Power system restoration — a bibliographical survey

Electrical Power and Energy Systems 23 (2001) 219±227

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Power system restoration Ð a bibliographical survey D. Lindenmeyer a,*, H.W. Dommel a, M.M. Adibi b a

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, 2356 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4 b IRD Corporation, P.O. Box 34901, Bethesda, MD 20827 0901, USA Received 16 May 2000; revised 14 July 2000; accepted 8 August 2000

Abstract In recent years, there has been an increasing number of major power system blackouts worldwide. As a consequence, interest in the investigation and development of new methods, tools, and models for power system restoration has grown considerably. This paper provides a bibliographical survey of the current state in research, development, and applications in power system restoration. The survey is subdivided into nine different sections, each section representing those subjects which are considered to be most relevant to that area. For each section a summary and an overview of relevant publications are given. q 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Power system restoration; Black start; Restoration tools; Restoration training

1. Introduction The problem of restoring power systems after a complete or partial blackout is as old as the power industry itself. Restructuring of the electric power industry, coming at a time when the bulk power systems are operated close to their design limits, is making power systems more vulnerable to potential blackouts, and present new challenges for prompt and effective power system restoration. Restoration of a power system after a system blackout is a dif®cult task. It is complex, delicate, and time-consuming, yet losses to customers and to the industry mount rapidly until service is restored. Fortunately, these new challenges are coming at a time when new technologies are providing powerful new capabilities in areas such as large scale system analysis, communication and control, data management, arti®cial intelligence, and allied disciplines [24,56]. This literature survey provides an overview of the relevant topics in restoration. It is subdivided into nine different topics. The ®rst topic provides a general overview of the restoration process. It is followed by a discussion of active and reactive power system characteristics, and control of frequency and voltages during restoration. Then, topics covering the basic restoration switching strategies are explained, and protective system and local control problems are discussed. After overviews of power system restoration planning, restoration solution technologies are reviewed. * Corresponding author. Tel.: 11-604-605-8830; fax: 11-604-822-5949. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Lindenmeyer).

The ®nal two topics cover restoration case studies and the training of operators in restoration. The restoration of distribution systems is not speci®cally addressed in this survey.

2. Overview of restoration process This section covers publications that give a general introduction to the restoration process, as well as reports by technical committees dealing with system restoration. An overview of the restoration process is given in Fig. 1. In a typical restoration procedure, the stages of the restoration process are summarized as follows [2,3,14,24, 45,74,83,138]: in the ®rst stage, the system status is assessed, initial cranking sources are identi®ed, and critical loads are located. In the following stage, restoration paths are identi®ed and subsystems are energized. These subsystems are then interconnected to provide a more stable system. In the ®nal stage, the bulk of unserved loads is restored. In 1986 the Power System Restoration Task Force was established by the IEEE PES System Operation Subcommittee in order to review current operating practices, and to promote information exchange. Its ®rst two reports [56,57] give a general overview and a comprehensive introduction to power system restoration. Restoration plans, active and reactive power system characteristics, and various restoration strategies are reviewed. Furthermore, a survey on selected power disturbances and their restoration

0142-0615/01/$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0142-061 5(00)00061-2

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D. Lindenmeyer et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 23 (2001) 219±227 Assessment of system status

Identification of cranking sources and critical loads Switching strategies

Validation of switching operation Problem

Active power system characteristics and frequency control Reactive power system characteristics and voltage control Protective Systems and Local Control

No Problem

Remedial action

Next switching operation

Fig. 1. Overview of restoration process.

issues are given. These restoration issues are further discussed by the same authors in Ref. [3]. An international survey by CIGRE Study Committee 38.02.02 (modeling of abnormal conditions) on black start and power system restoration in 1990 [23], and a paper based on this survey in 1993 [24], identi®ed the needs of the power industry for system restoration planning. These papers give an overview of black start and restoration methods. In addition, a number of examples based on actual operating experiences are given, and requirements for modeling and simulation are recommended. Another CIGRE Task Force 38.06.04 investigated expert system applications for power system restoration [25]. Other publications that provide a general overview of power system restoration can be found in Refs. [2,14,58, 60,62]. 3. Active power system characteristics and frequency control An overview of different types of generating units, and their characteristics relevant to restoration is provided in Ref. [56]. Special emphasis is placed on the treatment of steam units in Ref. [29], whereas Ref. [66] focuses on nuclear power plants and provision for off-site power during restoration. Depending on the available cranking power, thermal units are either restarted hot or cold. Hot restarts allow for start-up with hot turbine metal temperature, whereas cold restarts require a slow start-up in order to keep the turbine metal temperature changes within given limits [62]. These characteristics result in different start-up times for different types of generating units that have to be estimated and taken into account during restoration [2,7,33,56,62,80]. The black start of generating units and subsequent cranking of other large thermal units is an important topic in restoration [23,24], since mistakes in this early stage can lead to prolonged start-up times of thermal power plants, and consequently to a signi®cant delay in the restoration

