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Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data
ROOK
REVIEWS
organization detracts from the overall story to some extent, it makes the book easier to utilize in the context of a typical management of technology course. Cameron M. Ford Rutgers University
References I. Kidder, Tracy. The Soul ofa NW Machine and Company. 1981.
Boston, MA:
Little,
Brown
Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data, by Herbert J. Rubin and Irene S. Rubin. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995. 302 + viii pages. $45.00.
Qualitative
This engaging and readable book is an introductory overview about how to design, collect, code, interpret, and present the results of qualitative research based upon interviews (as differentiated from unobtrusive, secondary, archival, photographic, participant observational or other types of qualitative data). Several variations of interviews are included under this rubric from the very free flowing and open-ended to the more formal and semi-structured. The focus is upon exploratory theory building for complex sociological phenomena rather than upon the initial stages of traditional survey-based confirmatory analysis. The authors are two experienced academics, one a public administrator and the other an urbanologist, who have practiced these research techniques and written extensively about their research processes and findings over many years. They share a sociological interpretivist approach [2] but differ in their interviewing styles and techniques. Using careful explications of the similarities in their philosophical stance toward research as well as their technical differences, the authors illustrate throughout the book how research partnerships can enrich the process and outcomes of qualitative methods. The book will be most appropriate for professors and students who are exploring qualitative research methods for the first time. When combined with more detailed articles and illustrative exercises, it could also serve very well as the organizing text for an advanced undergraduate or first graduate course in qualitative interviewing. Happily, its conversational tone and absence of pedagogical jargon also will make the book inviting and accessible to practitioners in new product development and market research. This is particularly important for new product teams whose deliverables
involve innovations that have emerging or dynamic markets or who are involved in the implementations of new technological processes. Under these conditions. studies informed by rigorous qualitative interview designs and techniques with lead users, early adopters, and members of emerging target markets can help identify highest payoff uses and markets, design improvements, peripherals and follow-ons [7]. A central tenet of this book-and, indeed, of most qualitative analysis today-is the L‘social construction of reality” [I]. This viewpoint begins with the principle that we give meaning to objects and phenomena through social interaction. An important corollary follows: “knowledge is contextual and , . . it often doesn’t make sense to look for abstract rules of behavior that are not grounded in the context in which they occur” (p. 15). Given these assumptions, it follows that interviewees are coparticipants in the research process, because the interviewer establishes a relationship with interviewees in order to understand and interpret how they perceive and explain their own experience. Hence, researchers are never entirely objective and must be aware of the predispositions and preconceptions that they, themselves, bring to their interpretive work. In fact, as the author point out, a well-done qualitative report allows the reader to view and evaluate the intellectual strengths, weaknesses, and biases of the interviewer as well as the conclusions of the study. These are not new ideas about the qualitative research process. They are explained here, however. plainly and without confusing overelaboration. A good example is the one pointed discussion in chapter 4 of reliability and validity and the frequent misapplication of these criteria to qualitative work. Instead, the author propose three more appropriate yardsticks: transparency, consistency-coherence, and communicability. The author explains how these should form principles to guide the four major stages of qualitative interviews: design, data collections. analysis. and presentation. Of particular usefulness will be chapters 3 and 4, on study design and choice of interviewee; chapter 5, on how to build conversational partnerships; and chapter 9, on topical interviewing. In these four chapters, especially, the author’s clarity shines as they explain relatively complex ideas with ease and accuracy. In addition, they include often pesky and unexplained details that many qualitative researchers have had to learn through trial and error. For example, they discuss
470
J PROD INNOV 1996:13:465-473
MANAG
BOOK
such practical topics as different methods for organizing and framing interviews; what probes and followups to use in eliciting experiential stories rather than interpretations; how and when to test emerging themes; how to get thoughtful answers based upon evidence that add richer understanding of context; how to combine descriptions from different interviews; what are the most often used approaches to coding data; how and when to edit quotes from interviews; and ways to provide “richness” and shades of meaning in the final report. A few weaknessesdetract somewhat from the overall excellence of the book. Over the past decade, personal computers have made the task of coding and analyzing interview data far easier and more comprehensive [4], yet there are only a few brief mentions of this important tool. Most of the examples, though accessible and clear, are from the sociological viewpoint or the public sector. Thus, it takes a bit of imagination to envision business uses and contexts for the techniques (although this reviewer found this more distracting than difficult). In this same vein, while the bibliography is lengthy, containing both classics and up-to-date sources, it does not mention many important recent sources from well-known qualitative researchers in business innovation and management, of whom Eisenhardt [3] and Gummesson [5] would be two solid examples. In addition, several well acknowledged basic sources on qualitative research are omitted, such as Miles and Huberman [6], Schwartz and Jacobs [S], and Strauss and Corbin [9]. On balance, though, this is a usable and enjoyable introduction to a research approach that has seen increasing use in recent years for new product and process introductions. Its primary audience is academicians and students who will find it a very good introductory text. Practitioners, particularly those who wish to “get close to customers,” will find here some useful advice about how to ask questions of customers and how to read the answers. More importantly, they will find out what to expect of qualitative market researchers who work with new product development or implementation teams. Patricia W. Meyers Syracuse University
References 1. Berger, P. L. and Luckmann, T. The Social Construction New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1966.
of Reality.
