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Plumage Development in Chickens
Plumage Development in Chickens R O B E R T PENQTJITE AND R. B. THOMPSON Department of Poultry Husbandry AND V. G. H E L L E R Department of Agricultural Chemistry Research, Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Oklahoma (Received for publication, June 4, 1945)
LOSSY, highly-colored plumage in chickens is a characteristic of a wellconditioned bird. Rough, split, faulty barred, or faded feathers, or the absence of feathers, is usually the outward evidence of faulty metabolism, injury, or a pathological condition, the exact cause of which is often unknown. It is a common belief that the best plumage is found on the chicken which is growing the most rapidly. However, results of experiments conducted at this station provide evidence to indicate that feather development does not always parallel rapidity of body growth. Wilcke and Hammond (1940) state that feather development aids sales and inhibits cannibalism. They report that corn-fed chicks produce a "curled, frizzled" feather and that the addition of oats, oat hulls, or hulled oats improves the condition. Graham (1941) states that "feather faults are a sure indication of poor growth, feeding, confinement, or lack of vigor," and that "smooth, close-fitting plumage that feels firm and oily to the touch" represents top health. Creases or faults in feathers represent a "set-back" period in chick development. Poley (1938) reports defective and sparsely-barred feathers on chicks consuming a ground white corn and wheat ration. Jukes (1941), using purified rations for
chicks, notes that birds consuming rations deficient in creatine presented a "frayed" condition due to faulty barbules. Hegsted et al. (1941) found that a deficiency of the amino acids arginine and glycine produced a type of faulty feathers. Groody and Groody (1942) report that chicks with diets deficient in pantothenic acid showed areas of partial depigmentation in shafts and barbs, distorted shafts, and loss of barbules. McGinnis, Norris, and Heuser (1942) refer to an unidentified nutritional factor required by chicks for feather pigmentation-—possibly p-aminobenzoic acid or inositol. In view of the repeated references to abnormal pigmentation, faulty barb or feather development, and even the absence of feathers, it seemed advisable to investigate these conditions to ascertain if there is a specific "feather factor" or whether these conditions are merely outward manifestations of a lack of inner wellbeing resulting from a nutritional or pathological condition. EXPERIMENTAL
In the period of years during which observations have been under way, several breeds of chickens have been used. As a rule an early-feathering, colored variety was chosen. This gave an opportunity to study pigmentation, as well as feather 13
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14
R O B E R T PENQTJITE, R. B . T H O M P S O N , AND V. G. H E L L E R
TABLE 1.—Observations of plumage development as related to various rations Date
Lot No.
Nov. 1941
Feb. 1942
9
2
Results
(6 weeks) 70 Bare necks and tops of heads; generally unsatisfactory; little growth (50 percent died). Small improvement; generally unsatis97 factory; feathers dull. Poorly feathered, heads and necks bare; Glucose 58, meat scraps 24, yeast 6, 285 feathers light in color, showing a gum arabic 5, soybean oil 5, CLO 3, faded, ragged appearance. mineral mix 1. Yellow corn 66, buttermilk 31, CLO 1, Feathers dull. 286 mineral mix 2. Ration 1 plus 5% alfalfa. Better color and more gloss, but with 298 feathers ruffled and broken on wing bows. Feather condition much improved. Oats 77, buttermilk 21, CLO 1, min355 eral mix 2. Excellent plumage with a good clear Yellow corn 66, wheat 5, buttermilk 410 gloss. 15, meat scraps 5, CLO .5, mineral mix 2. Feathering of poor quality, with a Corn 88, fish meal 10, CLO 1, mineral 265 ragged, wooly appearance and a silky mix 1. feeling. (5 weeks) Feathers ragged, also light in color; Corn 86, fish meal 10, mineral mix 2, 310 breast bare and downy; wing feathers yeast 1, CLO .5. white; short shafts. Somewhat better than lot 21, but very Ration 21 with fish meal increased to 354 ragged; bent shafts on primary 20 and the corn reduced 10%. feathers; secondary and main tail feathers bent in the shaft, breast feathers broken and ragged; quality poor. Similar to lot 21. Ration 21 with 7% casein replacing 291 fish meal. Better than 21 or 22; darker in color; Ration 21 with 12.2 meat meal replac374 ridges on primary and secondary ing the fish meal. feathers. • No improvement over lot 21. Ration 21 plus 1% glycine. 311 Ration 21 plus 13% hydrolyzed feath124 As well-feathered as lot 21. These birds, although smaller, were better feathers to replace the fish meal ered than the larger ones in the preceding groups. No better than lot 21; shafts and priRation 21 with 5 % soybean oil to re313 mary feathers ridged; no improveplace an equal amount of corn. ment in color. Ration 21 with 10% lecithin replacing 291 The down was poor; primaries narrow; no feathers on head and neck; pluman equal amount of corn. age had sticky, gummy feel. Good quality feathers; not so badly Ration 21 plus 400 g. hydrolyzed 287 frayed as lot 21; fewer bent shafts. feathers Some were not well-feathered on head. Corn 85, meat meal 14, CLO 5, min306 eral mix 1. Well feathered. Ration 32 plus 3 % yeast. 344 Ration 32 with 17% whey replacing an 366 No better than lot 33; feathers on back not so good. equal amount of corn. Ration 32 with 5 % soybean lecithin 160 Body covered with down; feathers poor, but no worse than others equally replacing an equal amount of corn. stunted; plumage greasy; too much white on primary and secondary feathers. Not as greasy as lot 42; color not so Ration 32 with 4 % Crisco replacing 148 faded. Plumage faulty with white 4 % corn. feathers.
