Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists

JBR-08436; No of Pages 11 Journal of Business Research xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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Journal of Business Research

Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists Haesung Whang, Sunghwa Yong 1, Eunju Ko ⁎ Department of Clothing & Textiles, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemoon-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 1 March 2015 Received in revised form 1 April 2015 Accepted 1 April 2015 Available online xxxx Keywords: Pop culture involvement Situational/enduring involvement Destination image formation Destination perception Travel motivation

a b s t r a c t A worldwide phenomenon is occurring whereby tourists visit specific locations due to the content of pop culture. This study applies the concept of pop culture involvement to tourism discourse. The study classifies pop culture involvement on an enduring level and a situational level regarding its influence on the formation of destination image and visit intention. Finally, the study analyzes the difference within structural models between China and Russia. The results indicate that situational involvement and enduring involvement have different effects on the structural model. Results also show different path results depending on nationalities. © 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc.

1. Introduction A worldwide phenomenon is occurring whereby tourists visit an attraction or destination because popular cultural portrays the destination in epic stories. Tourism researchers and industry executives accept the importance of popular culture in such genres as epic storytellings. Thus, the consumption of pop culture such as television programs, movies, and music associates to the tourism industry (Kim, Long, & Robinson, 2009). The involvement of specific pop culture elements is now within the tourism industry more than ever, and examples are identifiable easily. For example, due to the Harry Potter series, the train platform at King's Cross Station is now a popular tourist spot in England. Similarly, for those interested in the film industry consider Hollywood as an important place to visit, and Psy influence tourists from all around the world to visit Gangnam region in Seoul. This study seeks to investigate this phenomenon in more depth through empirical research to determine the relationship between popular cultural forms of the media and the travel destination decision-making process. Although scholars recognize the impact of mass media on creating images and values for specific locations (Kim & Richardson, 2003; Lee, Scott, & Kim, 2008), many studies focus on the influence of films or association with a specific celebrity. Kim and Kang (2007) examine the influence of famous soap operas, and Lee et al. (2008) suggest the impact of specific celebrities on the image of destinations. However, in ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 2 2123 4651; fax: +82 2 312 8554. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Yong), [email protected] (E. Ko). 1 Tel.: +82 2 2123 4651; fax: +82 2 312 8554.

most cases, the interaction of multiple cultural media is what influences the formation of destination image and evaluation. Thus, this study investigates the pop culture as a whole context. Further, most studies examine involvement through just one dimension; however, both internally and externally processes are likely to affect this phenomenon. Although high involvement occurs mostly due to individual interest, one's surroundings also partly form involvement. Especially while living in the era of advanced information technology, international yet focused knowledge is accessible with ease, and word of mouth information is attainable easily. With this environment in mind, this study divides pop culture involvement into situational involvement and enduring involvement to investigate the different impacts on travel destinations. Further, although precedent studies explored significant differences in cultural influences on the image formation and visit intention for destinations (Chalip, Green, & Hill, 2003), not many has figured the differences between nationalities under the context of mass media's impact on destination image and actual tourism demand. In recognition of these research gaps, this study introduces the concept of pop culture involvement to the field of tourism discourse and attempts to examine the way one's pop culture involvement, including both situational and enduring involvement, influences other psychological constructs that may ultimately lead to visiting destinations associated with mass media content. Specifically, this study aims to advance the understanding of the interrelationship between pop culture involvement, destination image (cognitive and affective), overall image, and visit intention. Further, this study will compare the construct of two different countries within the same context based on travel motivations. By bridging theoretical understanding, the results from this study should contribute to existing tourism literature and provide managerial implications.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020 0148-2963/© 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc.

Please cite this article as: Whang, H., et al., Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists, Journal of Business Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020

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2. Conceptual background 2.1. Pop culture involvement This study proposes that one's involvement with certain types of pop culture influences his or her perceptions of the destination that the pop culture portrays. Many studies apply involvement in diverse contexts based on the socio-psychological point of view that accompanies behaviors (Havitz & Mannell, 2005). Involvement is also an important variable within the consumer behavior discourse. Rothschild (1984) defines involvement as a motive or a state of interest provided in some special situation. Further, Zaichkowsky (1985) states involvement as the importance of a particular object, or interest in that object, under a particular circumstance. In addition, Havitz and Dimanche (1997) define this concept as an arousal or interest toward certain recreational activities or associated products. Thus, involvement refers to an individual's interest or arousal toward a particular object in some special situation. Thus, this study, according to its purpose, defines pop culture involvement as an individual's interest or arousal toward a certain pop culture. Within the tourism industry, emphasis on pop culture involvement is increasing more than ever due to the development of modern media (Gross & Brown, 2006; Kim, Ko, & Kim, 2015). Consumers can now access pop culture more easily and they can also easily find cases showing the effect of pop culture on tourism. The film Notting Hill, using the Notting Hill area of London as its actual title; this film induces visitors from all around the world. This occurrence is not limited to films; Abbey Road, which is the cover image of the last Beatles album, sets as a kind of pilgrimage course for Beatles fans. Thus, Abby Road is now a cultural heritage site of England (Gyeonggi Research Institute, 2014). The phenomenon of choosing trip locations based on portrayals in popular culture occurs beyond England and certain pop culture mediums. Such portrayals and features of mass media can act as powerful forces that stimulate tourism demands (Beeton, 2001; Connell, 2005; Ko, Choo, Lee, Song, & Whang, 2013; Ko, Lee, & Whang, 2013; Lee et al., 2008; Ortega & Rodriguez, 2007). Representations of tourist destinations constructed by popular cultural forms of media such as films, television, and literature play a significant role in influencing people's vacation decision-making process (Iwashita, 2008). The tourism industry is also increasing the use of images of places introduced in popular culture to promote tourist destinations and to distinguish themselves from each other. This demonstrates that the involvement of pop culture has a high correlation with visit intention for destinations. While these existing studies contribute to understanding the influence of pop culture on tourism, only few studies empirically investigates the actual linkage between pop culture and tourism perceptions and behaviors. 2.1.1. Situational pop culture involvement/enduring pop culture involvement Involvement can include two categories of situational involvement (SI) and enduring involvement (EI) (Richins & Bloch, 1986; Richins, Bloch, & McQuarrie, 1992). Here, SI means a temporary interest in a particular behavior or object under a particular situation (Richins & Bloch, 1991) and EI refers to the enduring interest of an individual. In other words, each individual's involvement toward the same object may vary in degree based on not only personal traits but also on the surrounding conditions. Thus, SI refers to the involvement influenced by circumstantial situations, and EI refers to the involvement related to the individual's interest. Because SI has a close relation to particular situations, the time period matters and influence on individuals are temporary. Thus, when social pressure exerts, the tendency enhances (Richins et al., 1992). In other words, when a particular aspect of pop culture wins a lot of social popularity and appears in public for a long-term, the

