams V, Williams P. Eds. Hodder and Stoughton, London Phillips J L 1975 The Origins of Intellect, Piaget’s Theory. Freeman, Oxford White R H 1959 Motivation reconsidered. The concept of competence. Psychological Review 66: 297-333.
the teacher
as being helpful insofar as
it provides flexibility and is one method by which useful assessment remedv
can occur, diagnosis made and
effected.
References Bower E M, Hollister W G eds. 1967 Behavioural Science Frontiers in Education. Wiley, New York Brookfield S D 1986 Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. Open University Press, Milton Keynes Bruner J S 1961 The acr of discovery. Harvard Educational Review 3 1 pp2 l-32 E.rikson E H 1964 Insight and Responsibility. Norton, New York Montana D 1981 Psychology for Teachers. Macmillan, London (Getzels ,J W, Jackson P W 1962 Creativity and Intelhgence. Wiley, New York (hooch S 1984 No apples for teacher. Senior Nurse 1, 11: 8
APPENDIX
1
Summary of factors worthy implication for teaching 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
of consideration
in the
Set, expectancy readiness. Learning by activity. Using experience. Limit amount to be memorised. Generous practice. Measuring progress - against own previous performance. Use of realistic and relevant material. Pace of learning. Role of motivation in learning. Preventing and recognising mistakes. Necessity for systematic teaching. Learn to attain something. Recoanition of different tvpes of learning. Time-pressure - effects oi: Use of written instructions. Use of satisfiers. Praise. need reduction.
WORK Piaget’s theory of cognitive development may be useful in deciding what to teach and how to teach it John Orr
‘I‘he author
outlines the relevant aspects of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and argues that, far from being restricted to childhood development. the theory has relevance for adult learners. An attempt is made to demonstrate the importance of practice within the educational framework of the student who is learning to become a nurse. It is argued that emphasis should be placed upon the provision of environments which allow the student to practise the schemas which he already possesses in order to provide opportunities for the elaboration of these schemas. Piaget’s view that the existence of ‘schema is motivation in itself and the environment is important insofar as it should be geared to ‘match’ the classroom experiences of the student with the student’s ability to respond to them, is outlined; with the contention that the most important means of growth is through action and through operations that the student himself performs on the environment. The author concludes with a note of caution for curriculum planners in a Project 2000 scenario who may promote theory at the expense of practice.
assimuauon
INTRODUCTION - PIAGET’S THEORY OUTLINED Piaget
considers
development
adaptation
and defines
ation: assimilation
in
two aspects of adapt-
and accommodation.
adaptation
For the
he must learn to between assimi-
According
to Piaget,
that people interact
An individual
wnen
ne uses prevlouslv
displays
that
in
every
applied
without
properties particular
adaptation.
interaction,
are
characteristics
not
01 the varying
and a subsequent
modifies
schema of reaching
Piaget contends schemas
a recognition
of objects
ation. A schema
adapt-
itself acc,oI-ding to the of
the
for and grasping
object;
the
something
must accommodate to the distance of the object and to its size and weight. As a result, no two
.
apphcatlons John Orr MEd BA DASE RMN RGN DipN RCNT RNT Assistant Director of Nurse Education, Eastern Area College of Nursing, Southside, Purdysburn Hospital, Saintfield Road, (Requests for offprints to JO) Manuscript accepted 25 May 1990
learneci
to new stimuli.
When describing
a basic process
c-hild to survive in the world,
with their environment.
responses
of a schema.
however
simple,
are
exactly alike. Nevertheless, there is a basic similarity which gives the schema its organisation. permitting
its repetition
and consequent
growth.
If accommodation were to occur- without assimilation, or vice versa, either chaotic and fi?
66
NURSE EDUCATIOh’
disorganised,
TODAY
or rigid and unchanging
behav-
iour would result. The principle of equilibration involves recognition of the necessary balancing of
the
two
which
must
occur.
ensures that new additions lidated by the process equilibrium Primary
for example,
practice
addition
numbers
(assimilation)
digit
numbers
ample
Equilibration so that an
4
should
recognise
of allowing
on
different before
sets
suggests,
ex-
empha-
sises, the equilibrium resulting from the balance of these two processes is a dynamic one, in that it
features
of the situation
Conversely,
important
characteristic
insofar
as it forms
ence of a schemata
is motivation
presence
of
generates
the need to exercise
need
the basis for the
Piaget’s view is that the exist-
a schema,
to talk about
in itself. The
according
needs,
to
Piaget,
it, so there is no
drives,
or incentives
since he sees acquisition
of skills as necessarily
having
a
component.