5 June 1942
9
Nov. 1942
21 22
23 24 25 26
27 28 29 32 33 35 42
43
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3
Mar. 1943
Weight grams
Glucose 58, meat scraps 24, yeast 6, gum arabic 5, soybean oil 5, fish oil 5, and mineral mix .6. Ration 7 plus 4 % alfalfa leaf meal.
1
Nov. 1942
Ration
15
PLUMAGE DEVELOPMENT I N CHICKENS TABLE 1.—(Continued)
Date
Mar. 1943
July 1943
Lot No.
Ration
44 Yellow corn 61, wheat shorts 5, alfalfa meal 3, buttermilk IS, cottonseed meal 5, soybean meal 5, meat meal 5, mineral mix 1. 61 Ration 32 plus alcoholic extract of 20 lbs. of wheat bran. 62 Ration 32 plus 900 p.p.m. para-aminobenzoic acid. 64 Ration 32 plus 1000 mg. para-aminobenzoic acid per chick. 65
114 160 145 183
Ration 32 plus 100,000 I.U. riboflavin per chick. 67 Ration 32 plus 1000 mg. niacin per chick. 68 Ration 32 plus 30% unheated cow dung replacing corn as a source of riboflavin.
216
80 Corn 85, meat 12, yeast 1, mineral mix 2. 81 Ration 80 with 7.5% cottonseed meal and 7.5% soybean meal replacing meat. 82 Ration 80 with 14% meat and bone meal replacing meat meal. 83 Ration 80 with 20% dried milk replacing meat. 84
Ration 80 with 8% casein replacing meat. Feb. 1944 86 Ration 80 plus 35,000 I.U. thiamin, 120,000 I.U. riboflavin, 1800 mg. niacin, 52,000I.U.pantothenicacid, and 100 mg. para-aminobenzoic acid per chick. Sept. 1944 100 Corn 80, meat meal 8, buttermilk 4, mineral mix 2, CLO .5, 2,500,000 I.U. riboflavin. 101 Ration 100 with 4 % lecithin replacing a like amount of corn.
184 221
262
Feathers light in color; no improvement in growth of chicks. Coloring improved. Heads, necks, and breasts downy; light color; barring on female better than male. Feathers on breast devoid of barring; primaries and secondaries § white; feathers silky; males lighter in color. Better quality than lot 65; darker and barring more distinct. Feathers silky; better than lot 64; barring improved. Head and breasts downy; better feathers than lot 64; males still light in color. (Black Minorca Series) Feathering fair, but smoky and ragged.
205
Not so good as lot 80; feathers sparse and smoky looking.
207
White streaks on primaries and secondaries; feathers ragged and frizzled. White streaks on primaries and secondaries; ragged, ruffled, unkept appearance; bent shaft. Ragged, ruffled appearance, but better than lot 83. Feathers ruffled; males lighter in color than females.
261 270 227
285 293
Ration 100 plus stilbestrol, 50 mg. per pound.
331
103 Ration 100 plus chronic gonadotropin, 5000 I.U. per chick.
328
104 Ration 100 plus p-aminobenzoic acid, 900 p.p.m.
294
105
Ration 100 plus thyroid. (See text.)
442
106
Corn 68, wheat 10, milk powder 1, meat scraps 5, mineral mix 2, CLO .5.
299
102
well-colored
Plumage fair but fuzzy; head and center of backs featherless; sex identification impossible. Feathers resinous to the touch; faulty bars on primaries and secondaries; inferior to lot 100. More and better feathers than lot 100. Some had feathers on head and back, but were lacking color; faulty bars; feathers glossy; no sex evidence. Better feathers than in preceding lots. Feathers smoother with more head and back feathers; males can be identified. Feathers ragged, ruffled, light in color; primaries and secondaries showed faulty bars. Feathers much improved; head and neck improved; appeared glossy and well-kept. Feathers lighter; faulty bars on primary and secondary feathers; only a few feathers on head and neck.