individual feels pressure to conform (Laverie & Arnett, 2000). Thus, in modern society where certain information or trends transfer faster than ever with the development of electronic media, SI is more likely to occur. Certain cultural or social phenomenon now builds upon the influence of media and through word of mouth (Ko & Lee, 2011). In particular, social network service (SNS) incorporates many interrelated networks, expanding social participation in a particular situation or phenomenon and evoking a bond of sympathy throughout (Kang, Song, & Choi, 2013). The social and environmental transition of social media networks also leads to the spread of foreign pop cultures, creating more power for ripple effects. Thus, this study defines SI as involvement caused by a particular situational phenomenon. Conversely, involvement that stands on individual's longer lasting desire or motives refers to EI. Havitz and Dimanche (1997) define EI as an “unobservable state of motivation, arousal or interest toward a recreational activity or associated product, evoked by a particular stimulus or situation, and which has driven properties.” Individuals with EI tend to care more because individual involvement relates to enhancing self-image through certain objects. Thus, unlike SI, EI is an enduring type of involvement. Because EI refers to the enduring interest in a particular behavior or object, individuals would consistently relate themselves to a particular object (Laverie & Arnett, 2000). Fandoms, or groups who internally and enduringly engage with a certain celebrity or character, may relate to EI. To sum up, this study states EI as an enduring involvement based on the individual's traits. However, previous studies indicate that communication channels such as SNS or the situational context can influence an individual's enthusiasm (Kang et al., 2013). Further, some studies suggest that pop cultural forms, such as movies, influence on individual's behavior (Choi, Ko, & Megehee, 2014). Thus, the worldwide phenomenon of pop culture's influence on tourism can be the result of social and environmental transitions. Therefore, this study formulates and tests the following hypothesis. H1. The level of situational pop culture involvement influences the level of enduring pop culture involvement.

2.2. Destination image formation Destination image is a composite of various products, attractions, and attributes added into the total impression (Aiello et. al, 2015; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997). Individual forms an impression about the destination as a consequence of a selection process based on the numerous pieces of information (Reynolds, 1965). Destination images can play a critical role in actual travel decision-making processes (Bigne, Sanchez, & Sanchez, 2001; Lee, Lee & Lee, 2005) and identify destination images into cognition and affect, which are two conceptually different but highly correlated components (Lee et al., 2008). The cognitive component leading to some internally accepted attributes builds more or less upon factual information. On the other hand, the affective component relates to a diffusive feeling, which can become important when making the actual decision to travel (Russell, 1980). Russell (1980) notes that an affective state occurs only as the final result of the cognitive process. Pop cultural contents can act as the informative substances delivering crucial information forming the destination image (Ko & Lee, 2011). Due to the methods of modern media, social diffusion forms the trend of certain pop culture content (Kim & Kang, 2007; Ko, Chun, Song & Kim, 2013; Park, Song, & Ko, 2011). Thus, the contemporary tourist's experience is inseparable from cultural diffusion. Precedent studies indicate that pop culture content portraying a social and environmental transition can change the destination image drastically within a short period of time (Gartner, 1994). Cases of increasing tourists in particular places without any promotional activities, yet appeared in a popular soap opera suggest that pop culture enhances the positive destination image of individuals

Please cite this article as: Whang, H., et al., Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists, Journal of Business Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020

H. Whang et al. / Journal of Business Research xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

(Tooke & Baker, 1996). Looking at the dramatic increase in tourist interest after exposure in pop culture content, personal concentration plays a role in the destination decision-making process (Kim & Kang, 2007). Thus, this study includes testing the following hypotheses. H2. The level of situational pop culture involvement significantly influences a) the cognitive image of potential destinations and b) the affective image of potential destinations. H3. The level of enduring pop culture involvement significantly influences the a) cognitive image of potential destinations and b) the affective image of potential destinations.