process. A number of publications deal with this topic: a method for the identi®cation of black-start sources is described in Ref. [113], and the proper start-up sequence of power plants is discussed in Refs. [3,62,110,113]. Several case studies show how gas turbines [68,117,150] or hydro units [30,50,109,117] were utilized as black-start sources. In addition, a number of papers deal with the treatment of nuclear power plants after a blackout, using on-site diesel engines [46,48,171] or combustion turbines [68,130] as emergency supply sources. The pick-up of cold loads is discussed in a recently published doctoral thesis [12], and in a number of other papers [18,19,62,69,152,172]. Picking up heavy loads during the initial stages of restoration can lead to large frequency dips beyond a point of no return. The prediction of frequency dips and the optimal distribution of generator reserves are subject of Refs. [5,33,97]. Load shedding schemes that can be utilized during restoration are introduced in Refs. [4,26,111,110,145,167]. 4. Reactive power system characteristics and voltage control The overvoltages of concern during power system restoration are classi®ed as: sustained power frequency overvoltages, switching transients, and harmonic resonance overvoltages. They may lead to failure of equipment, such as transformers, breakers, arresters, etc. [61], and thus need to be analyzed thoroughly. Systematic procedures dealing with the control of sustained overvoltages by means of optimal power ¯ow programs can be found in Refs. [54,55,78,125], and methods that deal with harmonic overvoltages in Refs. [108,107,125,129]. Simple and approximate methods that deal with the evaluation of transient and sustained overvoltages, and asymmetry issues during transmission line energization are discussed in Refs. [1,9]. The preparation of the network for reenergization and the energization of high voltage transmission lines during restoration are discussed in Refs. [2,3,50], and the special

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treatment of cables in underground transmission systems in Ref. [62]. The application of shunt reactors for overvoltage control, particularly in the cases of lightly loaded transmission lines in the beginning of the restoration procedures, is treated in Refs. [11±13,50,108,125]. Another issue of importance, especially in the early stages of the restoration process, is the lead and lag reactive power capability limits of synchronous machines. These limits are important for high charging current requirements of lightly loaded transmission lines, or for the high reactive currents drawn by the start-up of power plant auxiliary motors [6,8,33,68]. The generator reactive power resources must therefore be optimized in such cases [10,113]. 5. Switching strategies Two different switching strategies can be applied during restoration. For the ªall openº strategy, all breakers are opened immediately after the loss of voltage, whereas for the ªcontrolled operationº strategy only selected breakers are opened [3,62]. A great amount of research work that has been done in power system restoration concentrates on ®nding suitable restoration paths. Most of these approaches are based on arti®cial intelligence techniques that try to capture an operator's knowledge [40,49,53,71,87,94,95,116,133,142]. They are mostly restricted to speci®c systems and restoration philosophies. A general approach to this problem that subdivides each restoration process into generic restoration actions common to all utilities is proposed in Refs. [39,110,169]. Restoration paths have to be validated with respect to different phenomena. An overview of steady-state and time-domain based tools that can be utilized for this purpose can be found in Refs. [2,14,64,168]. Cases where simulation tools were actually applied to the validation of restoration paths can be found in Refs. [52,123,153]. 6. Protective systems and local control The continual change in power system con®gurations and their operating conditions during restoration might lead to undesired operation of relays, since their settings are optimized for normal operating conditions. An overview of resulting delays, possible modi®cations of relays, and other protective system issues is provided in Ref. [67]. Relay schemes that allow for low frequency isolation, whereby local generation and local load are matched in order to avoid extensive delays due to the otherwise necessary complete generator shutdowns, and controlled islanding schemes are treated in Refs. [3,56]. A network protection scheme that focuses on stability issues is introduced in Ref. [141]. In cases where a dramatic decline in frequency occurs during the restoration process, it is necessary to reduce the

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amount of load that is connected, which can be accomplished by the application of underfrequency load shedding schemes [26,98]. In closing network loops, e.g. reconnecting two subsystems, sometimes a signi®cant standing phase angle difference (SPA) appears across the circuit breakers. This difference has to be reduced in order to close the circuit breaker without causing instability of the system [51,64,170]. 7. Power system restoration planning The organization and implementation of a restoration plan will substantially determine its success. Reports that deal with the actual deployment of restoration plans can be found in Refs. [45,134]. An overview of how restoration tasks can be shared most ef®ciently between operator and supporting computer systems is given in Refs. [60,173]. Telecommunication issues during restoration are discussed in Refs. [38,62,134], and alarm issues in Refs. [58,62]. One can distinguish between two different restoration approaches: the ªbottom±upº, and the ªtop±downº restoration strategies [2,56]. For the ªtop±downº approach, the bulk power transmission system is established ®rst, using interconnection assistance or hydro plants with large reactive absorbing capability. Subsequently, transmission stations and the required substations are energized, generators are resynchronized, and loads are picked up [2,40,54± 56,83,125,151]. For the ªbottom±upº strategy, the system is ®rst divided into subsystems, each with black-start capability. Then, each subsystem is stabilized, and eventually the subsystems are interconnected [2,45,56,74,75,117]. The veri®cation of steady-state models used for power system restoration planning is discussed in Ref. [75]. A number of publications describe the modeling of boilers, turbines, generators, controls, motors, etc. for black-start studies in the time-domain, using stability programs [30,46,130,150], or the Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) [48,171]. Special emphasis on the modeling of transmission lines for black-start studies is given in Ref. [17], and the modeling of steam plants is treated in Ref. [29]. More information on analytical tools for restoration planning is given in the next section. 8. Restoration solution technologies An overview of analytical tools and their application for solutions of power system restoration problems is given in Refs. [24,64]. The analytical tools can be subdivided into different categories depending on the frequency range of their application. The ®rst type of tool is based on steady-state analysis: (optimum) power ¯ow programs [54,55,78,89] are the most basic tools used in system restoration. An overview of how they can be applied to different types of restoration problems is provided in Ref. [168], and applications to the control of sustained