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Feb. 1944
Results
(5 weeks) Excellent feathers; 372 smooth, and glossy.
Ration 32 plus 350,000 I.U. thiamin per chick.
66 Oct. 1943
Weight grams
16
ROBERT PENQUITE, R. B. THOMPSON, AND V. G. HELLER
To slight variations of this basic material have been added many supplements —proteins of various sources and in varying amounts, amino acids, vitamins, min-
erals, and vitamin-rich feeds—which have been suggested as beneficial to the growth or well being of chickens.1 A survey of the observations recorded in this table indicates certain facts. The birds in lots 7, 8, 9, eating purified rations, grew poorly, their mortality was high, and their heads, necks, and backs were almost lacking feathers at the end of eight weeks. The primary feathers were dull in color and dry to touch. This description holds for other purified rations, even though several supplements were added. Apparently this condition does not come from the absence of a specific "factor," but from the lack of any essential such as protein, hormones, or vitamins in the nutrition of the chicken. The chicks in lot 1, who received their protein supplement in the form of dried buttermilk, feathered reasonably well, but the plumage was dull and dry. The addition of alfalfa leaf meal improved the gloss and color, but the feathers were broken and rough. It is difficult to judge to what extent the close confinement of the cages contributed to the roughened, broken feathers. However, the other tests described tend to disprove that the cages were a damaging factor. Replacing the corn with ground oats in lot 3 improved feathering. The addition of ground wheat and meat scraps to replace an equivalent amount of the buttermilk produced a bird with an excellent coat of glossy, well-colored feathers. The use of 1 The mineral mixture used in this work has been recommended for experimental rations and is composed of the following: CaCOs, 600; K 2 HP0 4 , 645; CaHPOi- 2 H A ISO; MgSCv 7H s O, 204; NaCl, 335; Fe(C,Hj07)j-6HaO, 55; KI, 1.6; MnS04-4H 2 0, 10.0; ZnCk, 0.5; and CuSOiSHjO, 0.6 (J- Biol. Chem., 138, 460). The yeast was prepared by Fleischman Yeast Company, the dehydrated meat by Wilson and Company, and the hormones by the Upjohn Company.
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form. In all cases, eggs were chosen from the college flocks of known ancestry. The eggs were hatched in incubators; the chicks were selected, wing-banded, and placed in electrically heated battery brooders. The chicks were weighed and examined weekly, with special reference to time and quality of feather development. Many rations reported to have produced faulty feather development were tried, including both mixed feeds and purified rations. Observation of the effects of various rations verified the report of Wilcke and Hammond (1940) that corn was productive of more faulty feathers than oats or wheat, and also confirmed the injurious effect of autoclaving of rations as reported by Mussehl, Ackerson and Blish (1940), a fact that has been substantiated since the completion of this study by Sanford and Wilcke (1944). Purified rations, as used by Jukes (1941), did produce feather malformation, but were unsatisfactory for experimental use because of the poor growth and high mortality rate which they produced. Observation of these and other rations resulted in the use of corn, alfalfa meal, and various protein supplements of both plant and animal origin as the basis for most of the mixtures used in our investigations. From an economic standpoint this permits the use of larger numbers of chickens, and it also more nearly approaches the types of feeds used in commercial practice. The cod liver oil used as a vitamin source was a high-grade fortified type and designated in the following tables as CLO. The dehydrated meat meal,- containing 6,5% protein was especially prepared and was quite free from bone scrap.
PLUMAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHICKENS
On several occasions a basic ration of corn and dehydrated meat was supplemented with vitamins both singly and in groups. Such a series is described in lots 64-68 and 86. In no case was it found that any combination was of value equal to a generous quantity of yeast. Nor was there evidence that any single vitamin was of outstanding value in eliminating the faulty conditions produced by the basic ration. Possibly larger amounts might have produced more improvement; however, if any single one was a special "feather factor," an improved condition should have been exhibited even with a limited addition. The use of some of the hormones was productive of more interesting results. The oral administration of thyroid (lot 105, .2 grain per chick per day during the first week, and thereafter increased to .5 grain per day to the end of the seventh week) produced a very marked improvement in the gloss, growth, and color of the feathers and in the weight of the chickens. Sex indentification was hastened. The use of stilbesterol produced feathers better than lot 100, but with a lack of color and many faulty bars. While the chicks were much larger, sex identification was impossible. The use of chorionic gonadotropin* (500 units per chick, injected subcutaneously during the first 3 weeks) did not increase size over the stilbesterol group but did produce a smoother, glossier feather, well-developed on head and back; and the males could be more easily identified. These lots of chickens described represent only a part of the groups studied, but in a general way they are typical. Some of the characteristic results are illustrated in Plate I, Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Black chickens tend to develop smoky or faded * Upjohn Company.