2.3. Destination evaluation 2.3.1. Overall image Image is a summation of the impressions, knowledge, prejudices, and emotional thoughts that people have regarding a particular object (Lawson & Baud-Bovy, 1977). Thus, tourists develop an individual or group perception of a particular place (Fakeye & Crompton, 1991). Overall image is a comprehensive perception of a certain place that includes both cognitive and affective evaluations (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). These perceptions, either projected or real, determine individuals' attitudes toward a destination and directly relates to the overall favorable or unfavorable notions (Ahmed, 1991). This study specifies overall image as an attitude toward the destination based on comprehensive evaluations of a particular place. Based on the wide acceptance of cognitive and affective evaluation of objects influencing the overall image of a destination (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999), various precedent studies suggest the interrelationship of cognitive image and affective image with one's overall image of a destination. Stern and Krakover (1993) describe the example of designative and appraisive together forming the overall image of a city. Gartner (1994) also demonstrate the model of image formation based on the role of cognitive and affective evaluations. Further, Sidali (2014) has investigated the attitudes toward destination image based on the cognitive and affective properties. Several empirical studies also suggest a close relationship between cognitive image and affective image (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Crompton & Ankomah, 1993; Kim & Richardson, 2003). Mayo and Jarvis (1981) propose that beliefs and opinions have relations in forming the individual's feelings toward the destination. Gartner (1994) also suggests that the sum of beliefs and knowledge of attributes hierarchically relates to the affective components. Baloglu and McCleary (1999) provide a path of cognitive components influencing the affective components in their destination image formation model. Thus, the study tests the following hypotheses. H4. Cognitive images of a destination influence the affective images of that destination.

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Studies show the influence of image on the destination choice process (Crompton & Ankomah, 1993; Gartner, 1989). The interrelationship of the image can eventually determine the predisposition of visiting a particular destination (Gartner, 1994). Lupton (1997) suggests a positive relationship between destination image and intention for future visits. Chalip et al. (2003) also suggest that destination image significantly influences the intention to visit a particular destination. Finally, Woodside and Lysonski (1989) argue that destination image directly relates to the intention to travel. Therefore, destinations with more favored images are more likely to be included in the decision making process. This propensity lies on that people make decisions to avoid the high cost of uncertainty (Burch, 1969). Thus, the study tests the following hypotheses. H5b. Cognitive images of a tourism destination significantly influence intention to visit. H6b. Affective images of a tourism destination significantly influence intention to visit. H7. Overall images of a tourism destination significantly influence intention to visit. Further, because overall image constitutes the comprehensive perception of a certain place, the cultural and social characteristics of a destination have a likely impact on attracting foreign tourists (Ko, Choo, et al., 2013; Ko, Lee, et al., 2013). Especially, the pop cultural contents embedding the partial information of the destination can perform as the organizer of image, changing the perception toward the destination in a short time (Gartner, 1994). Many studies show a noticeable increase in visits due to pop culture in the form of films, novels, celebrities, and soap operas; such pop culture may expedite people's intention to visit associated destinations (Lee et al., 2008). Lee et al. (2008) note that the level of involvement with the chosen celebrity can affect perceptions that a celebrity's link to a place may signify. Hinerman (1992) also describes that Elvis fans showed a propensity to visit related destinations. Significant personal meanings constructed by association with pop culture have formed the occurrence of modern secular pilgrimages (Cohen, 1997). With the advent of the Information Age, via diverse direct and indirect communication channels organic images are more stabilized and intensified than before (Lee et al., 2008). The amount of information received would strengthen the destination image. To add on, people are more likely to have more information of the destination when interested in certain category. Thus, the study tests the following hypotheses. H8. The level of situational pop culture involvement significantly influences a) overall image of a tourism destination and b) intention to visit a tourism destination. H9. The level of enduring pop culture involvement significantly influences a) overall image of a tourism destination and b) intention to visit a tourism destination.

H5a. Cognitive images of a destination influence the overall image of a tourism destination. H6a. Affective images of a destination influence the overall image of a tourism destination.

2.3.2. Visit intention of the destination Visit intention refers to a perceived likelihood of visiting a certain place within a specific period. Destination image affects not only a tourist's subjective perception, but also their consequent behavior and destination decision (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Echtner & Ritchie, 1991; Woodside & Lysonski, 1989). In other words, the existing image of the destination can condition a tourist's decision-making process (Chi & Qu, 2008).

2.4. Travel motivation The tourist motivation provides the evidence by explaining the reason or the motive of sightseeing that connects to satisfying the tourist's desire (Lee, Han, & Kim, 2014). The tourist motivation appears differently according to the individual, mental, and internal environments of the tourist and external factors such as the cultural, environmental, and periodical environments (Byun, 2011; Hsu, Cai, & Li, 2009; Kozak, 2002). Since tourist motivation derives from internal factors of the tourist himself and the characteristics of the tourist site, observing push factors and pull factors is important. The push factors are internal motives such as escaping the demands of daily life, relaxation, adventure, and health. The pull factors are external factors

Please cite this article as: Whang, H., et al., Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists, Journal of Business Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020