sidered
by Piaget,
motivational
motivation
result of assimilation: to include
a greater
also motivating
As
con-
comes about as a
while a schema is growing variety of possibilities,
the individual
it is
to accommodate.
who would subscribe ways of functioning
Malcolm
Knowles
partly support
recognising children
that Piaget it could
(1986)
lates that ‘as individuals capacity
to be
experience
mature,
readiness
was referring that
to this
to utilise
to identify
to learn, and to organise
around
life problems,
infancy
to pre-adolescence,
increases
such
are taught
own
their learning steadily
from
As evidence
for his
cites the work of a number as Bruner
1961,
are
Erikson
of
1964,
1962, Bower and Hollister 1960 and White 1959.
of how many nurse learners
may lead one
adults
their
their
and then increases
rapidly during adolescence’.
young
their need and
self-directing,
in learning,
to at least
view when he specu-
1967, Iscoe and Stevenson
be argued
which change progresses.
appears
a Piagetian
An examination young
that
to Piaget’s theo-
in crucial ways as development
Getzels and Jackson
While
to the situation
is possible, and no accom-
is necessary.
claims Knowles
PRACTICE
is’.
may have schemas
ries would accept the belief that an individual has
authors
PEDAGOGICAL
In
situation may
from ‘where the learner
that are so adapted
Teachers
schemas
to accommodate.
the learner
only assimilation modation
from which
has well-developed
be far removed
b)
in a
might be so
from other situations
learner
prepares the subject for further dis-equilibrium -new learning, This element of Piaget’s theory is child’s motivation.
motivated
such a scenario the classroom
single
As this
and as Piaget
be poorly
for one of two reasons:
that these are unable
to
going on to two-
(accommodation).
further
of
the
the
a child
The
might
situation
different
is reached. school teachers
necessity,
A learner particular
to schemas are conso-
of assimilation,
tasks. In this way it is possible to use Piaget’s ideas to help understand poor motivation.
often
to think treated
that
these
like children
theory of Piaget’s goes to the roots of pedagogi-
because
cal
inappropriate child learning theories. Knowles argues that a pedagogical model is inappropriate for adults as it is based on assumptions that:
practice.
motivation
His
theory
states
basically
that
comes:
a) from the learner b) the environment experiences
only when this presents
closely enough
child’s ability to respond
matched
to the
to them.
Piaget’s theory of motivation may not account so well for differences in motivational level. However, although the term ‘poorly motivated’ is often used as if it were describing a general characteristic of an individual, it is almost always chosen
on the basis of particular
context
and
tutors
a) learners
use teaching
only
need
teachers teach b) the teacher’s concept of a dependant In arguing
methods
to
what
of the learner
the
is that
personality.
for an androgogical
adult learning
know
based on
model for use in
Knowles asserts that:
1) Adults both desire and enact a tendency toward self-directedness as they mature,
NURSE
though
they may be dependent
in certain
situations. learning.
are a rich resource
Adults
learn
more
for
effectively
are
the capacity
solving.
more
generated
by real life tasks or problems.
Adult education should
programmes,
be organised
tion’ categories IO learners’ .4dults
needs
around
and sequenced
readiness
according
are competency
based
learners
in
that they wish to apply newly acquired skills or knowledge stances.
to their immediate
Adults
are,
;mce-centred’
in
therefore, their
circum‘perform-
orientation
to
learning. Knowles declares
‘the psychological
definition
of adulthood
the point at which individuals sel\Tes to be essentially (Knowles, Stephen
perceive
is
them-
self directing.’
this tendency
with Knowles
to self-directedness
that
is not generally
transferred to educational settings by adults. He claims that the task of the facilitator of learning is. therefore. to create an educational programme and setting in which adult students can develop
their latent self-directed
learning
skills.
IHowever, he warns that there are ‘good
grounds
directedness review
of
for
.
cultures
throughout
self
. . and a
the
world
are rigid and
and that they place a primacy
subjugation
(Brookfield, it
that
rarity.
reveals that most social structures heirarchical
may
of
individual
on
options’.
argued
that
latent
self
tiirectedness is less likely to be allowed to prosper in a rigid traditional cultural setting. The nursing profession is often viewed in such a light. Gooch (1984) claims that
describing
her nurse
‘All my sessions are compulsory. afraid no one will turn up
other
Thy
programmes
toda!
self-directed
without
0 rt’
1984).
proper
learning
c-onsideration
given to the fact that man\ factors
militate
against
the
learner
nuI-se
ma\
becoming
self-directed. I have argued elsewhere that the ‘Ghosts of 1860’ still stalk our wal-ds with slavish to tradition
as the chief guide to prac-
tic-e, J Orr (1990).