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10% fish meal as a protein source produced feathers of poor quality with a silky feel. The addition of yeast improved growth slightly and greatly improved the quality of the feathers. Doubling the amount of fish meal to increase the total proteins produced broken, ragged feathers. Casein replacing fish meal gave no marked improvement; likewise, the addition of 1% glycine to the fish meal ration was of little value. The addition of neutralized autoclaved feathers resulted in poor growth, but there was some improvement in the feather development. These trials indicated that a protein supplement from several sources was more satisfactory than one single protein. Any supplement increasing the amount of variety of proteins aided feathering. In the same series (lots 27 and 28) neither the addition of 5% soybean oil nor 10% soybean lecithin produced any improvement. The use of lecithin always resulted in a short, sticky feather which had a resinous feel. The use of Crisco as a source of fat was also injurious to plumage. Growth was decreased, and more white or faded feathers were produced. The feathers lacked the resinous feel of the lecithin group but were equally greasy. The substitution of 17% dry whey for corn in like amount (lot 35) increased the growth and feathering, but was of no more value than 3 % yeast under similar conditions. The latter produced feathers of fairly good quality. The use of a mixed protein supplement consisting of wheat shorts, alfalfa meal, buttermilk, cottonseed meal, soybean meal, and meat scraps produced very rapid growth and splendid plumage with an excellent gloss. This eliminates any likelihood that crowding or faulty management contributed to the poor growth or feathering of the other groups.
17
18
R O B E R T P E N Q U I T E , R. B . T H O M P S O N , AND V. G. H E L L E R
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Plate I FIGS. 1, 2, and 3, represent normal chickens consuming a well balanced ration. FIG. 4, 5, and 6 represent chickens consuming rations not completely balanced.
feathers on unsatisfactory rations. When barred breeds were used, many faulty feathers or lacking bars were noted, especially on the primary feathers. This effect is often more noticeable on males
than on females. Any drastic change in temperature or environmental conditions caused the primary feathers to bend and break. Red-feathered chicks took on a buff or badly faded color under adverse
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PLUMAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHICKENS
conditions. In all cases the primaries and secondaries were narrow and lacking fluff, presenting a frizzled appearance. However, the most noticeable characteristic was the lack of feathers on head, neck, center of back, and chest. In extreme cases, the original down was still unbroken by true feathers at the end of the eighth week.
19• ^
malities in feather form, color, barring, or growth occur if the protein is low, vitamins deficient, the fat or crude fiber unduly high, or if shock from physical conditions is experienced. Any one of these conditions may be responsible for poor feather development, but there is a lack of evidence to indicate that any certain one could be considered a "feather factor." REFERENCES
When a single grain makes up the bulk of a chick's ration, the plumage is often inferior. Corn is more often responsible for this condition than wheat or oats. Rations low in protein produced faulty feathers. Dehydrated meat fed as a protein supplement gave better results than meat and bone meal, fish meal, casein, or plant proteins. A mixed source is superior to any single protein, although quantity seems to be more important. The addition of natural sources of vitamins such as dehydrated alfalfa meal or yeast produces good feathers, but not unless the protein is reasonably high. The addition of single amino acids or vitamins was of little value so long as the proteins were deficient. The use of hormones—thyroid, stilbesterol, and chorionic gonadotropin;—produced some favorable results even with the deficient rations. It is believed, however, that increased food intake and resulting increased growth were the determining factors.
Graham, Louis Paul, 1941. Feathers tell a story. American Poultry Journal. 72:3-7. Groody, Thomas C , and Mary E. Groody, 1942. Feather depigmentation and pantothenic deficiency in chicks. Science 95:655-656. Hegsted, D. M., G. M. Briggs, C. A. Elvenhjemj and E. B. Hart, 1941. Here's a cause of poor feathering. Wis. Expt. Sta. 58th Annual Report, p. 23. Jukes, Thomas H., 1941. The effect of certain organic compounds and other dietary supplements on perosis. J. Nutrition 22:315-325. McGinnis, James, L. C. Norris, and G. F. Heuser, 1942. An unidentified nutritional factor required, by chicks for feather pigmentation. J. Biol. Chem. 145:341-342. Mussehl, F. E., C. W. Ackerson and M. J. Blish, 1940. The influence of whole wheat, bran and shorts on body weight and feather growth in chickens. Neb. Research Bull. 119, 1-11. Poley, W. E., 1938. Unknown factors which affect plumage color and structure. Poultry Sci. 17: 390-397. Sanford, Paul E., and H. L. Wilcke, 1944. The effect of cereal grains and their by-products on plumage development and body growth of the chick. Poultry Sci. 23:298-309. Wilcke, H. L., and John C. Hammond, 1940. Feathering, growth, feed consumption and rachitogenesis in chicks as influenced by the kind of grain in the diet. J. Agr, Research 61:369-380.