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that can be explained with visual resources such as the beach, the recreational facility, and the cultural resources and attractiveness of the tourist site (Kozak, 2002). Tourist motivation can be a major factor guiding behaving, and allow the anticipation of future behavior because it directly associates with satisfying the tourist's desire (Lee et al., 2014). Despite its individuality, studies suggest that nationality and cultural environment can influence the preferred types of vacation, the selection of tourist destinations, and tourism behaviors—that is, tourism motivation (Pizam & Sussmann, 1995). There is a critical view that in the global environment, particular behaviors are different depending on the unitary state or culture (Correia, do Valle, & Moço, 2007; Dann, 1993). National culture can explain the behavior and travel patterns of tourists (Woodside, Hsu, & Marshall, 2011). Thus, national culture can work as a moderator on tourist behaviors (Pizam & Sussmann, 1995). Empirical and anecdotal evidences suggest that national culture influences people's destination decisions. Within the destination decision context, Jackson (2001) proposes a relationship between the destination image and destination empirically based on the cultural study of Hofstede (1980). In addition, Chalip et al. (2003) suggest that the relationship between image and evaluation of destination varied by nationality. Therefore, the survey for this study conducts two different countries to examine the effect of pop culture involvement on image formation and perception of destination. The two countries chosen for this study were China and Russia. The reason for selection relies on the fact that these countries are potential future powerhouses in the tourism industry. China receives worldwide attention from researchers as well as practitioners due to the growth of its outbound market in the tourism industry (Cai, Li, & Knutson, 2008). The average spending of one Chinese tourist estimates to be 1508 euros, which is three to five times more than that of European and American tourists (Fortune Character China, 2013). Further, China is one of the largest potential tourism markets in most countries including South Korea, accounting for 35% of the total number of foreign entrants in Korea (Korea Tourism Organization, 2013). Russia also receives worldwide attention and is the second largest emerging market within the tourism industry (Lee et al., 2014). Further, Russia ranks as the fifth largest outbound market (Ministry of Culture & Sports, 2014). Based on the commonalities as the potential future powerhouse, yet having a different cultural background, the constructing tendency is expected to differ between these two cultures (Moschis & Ong, 2012). Therefore, the study tests the following hypothesis. H10. Visit intention model differs according to nationality (China versus Russia)

3. Methods 3.1. Measures Because most previous image studies used quantitative/structured techniques (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Pike, 2002), the study here uses a survey method including a self-administered questionnaire. Major variables of the survey were involvement with pop culture, destination image (cognitive/affective), overall image toward destination, and intention to visit. The level of situational pop culture was measured using nine items that were adopted from a study by Park (2012). The enduring pop culture involvement was measured using ten items that were adopted from a study by Davison (1983); Gunther (1988); Kim (2004) and Kim (2009). The cognitive dimension of destination was measured using items from Baloglu and McCleary (1999) with slight modifications. As for the affective dimension of destination image, four items were used from Baloglu and Brinberg (1997). The survey items from Kwon (2009) were utilized to measure the construct of overall image. An intention to visit a tourism destination was measured with scales from the study of Oppermann (2000) and Pritchard and

Howard (1997). All survey questions were answered based on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree), with revisions to measure the construct.

3.2. Selection of pop culture Korean pop culture is a focus for this study. Korean pop culture is currently popular around the world due to K-pop, Korean soap opera, films, and other mediums (Kwon, 2009). A social phenomenon spreading out worldwide, this popularity creates economic value, which consists of continuous and immense ripple effects. Unlike American or European cultures, which have already gained international popularity, Korean pop culture has only recently started to expand outbound. This international extension of Korean pop culture bases on the development of science, technology, and communications. Reinforcing globalization, this development allows individuals to encounter related pop culture information with ease. Korean singer Psy became a global phenomenon with his song Gangnam Style and horse-riding dance move (2 billion views on YouTube as of June 2014). In addition, the number of Korean pop culture fan clubs reached 9.28 million worldwide in 2013 according to the Global Hallyu Data 2013 report (Korea Foundation, 2014). Meanwhile, the value of exporting South Korean pop culture was estimated as $5 billion in 2013, and inbound tourist arrivals jumped 8.3% in one year to a record 12.2 million visitors in 2013 (Holliday & Wong, 2014; Korea Tourism Organization, 2013). Therefore, the development of Korean pop culture was closely related to the expansion of the tourism industry (Hogarth, 2013; Kim, Agrusa, Chon, & Cho, 2008; Kim et al., 2009; Ko, Chun, & Lee, 2011; Shim, 2006). Based on the previously discussed advance of communication channels, Korean pop culture is in a condition to match the situational involvement due to its sudden acknowledgment worldwide, while simultaneously constituting fandoms with enduring involvement worldwide. Thus, in this study, Korean pop culture was selected to examine the influence on destination image.

3.3. Sample and data collection The survey examines the effect of pop culture involvement on formation and perception of destination image in China and Russia. As mentioned above, the choice of countries not only resulted from recognition as potential future powerhouses in this industry, but also because these two countries have shown one of the highest increases in the number of tourists visiting Korea recently (KCTI, 2013). In addition, with no drastic difference in geographical distances compared to other countries, the travel motivation of these two countries is expected to be distinctively different from one other. From this, it aims to provide deeper understanding of the targeted tourists. A survey was conducted from March 1st to March 30th, 2014. The hypotheses were tested using a data set developed from field surveys using only online survey results. The resultant questionnaire was pretested by native speakers before distributing. No discrepancies were reported among the surveys. The questionnaire was pretested by 30 fashion-marketing researchers before distributing. Of the 265 samples collected, three were returned incomplete. An additional seven samples were eliminated from further analysis, as the answers were unusable. In total, 255 samples—128 and 127 samples from China and Russia respectively—were collected for final analysis. Among the total 255 respondents, most of the participants (93.3%) were women. 60.9% of the respondents were in their 20s. 46% were university students, and about 30% of the participants held graduate degrees. Regarding the monthly average total household income, most of the respondents (35.3%) were from households earning $3000 to $5000 per month.