It could also IX, argued
many
staff
educational
traditional,
are
almost exclusively
profession
towards
remains
rooted
didactic
practicea.
to expect
autonomv
perhaps.
in
yvoung
when theit
rooted in hereronom)~.
are to move forward
that
equally
if it is realistic
to move
If we
again, Piaget
mc’e
may be of value.
IMPORTANCE
OF PRACTICE
the
pace
of development.
emphasis
on
the
provision
which allow the learner which he already opportunities
training,
the schemas
and which provide and linking of’
is created.
for learning
Implied
he places
environments
Piaget.
will come from
within this statement
is the
notion that the teacher must create the optimum learning ‘set’ which is appropriate to the learner’s present level of cognitive development; no easy task. While Piaget asserts that the presenct of a ‘schema is motivation in itself’ and the environment
Tutors are my block
of
for the elaboration
these. If such an environment the learner.
Instead
to practice
possesses,
claims, the impetus
1986) be
and
Piaget’s theory sees little value in trying to force
maintaining
is an empirical
((k~och.
educational
programmes, being
The\.
to tackle role
discussion
our nreds’.
nurse
to newer.
techniques
stress the need to develop
adults
agrees
coffee
mrthods.
or confidence
learning
not merting
to adapt
teaching
semi-structured
One wonders
1980 ~~43-44)
Brookfield
imaginative
devotion
that
dull
Thev seem to underestimatr
lack the knowledge
Most
to learn.
Long,
by impromptu
of learners
experiential
‘life applica-
67
demanding.
broken
us are somnolent.
play,
therefore,
not
)N -I‘OI).~Y
breaks. extended lunches and finishing earl) when disappointed tutors admit that most of
through experiential techniques of education such as discussion or problem.4dults are aware of specific learning
Thus,
are
sessions
Adults’ experiences
the
timetables
EDt’(::\-I’I(
is only
important
insofar
as ir
should be geared to ‘match’ the experiences with the learner’s abilitv to respond to them. it
68
NURSE EDUCATION
appears
almost
TODAY
too obvious
to state
that
the
learner should be provided with an appropriate learning environment. Similarly in providing practice,
as stated in Piaget, one can identify
need for reinforcement, and for generous new connections.
in order
structure.
Piaget explains of operations
manently
that it is the systematic
mental
repeatedly
a
stresses
framework.
He
the importance
of
on
the
imperative
programmes centred,
patient.
which makes them a per-
learned
(Piaget)
set of operations;
learner
dependency
it seems
and aligned
schema which is systema-
tically linked with a broader
learner’s
Therefore cational
to ‘stamp’ in
Piaget defines the term ‘opera-
tion’ as an internalised
linkage
the
the
for the use of satisfiers,
practice
argue that the appropriate way would be to adopt a progressivist ideology which decreases
should
be progressively
must be relatively unstructured
to the needs of the student
Any androgogical
approach
must not be exclusively
or practical
by written
examinations. In order to facilitate ideology,
such
nursing education
a progressivist
would require
tions are to be removed,
educational
being
should aim for change;
to prepare
per-
be
of progress
reconstructionist
by the here-and-now
and the must
discussive, open plan and assessment
the existence of a ‘firm’ permanent set of cognitive structures for preventing an individual from overwhelmed
educator.
that new edu-
in outlook.
‘free’ society; be anti-elitist
If outmoded
to be tradi-
programme learners
and express
for a
everday
ceptions of a situation, and for allowing past experience to be brought to bear on a situation.
life. If Gooch and other students’ needs are to be
Piaget clearly
met then education
believes
that the most important
means of growth is through operations
that
environment. Peel (1976)
the
learner
action and through performs
on the
learner
must be made joyful.
must be facilitated
of education
through
to experience
a variety
The
the fun
of experiential
techniques. suggests
that for continuing
edu-
Place in an over-formal,
exclusively
cation learning should not ‘considerably outpace thinking, material and all subjects should be
orientated
starved of the practical experience
which serves
graded
as the raw material for his thinking.