2. Burrell, G. and Morgan, rional Analysis. London:
REVIEWS
G. Sociological Paradigms and OrganisaHeinemann Educational Books, Ltd., 1979.
3. Eisenhardt, K. Building theories from case study research. Management Review 14:532-550 (October 1989).
Academy
of
4. Fielding, N. G. and Lee, R. M. eds. Using Computers in Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1991. 5. Gummesson, E. Qualitative Methods in Management sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1991. 6. Miles, M. B. and Huberman, A. M. Qualitative tion. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,
Research.
Data Analysis 1994.
Thou2d edi-
7. Moriarty, R. T. and Kosnik, T. J. High-tech marketing: Concepts, continuity and change. Sloan Management Review 30(4):7-17 (1989). 8. Schwartz, H. and Jacobs, Free Press, 1979.
J. Qualitative
Sociology.
9. Strauss A, and Corbin, J. Basics of Qualitative Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1990.
New
Research.
York
The
Thousand
The Law of Domestic and International Strategic Alliances: A Surveyfor Corporate Management, by Alan S. Gutterman, Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 1995. 387 + viii pages. $75.00. Editors Note: Strategic alliances are fast becoming one of our most important vehicles for developing and commercializing new products, particularly those involving high technology and multiple-nation markets. This book purports to a managerial guide to the [American] laws governing such alliances. The reviewer is an attorney and professor with impressive credentials in the field of international securities markets. (RRR) This book undertakes to survey the laws and regulations that affect strategic alliances. The author, who has also written a number of other treatises on related topics, is self-described as “an attorney” currently conducting research in pursuit of doctoral degrees in international business and law and economics.” In The Law of Domestic and International Strategic Alliances, the term “strategic alliance” is used broadly to encompass the panoply of cooperative arrangements between different business firms created for more than individual transactions-sometimes also known as “corporate partnering.” The author explicitly includes minority investments, joint ventures, acquisitions, and even long-term contracts within this concept of strategic alliances. Strategic alliances, the author believes, are made in recognition of the contemporary intensification of specialization, and they permit managers to respond to competitive opportunities quickly and ‘ ‘without the need to incur the substantial risks associated with internal development.” The author posits that commercialization of new products and technologies usually
REVIEWS
organization detracts from the overall story to some extent, it makes the book easier to utilize in the context of a typical management of technology course. Cameron M. Ford Rutgers University
References I. Kidder, Tracy. The Soul ofa NW Machine and Company. 1981.
Boston, MA:
Little,
Brown
Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data, by Herbert J. Rubin and Irene S. Rubin. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995. 302 + viii pages. $45.00.
Qualitative
This engaging and readable book is an introductory overview about how to design, collect, code, interpret, and present the results of qualitative research based upon interviews (as differentiated from unobtrusive, secondary, archival, photographic, participant observational or other types of qualitative data). Several variations of interviews are included under this rubric from the very free flowing and open-ended to the more formal and semi-structured. The focus is upon exploratory theory building for complex sociological phenomena rather than upon the initial stages of traditional survey-based confirmatory analysis. The authors are two experienced academics, one a public administrator and the other an urbanologist, who have practiced these research techniques and written extensively about their research processes and findings over many years. They share a sociological interpretivist approach [2] but differ in their interviewing styles and techniques. Using careful explications of the similarities in their philosophical stance toward research as well as their technical differences, the authors illustrate throughout the book how research partnerships can enrich the process and outcomes of qualitative methods. The book will be most appropriate for professors and students who are exploring qualitative research methods for the first time. When combined with more detailed articles and illustrative exercises, it could also serve very well as the organizing text for an advanced undergraduate or first graduate course in qualitative interviewing. Happily, its conversational tone and absence of pedagogical jargon also will make the book inviting and accessible to practitioners in new product development and market research. This is particularly important for new product teams whose deliverables
involve innovations that have emerging or dynamic markets or who are involved in the implementations of new technological processes. Under these conditions. studies informed by rigorous qualitative interview designs and techniques with lead users, early adopters, and members of emerging target markets can help identify highest payoff uses and markets, design improvements, peripherals and follow-ons [7]. A central tenet of this book-and, indeed, of most qualitative analysis today-is the L‘social construction of reality” [I]. This viewpoint begins with the principle that we give meaning to objects and phenomena through social interaction. An important corollary follows: “knowledge is contextual and , . . it often doesn’t make sense to look for abstract rules of behavior that are not grounded in the context in which they occur” (p. 15). Given these assumptions, it follows that interviewees are coparticipants in the research process, because the interviewer establishes a relationship with interviewees in order to understand and interpret how they perceive and explain their own experience. Hence, researchers are never entirely objective and must be aware of the predispositions and preconceptions that they, themselves, bring to their interpretive work. In fact, as the author point out, a well-done