Please cite this article as: Whang, H., et al., Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists, Journal of Business Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020

H. Whang et al. / Journal of Business Research xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

4. Analysis Major variables in the questionnaire included pop culture involvement, destination images (affective/cognitive), and destination perception (overall image/intention to visit). The data analysis was conducted in three stages using AMOS 18.0. First, exploratory factor analyses using the principal component method with varimax rotation were conducted on pop culture involvement, destination image, overall image, and intention to visit. The analysis found that all variables reflected the constructs on the basis of accepted content validity. On that basis, the relationships of pop culture involvement, evaluative factors (i.e. destination image and overall destination image), and intention to visit tourism destination were empirically tested using structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques in the second stage. Lastly, a multi-group analysis was conducted to verify differences in visit intention models between different countries. 5. Results 5.1. Confirmatory factor analysis Prior to conducting a validity test for the proposed research model, a confirmatory factor analysis of internal and external variables was implemented for the structural equating model. The model fit index (χ2 = 326.625, df = 183, χ2/df = 1.785, GFI = .900, NFI = .946, IFI = .976, CFI = .975, RMSEA = .056) met the acceptable value for structural model analysis. Therefore, it can be said that unidimensionality can be accepted. In addition, the standardized factor loadings were found to have values greater than 0.6 as well as squared multiple correlation of over 0.5. Therefore, convergent validities of latent factors used for the structural equation model exist (Table 1). 5.2. Structural equation model analysis Structural equation model analysis was performed to find the casual relationship between pop culture involvement, destination image, and destination perception. The fit of the calculated structural model (χ2 = 314.699, df = 182, χ2/df = 1.729, GFI = .900, NFI = .948,

IFI = .977, CFI = .977, RMSEA = .054) was shown to correspond to the acceptable level of fit set by the study. Based on the goodness of fit indexes of the structural model, the hypotheses were tested. Table 2 summarizes the result. First, H1, which states that the level of situational pop culture involvement significantly influences the level of enduring pop culture involvement was supported with significance of p b .000. H2a, which asserts that situational pop culture involvement has a positive effect on cognitive image, does not receive support. H2b, which asserts that situational pop culture involvement has positive effect on affective image, receives support (p b .000). Based on these results, when a foreign pop culture achieves a greater level of acceptance within the society, this generates the decline of cognitive image over the long term. Second, H3a, which asserts that enduring pop culture involvement will have a positive effect on cognitive image, and H3b, which asserts that enduring pop culture involvement will have a positive effect on affective image, were both accepted with a high level of significance (p b .000) and directivity of path coefficient. H4, which asserts that cognitive images of destination will have positive effect on affective image, was found significant (p b .000) as well. This is in line with the results of precedent studies in which celebrity involvement had a static effect on the visit intention. The results agree with the argument that an affective state occurs only through the cognitive process (Kim & Richardson, 2003). Third, the directivity and path effect of H5a, which asserts that cognitive image of a destination has a static effect on the overall image of a tourism destination, and H6a, which asserts that affective image of destination will have static effect on the overall image of a tourism destination, were both significant. Destination image, which consists of two parts: the cognitive image and the affective image compose with the overall image in the middle of interactions and combination of various factors (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). Fourth, H5b, which asserts that cognitive image will have a significant effect on visit intention, was rejected, yet H6b, which asserts that affective image will have a significant effect on visit intention, was accepted (p b .000). Based on these results, establishing a stronger cognitive image actually causes a significant decline in visit intention. Positive images about a destination lead to positive experiences

Table 1 Convergent validity of the construct. Variables

Item

Standar-dized SMC AVE factor loading

Situational involvement

Recognized on popular culture related products Favorable impression on popular culture related products

.925 .927

.837 .829

Recognized on popular culture related product by influence of Korean wave Favorable impression on popular culture related product by influence of Korean pop culture Have Korean wave influence that makes willingness to travel to Korea Love and enjoy Korean pop culture Fan of Korean pop culture More concerned about Korean pop culture Interested in Korean pop culture Closeness of Korean pop culture Interesting historical monuments Unique historic buildings Exotic cultural flavor Interesting travel destination Attractive travel destination Relaxed travel destination Favorable impression Good impression Charming impression Willing to (re) visit Korea Have motivation to work hard to travel Korea Have intention to W–O–M

.951

.838

.943

.814

.912

.795

.859 .791 .887 .907 .870 .871 .872 .766 .918 .960 .770 .850 .867 .972 .875 .867 .851

.737 .626 .787 .823 .757 .758 .760 .586 .843 .922 .592 .722 .752 .945 .766 .752 .724

Enduring involvement

Cognitive image Affective image

Overall image

Visit intention

5

CR

Model fit

.602 .883 χ2 = 326.625, df = 183, χ2/df = 1.785, GFI = .900, NFI = .946, IFI = .976, CFI = .975, RMSEA= .056

.512 .840

.535 .775

.693 .870

.697 .873

.526 .769

SMC: squared multiple correlation.

Please cite this article as: Whang, H., et al., Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists, Journal of Business Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020

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Table 2 Results of hypotheses tests. Hypothesis H1 H2a H2b H3a H3b H4 H5a H5b H6a H6b H7 H8a H8b H9a H9b

Situational pop culture involvement → enduring pop culture involvement Situational pop culture involvement → cognitive image Situational pop culture involvement → affective image Enduring pop culture involvement → cognitive image Enduring Pop culture involvement → affective image Cognitive image → affective image Cognitive image → overall image Cognitive image → visit intention Affective image → overall image Affective image → visit intention Overall image → visit intention Situational pop culture involvement → overall image Situational pop culture involvement → visit intention Enduring pop culture involvement → overall image Enduring pop culture involvement → visit intention

Estimate

S.E.

C.R.