Briefly, it may be stated that abnor-
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CONCLUSIONS
LOSSY, highly-colored plumage in chickens is a characteristic of a wellconditioned bird. Rough, split, faulty barred, or faded feathers, or the absence of feathers, is usually the outward evidence of faulty metabolism, injury, or a pathological condition, the exact cause of which is often unknown. It is a common belief that the best plumage is found on the chicken which is growing the most rapidly. However, results of experiments conducted at this station provide evidence to indicate that feather development does not always parallel rapidity of body growth. Wilcke and Hammond (1940) state that feather development aids sales and inhibits cannibalism. They report that corn-fed chicks produce a "curled, frizzled" feather and that the addition of oats, oat hulls, or hulled oats improves the condition. Graham (1941) states that "feather faults are a sure indication of poor growth, feeding, confinement, or lack of vigor," and that "smooth, close-fitting plumage that feels firm and oily to the touch" represents top health. Creases or faults in feathers represent a "set-back" period in chick development. Poley (1938) reports defective and sparsely-barred feathers on chicks consuming a ground white corn and wheat ration. Jukes (1941), using purified rations for
chicks, notes that birds consuming rations deficient in creatine presented a "frayed" condition due to faulty barbules. Hegsted et al. (1941) found that a deficiency of the amino acids arginine and glycine produced a type of faulty feathers. Groody and Groody (1942) report that chicks with diets deficient in pantothenic acid showed areas of partial depigmentation in shafts and barbs, distorted shafts, and loss of barbules. McGinnis, Norris, and Heuser (1942) refer to an unidentified nutritional factor required by chicks for feather pigmentation-—possibly p-aminobenzoic acid or inositol. In view of the repeated references to abnormal pigmentation, faulty barb or feather development, and even the absence of feathers, it seemed advisable to investigate these conditions to ascertain if there is a specific "feather factor" or whether these conditions are merely outward manifestations of a lack of inner wellbeing resulting from a nutritional or pathological condition. EXPERIMENTAL
In the period of years during which observations have been under way, several breeds of chickens have been used. As a rule an early-feathering, colored variety was chosen. This gave an opportunity to study pigmentation, as well as feather 13
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at NERL on May 22, 2015
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R O B E R T PENQTJITE, R. B . T H O M P S O N , AND V. G. H E L L E R
TABLE 1.—Observations of plumage development as related to various rations Date
Lot No.
Nov. 1941
Feb. 1942
9
2
Results
(6 weeks) 70 Bare necks and tops of heads; generally unsatisfactory; little growth (50 percent died). Small improvement; generally unsatis97 factory; feathers dull. Poorly feathered, heads and necks bare; Glucose 58, meat scraps 24, yeast 6, 285 feathers light in color, showing a gum arabic 5, soybean oil 5, CLO 3, faded, ragged appearance. mineral mix 1. Yellow corn 66, buttermilk 31, CLO 1, Feathers dull. 286 mineral mix 2. Ration 1 plus 5% alfalfa. Better color and more gloss, but with 298 feathers ruffled and broken on wing bows. Feather condition much improved. Oats 77, buttermilk 21, CLO 1, min355 eral mix 2. Excellent plumage with a good clear Yellow corn 66, wheat 5, buttermilk 410 gloss. 15, meat scraps 5, CLO .5, mineral mix 2. Feathering of poor quality, with a Corn 88, fish meal 10, CLO 1, mineral 265 ragged, wooly appearance and a silky mix 1. feeling. (5 weeks) Feathers ragged, also light in color; Corn 86, fish meal 10, mineral mix 2, 310 breast bare and downy; wing feathers yeast 1, CLO .5. white; short shafts. Somewhat better than lot 21, but very Ration 21 with fish meal increased to 354 ragged; bent shafts on primary 20 and the corn reduced 10%. feathers; secondary and main tail feathers bent in the shaft, breast feathers broken and ragged; quality poor. Similar to lot 21. Ration 21 with 7% casein replacing 291 fish meal. Better than 21 or 22; darker in color; Ration 21 with 12.2 meat meal replac374 ridges on primary and secondary ing the fish meal. feathers. • No improvement over lot 21. Ration 21 plus 1% glycine. 311 Ration 21 plus 13% hydrolyzed feath124 As well-feathered as lot 21. These birds, although smaller, were better feathers to replace the fish meal ered than the larger ones in the preceding groups. No better than lot 21; shafts and priRation 21 with 5 % soybean oil to re313 mary feathers ridged; no improveplace an equal amount of corn. ment in color. Ration 21 with 10% lecithin replacing 291 The down was poor; primaries narrow; no feathers on head and neck; pluman equal amount of corn. age had sticky, gummy feel. Good quality feathers; not so badly Ration 21 plus 400 g. hydrolyzed 287 frayed as lot 21; fewer bent shafts. feathers Some were not well-feathered on head. Corn 85, meat meal 14, CLO 5, min306 eral mix 1. Well feathered. Ration 32 plus 3 % yeast. 344 Ration 32 with 17% whey replacing an 366 No better than lot 33; feathers on back not so good. equal amount of corn. Ration 32 with 5 % soybean lecithin 160 Body covered with down; feathers poor, but no worse than others equally replacing an equal amount of corn. stunted; plumage greasy; too much white on primary and secondary feathers. Not as greasy as lot 42; color not so Ration 32 with 4 % Crisco replacing 148 faded. Plumage faulty with white 4 % corn. feathers.