If we restrict
larly
accordingly, the
period
keeping of
in mind
maximum
descriptive-repetition
particu-
growth
to imaginative
from
-
expla-
nation’. Peel also argues that in the education adolescents
the ultimate aim must be imaginative
thought
and experience
through
language
tion of established be linked
of
must be made articulate
and abstraction:
the applica-
ideas to new situations
with this process.
should
Peel contends
that
environment,
his experience, However,
the
teacher-
constructing
such
difficult
teacher.
reasoning
is the need
programmes
will be
we restrict his conceptualisation.
may be extremely experienced
learner
an environment
for even
Implied
the most
within
for ‘individual
for each learner.
this
learning
In large classes
such an ‘ideal’ may not be achieved. Piaget’s
developmental
emphasises
that a learner
model
of
thinking
must master the sche-
learning a subject requires competence in grasping a ‘multiplicity of affairs’ and to ensure
mata at the earlier levels if he is to go on to more
understanding
advanced
requires
teacher
sensitivity,
not
instructional rigidity. The lesson for teachers may be that the changing ‘quality’ of intelligence would support the notion of a ‘spiral curriculum’ where
it would
be possible
to return
to topic
areas with a greater conceptual repertoire more mature form of intellectual enquiry. David
Fontana
suggests
that
Piaget’s
and
work. This is not just a question
failing to master the patterns of thinking necessary for success in a wide range of educational endeavours. 2000 scenario
work
would indicate that the ‘scope enjoyed by teachers for accelerating learners progress may be greater than was at first thought, provided that material is presented to them in the appropriate way’. Mezirow (1981) would probably
of the
learner missing the groundwork in a particular subject, but the much more fundamental issue of
Curriculum be warned;
Planners
in a Project
generous
practice will
still be necessary in what is generally college based course.
viewed as a
Part of the argumentiveness shown by adolescents is often occasioned by the fact that abstract concepts such as ‘freedom’, ‘justice’, ‘truth, ‘altruism’ and so on now begin to take on a newer
NURSE EDUCATION
and deeper
meaning
theirjudging elders.
for them, and may lead to
and rejecting
New curricula
these concepts
role
of their
which are seen to foster
may thus bring conflict with older
members of the profession. new educational structures nish
the standards
conflict
There is a need for which seek to dimi-
in a Project
2000
training
arena. Piaget’s
theory
useful in deciding it. While
of cognitive
recognising
arguments
and
that
criticisms
findings will continue to teachers
development
is
what to teach and how to teach there of
are his
to be relevant
counterwork,
his
and helpful
and, while Piaget has been criticised
for his clinical
interview
may see this approach
method,
TODAY
69
Hill W R 1973 Leanring. University Paperback, USA Iscoe I, Stevenson W W 1960 Personality Development in Children’ University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas Knowles M 1984 The Adult Learner - A Neglected Species 3rd ed. Houston, Texas: London, Gulf Mezirow J 198 1 A critical theory of adult learning and education. In: Tight M ed 1983 Education for Adults. Adult Learning and Education Vol 1. Croom Helm. London Orr J 1990 Project 2000 V tradition. Nurse Education Today 10. 1: 58-62 Peel E A (quoted in) Piaget, psychology and education. Ved P, Williams V, Williams P. Eds. Hodder and Stoughton, London Phillips J L 1975 The Origins of Intellect, Piaget’s Theory. Freeman, Oxford White R H 1959 Motivation reconsidered. The concept of competence. Psychological Review 66: 297-333.
the teacher
as being helpful insofar as
it provides flexibility and is one method by which useful assessment remedv
can occur, diagnosis made and
effected.
References Bower E M, Hollister W G eds. 1967 Behavioural Science Frontiers in Education. Wiley, New York Brookfield S D 1986 Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. Open University Press, Milton Keynes Bruner J S 1961 The acr of discovery. Harvard Educational Review 3 1 pp2 l-32 E.rikson E H 1964 Insight and Responsibility. Norton, New York Montana D 1981 Psychology for Teachers. Macmillan, London (Getzels ,J W, Jackson P W 1962 Creativity and Intelhgence. Wiley, New York (hooch S 1984 No apples for teacher. Senior Nurse 1, 11: 8
APPENDIX
1
Summary of factors worthy implication for teaching 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
of consideration
in the
Set, expectancy readiness. Learning by activity. Using experience. Limit amount to be memorised. Generous practice. Measuring progress - against own previous performance. Use of realistic and relevant material. Pace of learning. Role of motivation in learning. Preventing and recognising mistakes. Necessity for systematic teaching. Learn to attain something. Recoanition of different tvpes of learning. Time-pressure - effects oi: Use of written instructions. Use of satisfiers. Praise. need reduction.