Result

.452 −.290 .195 .492 .333 .546 .198 −.019 .453 .336 .469 .017 .061 .321 .145

.059 .059 .039 .064 .047 .051 .051 .058 .069 .089 .103 .037 .042 .046 .058

7.243*** −4.428*** 3.837*** 7.265*** 5.820*** 9.194*** 3.280** −.346 6.315*** 4.566*** 5.672*** .339 1.356 5.495*** 2.476*

Supported Not supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Not Supported Supported Supported Supported Not Supported Not Supported Supported Supported

Note: Estimate standardized coefficient, t-value: C.R. (Critical Ratio), ***p b .001. **p b .01. *p b .05. Bold in this table indicates that the hypothesis was supported.

destination, was found to be highly significant (p b .000). H8b, which asserts that situational pop culture involvement will influence intention to visit a tourism destination, does not received. However, H9b, which asserts that the level of enduring pop culture involvement will significantly influence intention to visit a tourism destination, was supported unlike the case of situational pop culture involvement. Therefore, the results of this study show that when enduring pop culture involvement reinforces a positive attitude toward visit intention to the destination of the relevant pop culture. Fig. 1 summarizes the findings. Lastly, the study applies multiple group analysis on the Russian group and the Chinese group to identify the differences in visit intention of two countries. Before proceeding with the analysis, the travel intention of these two countries was analyzed. The confirmatory factor analysis of travel intention which was found to fit the index (χ2 = 149.196, df = 59, χ2/df = 2.528, GFI = .916, NFI = .901, IFI = .938, CFI = .937, RMSEA = .078) met the acceptable value. With the following variables, a t-test was completed to find the differences between countries. As shown in Table 3, travel intention of each country varies significantly. Whereas Chinese tend to seek relaxation and shopping

involving the destination in the future, which then leads to visit intention (Lee et al., 2008); therefore, cognitive image and affective image should result in high visit intention, but cognitive image actually has a negative relationship with visit intention. In other words, possessing a stronger cognitive image about a destination reduced the visit intention by a significant level. Fifth, H7, which asserts that overall image of a tourism destination will have a static effect on the visit intention, showed significant directivity and path effect. This result is in line with a previous study that showed that involvement with a celebrity has a positive effect on visit intention for the location and country that the celebrity is from (Lee et al., 2008). This also confirms the results of preceding research where an improvement in the overall image of a place held by an individual enhances his or her intention to visit and to recommend it in the future (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). Sixth, H8a, which asserts that situational pop culture involvement will have static effect on overall image of a tourism destination, was rejected, while H9a, which asserts that the level of enduring pop culture involvement will significantly influence overall image of a tourism

-.061 -.017

KI1

KI2

KI5

KV1

HD2 HD3 HD4 HD5

KV2 Situational Pop Culture Involvement

Cognitive Image

-.290***

.198**

KV3

Overall Image

HD9 .425***

.546***

.469***

PI3 PI4 PI5 PI6

Enduring Pop Culture Involvement

Affective Image

.333***

.336***

Visit Intention KV6

PI8 KI6

KI7

KI11

KV4

KV5

.145* .321***

I= .900, NFI=.948, IFI=.977, CFI=.977, RMSEA=.05 Fig. 1. Structural equation model of visit intention.

Please cite this article as: Whang, H., et al., Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists, Journal of Business Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020

H. Whang et al. / Journal of Business Research xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

(γ15). However, affective image may not result in visit intention for Chinese tourists.

Table 3 Travel intention of countries. Travel Intention

Knowledge/culture Relaxation Shopping Activities/physical

7

Nation

Sig.

China (n = 128)

Russia (n = 127)

4.78 5.84 4.14 4.64

5.41 5.32 3.11 5.16

6. Conclusions −5.159*** 4.147*** 6.810*** −2.800***

Note: ***p b .001.

more when traveling, Russians tend to seek physical activities and learning new knowledge/culture when traveling. Possessing different travel intentions is in line with previous research, which showed that tourists of different nationalities behave in different ways (Cho, 1991; Lam, Liu, & To, 2011). Further analysis was performed regarding differences between the countries' structural models. The results found that those with China (χ2 = 340.204, df = 182, CFI = .935, IFI = .936, RMSEA = .083) and Russia (χ2 = 243.334, df = 182, CFI = .978, IFI = .979, RMSEA = .052) both had a suitable fit. As shown in Table 4, the χ2 value of the groups was significant at p b .000. Furthermore, the χ2 value of the unconstrained model was more acceptable than the constrained model, indicating the mediation effect. Thus, the countries' differing structural models support H10. To analyze the moderating effect in the path-coefficient, the χ2 value was computed to test for differences in each of the fifteen path-coefficients. In conclusion, a significant difference occurs in one path. The direct path of cognitive image → affective image (γ6, Δχ2 = 10.558, p b .01) was shown to have a significant difference between the groups. Additionally, the direct influence of cognitive image → affective image was higher in the Russian group (γRussian = 7.181 N γChinese = 4.520). Table 5 presents the findings. The findings appear in Fig. 2. First, situational pop culture involvement in both Chinese and Russian groups has a significant effect on enduring pop culture involvement (γ1). However, situational pop culture involvement does not have a significant effect on cognitive image (γ2). Enduring pop culture involvement in both Chinese and Russian groups has a significant effect on the cognitive image (γ4). Enduring pop culture involvement (γ13) and affective image (γ9) both have a significant effect on the overall image of a tourism destination. Overall image of a tourism destination shows a significant static effect on the visit intention (γ11). However, the results show that cognitive image does not have a significant effect on visit intention (γ8). In addition, situational pop culture involvement does not have a significant effect on overall image (γ12) and visit intention (γ14). Thus, positive overall image of a tourism destination must be formed for a cognitive image to become an affective image in order to raise visit intention. Differences occur between each country regarding situational pop culture involvement and affective image (γ3). The static effect occurs in Russian groups. Further, enduring pop culture involvement has a static effect on affective image (γ5) only in China. The effect of cognitive image on overall image (γ7) has a static effect only in Russia. Yet, the effect of enduring pop culture involvement on cognitive image (γ4) shows significant effects in both countries. Also, the Russian group shows affective image significantly influencing visit intention (γ10) and enduring pop culture involvement directly affecting visit intention