5 June 1942
9
Nov. 1942
21 22
23 24 25 26
27 28 29 32 33 35 42
43
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3
Mar. 1943
Weight grams
Glucose 58, meat scraps 24, yeast 6, gum arabic 5, soybean oil 5, fish oil 5, and mineral mix .6. Ration 7 plus 4 % alfalfa leaf meal.
1
Nov. 1942
Ration
15
PLUMAGE DEVELOPMENT I N CHICKENS TABLE 1.—(Continued)
Date
Mar. 1943
July 1943
Lot No.
Ration
44 Yellow corn 61, wheat shorts 5, alfalfa meal 3, buttermilk IS, cottonseed meal 5, soybean meal 5, meat meal 5, mineral mix 1. 61 Ration 32 plus alcoholic extract of 20 lbs. of wheat bran. 62 Ration 32 plus 900 p.p.m. para-aminobenzoic acid. 64 Ration 32 plus 1000 mg. para-aminobenzoic acid per chick. 65
114 160 145 183
Ration 32 plus 100,000 I.U. riboflavin per chick. 67 Ration 32 plus 1000 mg. niacin per chick. 68 Ration 32 plus 30% unheated cow dung replacing corn as a source of riboflavin.
216
80 Corn 85, meat 12, yeast 1, mineral mix 2. 81 Ration 80 with 7.5% cottonseed meal and 7.5% soybean meal replacing meat. 82 Ration 80 with 14% meat and bone meal replacing meat meal. 83 Ration 80 with 20% dried milk replacing meat. 84
Ration 80 with 8% casein replacing meat. Feb. 1944 86 Ration 80 plus 35,000 I.U. thiamin, 120,000 I.U. riboflavin, 1800 mg. niacin, 52,000I.U.pantothenicacid, and 100 mg. para-aminobenzoic acid per chick. Sept. 1944 100 Corn 80, meat meal 8, buttermilk 4, mineral mix 2, CLO .5, 2,500,000 I.U. riboflavin. 101 Ration 100 with 4 % lecithin replacing a like amount of corn.
184 221
262
Feathers light in color; no improvement in growth of chicks. Coloring improved. Heads, necks, and breasts downy; light color; barring on female better than male. Feathers on breast devoid of barring; primaries and secondaries § white; feathers silky; males lighter in color. Better quality than lot 65; darker and barring more distinct. Feathers silky; better than lot 64; barring improved. Head and breasts downy; better feathers than lot 64; males still light in color. (Black Minorca Series) Feathering fair, but smoky and ragged.
205
Not so good as lot 80; feathers sparse and smoky looking.
207
White streaks on primaries and secondaries; feathers ragged and frizzled. White streaks on primaries and secondaries; ragged, ruffled, unkept appearance; bent shaft. Ragged, ruffled appearance, but better than lot 83. Feathers ruffled; males lighter in color than females.
261 270 227
285 293
Ration 100 plus stilbestrol, 50 mg. per pound.
331
103 Ration 100 plus chronic gonadotropin, 5000 I.U. per chick.
328
104 Ration 100 plus p-aminobenzoic acid, 900 p.p.m.
294
105
Ration 100 plus thyroid. (See text.)
442
106
Corn 68, wheat 10, milk powder 1, meat scraps 5, mineral mix 2, CLO .5.
299
102
well-colored
Plumage fair but fuzzy; head and center of backs featherless; sex identification impossible. Feathers resinous to the touch; faulty bars on primaries and secondaries; inferior to lot 100. More and better feathers than lot 100. Some had feathers on head and back, but were lacking color; faulty bars; feathers glossy; no sex evidence. Better feathers than in preceding lots. Feathers smoother with more head and back feathers; males can be identified. Feathers ragged, ruffled, light in color; primaries and secondaries showed faulty bars. Feathers much improved; head and neck improved; appeared glossy and well-kept. Feathers lighter; faulty bars on primary and secondary feathers; only a few feathers on head and neck.
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Feb. 1944
Results
(5 weeks) Excellent feathers; 372 smooth, and glossy.