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overvoltages can be found in Refs. [61,125]. Other tools, based on steady-state models, allow frequency scans that can be used to investigate and control resonance conditions during power system restoration [61,108,125]. Operator training simulators (OTS) can be regarded as quasi steady-state tools, since in addition to analysing the power system's electrical behaviour using power ¯ow methods, they allow taking into account long-term dynamics, i.e. the electromechanical and mechanical aspects of power systems. Analytical tools that are applied to study frequency transients of short-, mid-, and long-term range are introduced in Refs. [41,153]. Electromagnetic transients during restoration are investigated using the EMTP [17,61] or similar programs [123]. Methods that apply stability and security methods to restoration can be found in Refs. [38,135,136]. Other analytical tools that are of importance in restoration are short-circuit programs [64], tools for the reduction of standing phase angles (SPA) [51,170], or tools that help to identify system islands [105]. There is an increasing demand in the power industry to integrate existing tools and to develop combination tools that allow studying different phenomena over a broad range of frequency [24,64]. Attempts in integration or combination of analytical tools, and their applications to practical problems, are described in Refs. [41,47,52,153]. Power system restoration problems are of a combinatorial nature, and their solution is often based on the operator's knowledge and experience. Consequently, it is not surprising that most of the research that has been done in the area of system restoration has concentrated on arti®cial intelligence applications. A general bibliographical survey on the application of expert systems to electric power systems can be found in Ref. [174]. Refs. [144,176] give an overview of expert system applications in power system operation. An international survey among utilities that investigated restoration expert systems and their application is presented in Ref. [25]. A number of publications address the requirements for knowledge-based systems, and give an overview of how expert systems can be applied during different stages of power system restoration [60,65,118]. The development of expert systems for restoration requires the transfer of operator knowledge into heuristic rules. That process has been the topic of a great number of publications: [16,20,28,31,34,39,42±44,70±73,76±82, 84±88,90±95,100±104,111±113,115,116,119,120,126,127, 132,133,137,142,145,146,157±160,163,164,167,168,176]. Practical implementations of prototype knowledge-based systems in energy management systems can be found in Refs. [25,32,36,37,47,53,84,86,87,92,96,106,114,116,122, 124,138,149]. To reduce the number of rules of an expert system, mathematical programming [95,127,147] or other analytical optimization methods [126,128,132,133,147,148] can be applied in combination with knowledge-based systems.

The veri®cation of restoration solutions provided by expert systems is accomplished using an integration with timedomain simulators [31,47,88,96,138]. Other arti®cial intelligence methods that are applied to black start and power system restoration problems are the use of petri nets [40,49,169], the application of fuzzy logic to restoration automation [107], the utilization of genetic algorithms for load restoration [97], the generation of switching sequences [99,131], or as a hybrid approach of an expert system, the application of neural networks [72,176]. 9. Power system restoration training In order to provide operators with the necessary experience to con®dently deal with time-critical restoration problems, thorough training is essential. A general overview of operator training techniques for power system restoration is given in Refs. [58,63], and methods showing how restoration drills can be conducted and evaluated in practice are described in Refs. [165,166]. Interactive and realistic operator training can be accomplished by means of an OTS [3,35,60,121,139,154±156, 162,175]. OTS can also be used to verify restoration plans [88], or in combination with knowledge-based systems for power system restoration planning [47,96,138]. Information on simulator-expert-system combinations that are speci®cally designed to train operators at utilities and to replace human instructors, can be found in Refs. [20±22,59,77,90, 101,140]. 10. Power system restoration case studies Most of the published case studies come from North America: a number of black-start studies can be found in Refs. [46,48,109,150,171], the restoration of large power systems in North America for Paci®c Northwest, OntarioHydro and Hydro-Quebec is covered in Refs. [15,54,55,125, 143,151], and a report dealing with the restoration of a metropolitan electrical system in Refs. [74]. A Mexican study of restoration policies and their application is treated in Ref. [45]. European case studies describe restoration experiences in French, Greek, and Swedish Systems [12,27,41,83], Italy [30,117], Slovenia [130], and Germany [161]. 11. Conclusions This paper is a bibliographical survey of 176 publications covering the 1980s and 1990s. The survey is organised under nine different topics and each topic is provided with an overview of the relevant literature. The authors hope that this information will be of value to researchers, practising engineers as well as engineering students.

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