Table 4 Measurement of invariance of countries. Model fit

χ2(df)

Δχ2(Δ df)

P

CFI

RMSEA

Unconstraint model Constraint model

583.535(364) 627.575(379)

44.04(15)

.000

.958 .953

.049 .051

6.1. Discussion Through an investigation of the structural equation of visit intention model, this study investigates the relationship between pop culture involvement (both situational and enduring), destination image, and perception. In addition, the findings empirically support the positive association between cognitive images and affective images. The results also indicate that destination images positively relates with the overall image of a tourism destination and intention to visit. First, although socially accepting foreign pop culture did not directly influence forming an overall positive attitude and visit intention, the results indicate that situational involvement has a direct influence on enduring involvement, and extends to destination image. This tendency is in line with diverse previous theories including theories of social ecology, which bases on the person–environment fit. Thus, the environmental transition influences the individual to change their attitudes (Felner, Ginter, & Primavera, 1982; Hanson, Foreman, Tomlin, & Bright, 1994). Unlike its positive influence on forming the affective image of destination, the result shows cognitive image of destination to have negative relationship with the situational involvement of foreign pop culture. Thus, increasing situational involvement forms negative cognitive images. This can be interpreted based on the agitation that is often generated by the consistent expansion of foreign culture; it generally becomes a threat to local pop culture (Creighton, 2009). The hype provokes backlashes, sometimes resulting in terms such as ‘cultural invasion’ or ‘cultural imperialism’ (Tomlinson, 1991). Governmental-led institutional policies abolishing foreign cultural content occur worldwide (Kim, 2009). Thus, with the increasing penetration of foreign pop culture in a local society, cognitive image may decline. Enduring pop culture involvement, however, forms positive cognitive images and affective images, and has a direct impact on overall image and visit intention. These results align with various previous studies, where pop cultural elements can induce tourism. The study of Riley and Doren (1992) also supports this result, which showed that pop culture content could form specific destination images among potential tourists. This phenomenon is not specific to Korea, diverse cases exist including novels that describe islands in Canada stimulating the tourism industry of that area (Squire, 1996) and films based on the US drawing African tourists (Coloccia, 1997). Further, researches showing television productions of the UK inducing international tourists (Iwashita, 2006) and music promoting the tourism industry in Liverpool (Cohen, 1997) exist as well. To sum up, enduring pop culture not only forms a positive correlation with destination image, but also destination perception. The result that cognitive image and affective image both positively correlate with the overall image is in line with the study by Baloglu and McCleary (1999), which argued that the overall image of a place forms because of both perceptual/cognitive and affective evaluations of that place. Further, the correlation between an overall favorable image of the destination and visit intention agrees with the study by Lee et al. (2008). Bigne et al. (2001) also claimed that the more positive the overall image of the destination, the more likely tourists are to visit. However, the results of destination image on visit intention vary from the previous result, where Gartner (1994) argued that the dynamics of cognitive and affective image components eventually determine the intention to visit. Although affective image directly influences visit intention, the overall positive image is formed only when cognitive image influences an increased visit intention. Furthermore, a variety of characteristics influence the result of destination perception, including domestic and international travelers

Please cite this article as: Whang, H., et al., Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists, Journal of Business Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020

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H. Whang et al. / Journal of Business Research xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 5 Moderating effects between countries. Path

γ1 γ2 γ3 γ4 γ5 γ6 γ7 γ8 γ9 γ10 γ11 γ12 γ13 γ14 γ15

Estimates

S.E.

C.R.

Chinese

Russian

Chinese

Russian

Chinese

Russian

.309 .185 .094 .373 .285 .303 −.010 .108 .642 −.046 1.055 .088 .015 .259 .008

.288 .015 .176 .575 .112 .750 .309 −.151 .270 .612 .427 .073 .027 .262 .194

.095 .096 .063 .099 .070 .067 .044 .058 .095 .142 .160 .062 .074 .071 .091

.121 .077 .062 .066 .075 .104 .121 .150 .105 .130 .145 .057 .068 .065 .083

3.259** 1.928 1.489 3.770*** 4.097*** 4.520*** −.229 1.858 6.741*** −.324 6.577*** .155 .208 3.645*** .088

2.375* .197 2.860** 8.653*** 1.495 7.181*** 2.558* −1.011 2.559* 4.688*** 2.948** 1.289 .390 4.028*** 2.339*

χ2

Δχ2

627.560 626.583 625.457 624.878 627.428 617.017 626.351 626.929 626.256 625.795 625.664 627.100 627.397 627.522 627.470

.015 .992 2.118 2.697 .147 10.558 1.224 .646 1.319 1.78 1.911 .475 .178 .053 .105

Note: C.R. ***p b .001. **p.01. *p b .05. Estimate: regression weights. Bold presented as significant p values. γ1: Situational pop culture involvement → enduring pop culture involvement. γ2: Situational pop culture involvement → cognitive image. γ3: Situational pop culture involvement → affective image. γ4: Enduring pop culture involvement → cognitive image. γ5: Enduring pop culture involvement → affective image γ6: Cognitive image → affective image γ7: Cognitive image → overall image. γ8: Cognitive image → visit intention. γ9: Affective image → overall image. γ10: Affective image → visit intention. γ11: Overall image → visit intention. γ12: Situational pop culture involvement → overall image. γ13: Situational pop culture involvement → visit intention. γ14: Enduring pop culture involvement → overall image. γ15: Enduring pop culture involvement → visit intention.