Ration 32 plus 350,000 I.U. thiamin per chick.
66 Oct. 1943
Weight grams
16
ROBERT PENQUITE, R. B. THOMPSON, AND V. G. HELLER
To slight variations of this basic material have been added many supplements —proteins of various sources and in varying amounts, amino acids, vitamins, min-
erals, and vitamin-rich feeds—which have been suggested as beneficial to the growth or well being of chickens.1 A survey of the observations recorded in this table indicates certain facts. The birds in lots 7, 8, 9, eating purified rations, grew poorly, their mortality was high, and their heads, necks, and backs were almost lacking feathers at the end of eight weeks. The primary feathers were dull in color and dry to touch. This description holds for other purified rations, even though several supplements were added. Apparently this condition does not come from the absence of a specific "factor," but from the lack of any essential such as protein, hormones, or vitamins in the nutrition of the chicken. The chicks in lot 1, who received their protein supplement in the form of dried buttermilk, feathered reasonably well, but the plumage was dull and dry. The addition of alfalfa leaf meal improved the gloss and color, but the feathers were broken and rough. It is difficult to judge to what extent the close confinement of the cages contributed to the roughened, broken feathers. However, the other tests described tend to disprove that the cages were a damaging factor. Replacing the corn with ground oats in lot 3 improved feathering. The addition of ground wheat and meat scraps to replace an equivalent amount of the buttermilk produced a bird with an excellent coat of glossy, well-colored feathers. The use of 1 The mineral mixture used in this work has been recommended for experimental rations and is composed of the following: CaCOs, 600; K 2 HP0 4 , 645; CaHPOi- 2 H A ISO; MgSCv 7H s O, 204; NaCl, 335; Fe(C,Hj07)j-6HaO, 55; KI, 1.6; MnS04-4H 2 0, 10.0; ZnCk, 0.5; and CuSOiSHjO, 0.6 (J- Biol. Chem., 138, 460). The yeast was prepared by Fleischman Yeast Company, the dehydrated meat by Wilson and Company, and the hormones by the Upjohn Company.
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form. In all cases, eggs were chosen from the college flocks of known ancestry. The eggs were hatched in incubators; the chicks were selected, wing-banded, and placed in electrically heated battery brooders. The chicks were weighed and examined weekly, with special reference to time and quality of feather development. Many rations reported to have produced faulty feather development were tried, including both mixed feeds and purified rations. Observation of the effects of various rations verified the report of Wilcke and Hammond (1940) that corn was productive of more faulty feathers than oats or wheat, and also confirmed the injurious effect of autoclaving of rations as reported by Mussehl, Ackerson and Blish (1940), a fact that has been substantiated since the completion of this study by Sanford and Wilcke (1944). Purified rations, as used by Jukes (1941), did produce feather malformation, but were unsatisfactory for experimental use because of the poor growth and high mortality rate which they produced. Observation of these and other rations resulted in the use of corn, alfalfa meal, and various protein supplements of both plant and animal origin as the basis for most of the mixtures used in our investigations. From an economic standpoint this permits the use of larger numbers of chickens, and it also more nearly approaches the types of feeds used in commercial practice. The cod liver oil used as a vitamin source was a high-grade fortified type and designated in the following tables as CLO. The dehydrated meat meal,- containing 6,5% protein was especially prepared and was quite free from bone scrap.
PLUMAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHICKENS
On several occasions a basic ration of corn and dehydrated meat was supplemented with vitamins both singly and in groups. Such a series is described in lots 64-68 and 86. In no case was it found that any combination was of value equal to a generous quantity of yeast. Nor was there evidence that any single vitamin was of outstanding value in eliminating the faulty conditions produced by the basic ration. Possibly larger amounts might have produced more improvement; however, if any single one was a special "feather factor," an improved condition should have been exhibited even with a limited addition. The use of some of the hormones was productive of more interesting results. The oral administration of thyroid (lot 105, .2 grain per chick per day during the first week, and thereafter increased to .5 grain per day to the end of the seventh week) produced a very marked improvement in the gloss, growth, and color of the feathers and in the weight of the chickens. Sex indentification was hastened. The use of stilbesterol produced feathers better than lot 100, but with a lack of color and many faulty bars. While the chicks were much larger, sex identification was impossible. The use of chorionic gonadotropin* (500 units per chick, injected subcutaneously during the first 3 weeks) did not increase size over the stilbesterol group but did produce a smoother, glossier feather, well-developed on head and back; and the males could be more easily identified. These lots of chickens described represent only a part of the groups studied, but in a general way they are typical. Some of the characteristic results are illustrated in Plate I, Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Black chickens tend to develop smoky or faded * Upjohn Company.