qualitative report allows the reader to view and evaluate the intellectual strengths, weaknesses, and biases of the interviewer as well as the conclusions of the study. These are not new ideas about the qualitative research process. They are explained here, however. plainly and without confusing overelaboration. A good example is the one pointed discussion in chapter 4 of reliability and validity and the frequent misapplication of these criteria to qualitative work. Instead, the author propose three more appropriate yardsticks: transparency, consistency-coherence, and communicability. The author explains how these should form principles to guide the four major stages of qualitative interviews: design, data collections. analysis. and presentation. Of particular usefulness will be chapters 3 and 4, on study design and choice of interviewee; chapter 5, on how to build conversational partnerships; and chapter 9, on topical interviewing. In these four chapters, especially, the author’s clarity shines as they explain relatively complex ideas with ease and accuracy. In addition, they include often pesky and unexplained details that many qualitative researchers have had to learn through trial and error. For example, they discuss
470
J PROD INNOV 1996:13:465-473
MANAG
BOOK
such practical topics as different methods for organizing and framing interviews; what probes and followups to use in eliciting experiential stories rather than interpretations; how and when to test emerging themes; how to get thoughtful answers based upon evidence that add richer understanding of context; how to combine descriptions from different interviews; what are the most often used approaches to coding data; how and when to edit quotes from interviews; and ways to provide “richness” and shades of meaning in the final report. A few weaknessesdetract somewhat from the overall excellence of the book. Over the past decade, personal computers have made the task of coding and analyzing interview data far easier and more comprehensive [4], yet there are only a few brief mentions of this important tool. Most of the examples, though accessible and clear, are from the sociological viewpoint or the public sector. Thus, it takes a bit of imagination to envision business uses and contexts for the techniques (although this reviewer found this more distracting than difficult). In this same vein, while the bibliography is lengthy, containing both classics and up-to-date sources, it does not mention many important recent sources from well-known qualitative researchers in business innovation and management, of whom Eisenhardt [3] and Gummesson [5] would be two solid examples. In addition, several well acknowledged basic sources on qualitative research are omitted, such as Miles and Huberman [6], Schwartz and Jacobs [S], and Strauss and Corbin [9]. On balance, though, this is a usable and enjoyable introduction to a research approach that has seen increasing use in recent years for new product and process introductions. Its primary audience is academicians and students who will find it a very good introductory text. Practitioners, particularly those who wish to “get close to customers,” will find here some useful advice about how to ask questions of customers and how to read the answers. More importantly, they will find out what to expect of qualitative market researchers who work with new product development or implementation teams. Patricia W. Meyers Syracuse University
References 1. Berger, P. L. and Luckmann, T. The Social Construction New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1966.
of Reality.
2. Burrell, G. and Morgan, rional Analysis. London:
REVIEWS
G. Sociological Paradigms and OrganisaHeinemann Educational Books, Ltd., 1979.
3. Eisenhardt, K. Building theories from case study research. Management Review 14:532-550 (October 1989).
Academy
of
4. Fielding, N. G. and Lee, R. M. eds. Using Computers in Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1991. 5. Gummesson, E. Qualitative Methods in Management sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1991. 6. Miles, M. B. and Huberman, A. M. Qualitative tion. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,
Research.
Data Analysis 1994.
Thou2d edi-
7. Moriarty, R. T. and Kosnik, T. J. High-tech marketing: Concepts, continuity and change. Sloan Management Review 30(4):7-17 (1989). 8. Schwartz, H. and Jacobs, Free Press, 1979.
J. Qualitative
Sociology.
9. Strauss A, and Corbin, J. Basics of Qualitative Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1990.
New
Research.
York
The
Thousand
The Law of Domestic and International Strategic Alliances: A Surveyfor Corporate Management, by Alan S. Gutterman, Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 1995. 387 + viii pages. $75.00. Editors Note: Strategic alliances are fast becoming one of our most important vehicles for developing and commercializing new products, particularly those involving high technology and multiple-nation markets. This book purports to a managerial guide to the [American] laws governing such alliances. The reviewer is an attorney and professor with impressive credentials in the field of international securities markets. (RRR) This book undertakes to survey the laws and regulations that affect strategic alliances. The author, who has also written a number of other treatises on related topics, is self-described as “an attorney” currently conducting research in pursuit of doctoral degrees in international business and law and economics.” In The Law of Domestic and International Strategic Alliances, the term “strategic alliance” is used broadly to encompass the panoply of cooperative arrangements between different business firms created for more than individual transactions-sometimes also known as “corporate partnering.” The author explicitly includes minority investments, joint ventures, acquisitions, and even long-term contracts within this concept of strategic alliances. Strategic alliances, the author believes, are made in recognition of the contemporary intensification of specialization, and they permit managers to respond to competitive opportunities quickly and ‘ ‘without the need to incur the substantial risks associated with internal development.” The author posits that commercialization of new products and technologies usually