(Bonn, Joseph, & Dai, 2005) and tourists of different nationalities and cultural backgrounds (Brown, 1998; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000; Sirgy & Su, 2000). Chinese and Russian tourists were compared to see

how the results of the structural model would differ. This study selects these two countries because they were the fastest growing in tourism numbers not only for Korea but also worldwide. As tourists of different C: .015 R: .027

C: .088 R: .073 KI1

KI2

KI5

KV1

HD2 HD3 HD4 HD5

KV2 Situational Pop Culture Involvement

C: -.010 R: .309*

Cognitive Image

C: .185 R: .015

KV3

Overall Image

HD9 C: .309** R: .288*

C: .303*** R: .750***

C: 1.055*** R: .427**

PI3 PI4 PI5 PI6

Enduring Pop Culture Involvement

Affective Image

C: .285*** R: .112

C: -.046 R: .612***

Visit Intention KV6

PI8 KI6

KI7

KI11

KV4

KV5

C: .088 R: .194* C: .239*** R: .262***

GFI= .835, NFI=.898, IFI=.959, CFI=.958, RMSEA=.04

Fig. 2. Multi-group comparison between countries.

Please cite this article as: Whang, H., et al., Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists, Journal of Business Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020

H. Whang et al. / Journal of Business Research xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

nationalities behave in different ways (Cho, 1991), this study first analyzed the travel behavioral patterns of each country. Because such differences found are not necessarily based only on economic factors, but are mainly based upon the value system of the society (Ibrahim, 1991), the result is expected to be useful in future tourism plans targeting these groups. The result indicates that Chinese tourists rate relaxation and shopping relatively high, whereas Russians consider physical activities and learning knowledge/culture more importantly. This supports a previous study that states that the major motivation and activity of interest for Chinese travelers is shopping (Li, Lai, Harrill, Kline, & Wang, 2011). Also, as found in previous studies, Russians place more emphasis on the attractiveness and cultural elements of the tourism destination, while Chinese places more importance on tours and shopping (Han, Park, & Lee, 2014). Thus, Chinese tourists are gaining a reputation for their shopping power (Lau & Moldofsky, 2006). Depending on the characteristics of tourism tendency in two countries, the cognitive image and affective image have different elements that receive different influences. The result of the structural model in each country was different. In China, situational pop culture involvement did not have a direct effect on either the cognitive image or the affective image. Enduring pop culture involvement has to precede in order to form the cognitive image and affective image. However, in Russia, situational pop culture involvement did influence the formation of affective image and enduring pop culture involvement on cognitive image. This finding supports the perspective that push versus pull factors influence Chinese tourists: shopping and relaxation, which is why the individual enduring pop culture involvement is important in developing image. Further, in the case of Chinese tourists, forming the overall image is necessary to form the intention to visit was found. In conclusion, activities trying to form emotional connection can be the key to induce Chinese. For Russians, where learning knowledge/culture is as important as physical activities, not only affective image, but established cognitive image also directly influenced the overall positive image of the destination. As pointed out in many studies, this difference probably associates with the unique propensities to pursue travel between the two countries (Han et al., 2014). Therefore, travel programs and facilities should consider such differences between nationalities.

6.2. Implication The results of this analysis provide some implications. First, this study divides pop culture involvement into situational involvement and enduring involvement. With the acceleration of globalization due to the development of technology and the Internet, pop culture can influence people's perception as a part of the international trend. Thus, as found in the study, such situational pop culture involvement does influence the formation of enduring pop culture involvement; to form certain types of images and visit intentions, the establishment of individual enduring involvement is required. Second, regarding the cognitive and affective images formed via pop culture involvement, the cognitive image has no direct effect on visit intention, which implies that turning the cognitive image into an affective or overall image requires some types of experiences. Because knowledge about a tourism destination does not affect the visit intent directly, and it is important to have affective preferences or favorable images formed, the provision of content and experience should continue to induce the affective aspects from pop culture consumers once a certain pop culture is transmitted. Third, because such structures can vary by nationality according to travel motivation, understanding the key tourists of each country and creating customized travel planning are important. For example, building facilities that satisfy emotional needs for Chinese tourists and informative planning for Russian tourists may be more effective.

9

6.3. Limitations The conclusions of this study are subject to several limitations. First, this study only focuses on the case of Korean pop culture; future study should investigate diverse cases of pop culture under the same context. Further, this study only targets Chinese and Russian tourists; following study should test other groups to gain validity. Second, this study explores differences due to nationality, rather than individual traits. Additional research is recommended to test other tourist behavioral traits, including cultural backgrounds or individual familiarity variables. To extend the study, further research can compare two countries in the same cultural region but with different involvement phases, which would minimize the effect of cultural differences. Third, the situational involvement is based on survey items. In the future, such situational involvement need testing based on other international indexes. 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Please cite this article as: Whang, H., et al., Pop culture, destination images, and visit intentions: Theory and research on travel motivations of Chinese and Russian tourists, Journal of Business Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.020