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10% fish meal as a protein source produced feathers of poor quality with a silky feel. The addition of yeast improved growth slightly and greatly improved the quality of the feathers. Doubling the amount of fish meal to increase the total proteins produced broken, ragged feathers. Casein replacing fish meal gave no marked improvement; likewise, the addition of 1% glycine to the fish meal ration was of little value. The addition of neutralized autoclaved feathers resulted in poor growth, but there was some improvement in the feather development. These trials indicated that a protein supplement from several sources was more satisfactory than one single protein. Any supplement increasing the amount of variety of proteins aided feathering. In the same series (lots 27 and 28) neither the addition of 5% soybean oil nor 10% soybean lecithin produced any improvement. The use of lecithin always resulted in a short, sticky feather which had a resinous feel. The use of Crisco as a source of fat was also injurious to plumage. Growth was decreased, and more white or faded feathers were produced. The feathers lacked the resinous feel of the lecithin group but were equally greasy. The substitution of 17% dry whey for corn in like amount (lot 35) increased the growth and feathering, but was of no more value than 3 % yeast under similar conditions. The latter produced feathers of fairly good quality. The use of a mixed protein supplement consisting of wheat shorts, alfalfa meal, buttermilk, cottonseed meal, soybean meal, and meat scraps produced very rapid growth and splendid plumage with an excellent gloss. This eliminates any likelihood that crowding or faulty management contributed to the poor growth or feathering of the other groups.
17
18
R O B E R T P E N Q U I T E , R. B . T H O M P S O N , AND V. G. H E L L E R
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Plate I FIGS. 1, 2, and 3, represent normal chickens consuming a well balanced ration. FIG. 4, 5, and 6 represent chickens consuming rations not completely balanced.
feathers on unsatisfactory rations. When barred breeds were used, many faulty feathers or lacking bars were noted, especially on the primary feathers. This effect is often more noticeable on males
than on females. Any drastic change in temperature or environmental conditions caused the primary feathers to bend and break. Red-feathered chicks took on a buff or badly faded color under adverse
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PLUMAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHICKENS
conditions. In all cases the primaries and secondaries were narrow and lacking fluff, presenting a frizzled appearance. However, the most noticeable characteristic was the lack of feathers on head, neck, center of back, and chest. In extreme cases, the original down was still unbroken by true feathers at the end of the eighth week.
19• ^
malities in feather form, color, barring, or growth occur if the protein is low, vitamins deficient, the fat or crude fiber unduly high, or if shock from physical conditions is experienced. Any one of these conditions may be responsible for poor feather development, but there is a lack of evidence to indicate that any certain one could be considered a "feather factor." REFERENCES
When a single grain makes up the bulk of a chick's ration, the plumage is often inferior. Corn is more often responsible for this condition than wheat or oats. Rations low in protein produced faulty feathers. Dehydrated meat fed as a protein supplement gave better results than meat and bone meal, fish meal, casein, or plant proteins. A mixed source is superior to any single protein, although quantity seems to be more important. The addition of natural sources of vitamins such as dehydrated alfalfa meal or yeast produces good feathers, but not unless the protein is reasonably high. The addition of single amino acids or vitamins was of little value so long as the proteins were deficient. The use of hormones—thyroid, stilbesterol, and chorionic gonadotropin;—produced some favorable results even with the deficient rations. It is believed, however, that increased food intake and resulting increased growth were the determining factors.
Graham, Louis Paul, 1941. Feathers tell a story. American Poultry Journal. 72:3-7. Groody, Thomas C , and Mary E. Groody, 1942. Feather depigmentation and pantothenic deficiency in chicks. Science 95:655-656. Hegsted, D. M., G. M. Briggs, C. A. Elvenhjemj and E. B. Hart, 1941. Here's a cause of poor feathering. Wis. Expt. Sta. 58th Annual Report, p. 23. Jukes, Thomas H., 1941. The effect of certain organic compounds and other dietary supplements on perosis. J. Nutrition 22:315-325. McGinnis, James, L. C. Norris, and G. F. Heuser, 1942. An unidentified nutritional factor required, by chicks for feather pigmentation. J. Biol. Chem. 145:341-342. Mussehl, F. E., C. W. Ackerson and M. J. Blish, 1940. The influence of whole wheat, bran and shorts on body weight and feather growth in chickens. Neb. Research Bull. 119, 1-11. Poley, W. E., 1938. Unknown factors which affect plumage color and structure. Poultry Sci. 17: 390-397. Sanford, Paul E., and H. L. Wilcke, 1944. The effect of cereal grains and their by-products on plumage development and body growth of the chick. Poultry Sci. 23:298-309. Wilcke, H. L., and John C. Hammond, 1940. Feathering, growth, feed consumption and rachitogenesis in chicks as influenced by the kind of grain in the diet. J. Agr, Research 61:369-380.
Briefly, it may be stated that abnor-
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CONCLUSIONS