Reduction in black carbon concentration and its exposure in rural settings of Northern India: An intervention analysis

Journal Pre-proof Reduction in black carbon concentration and its exposure in rural settings of Northern India: An intervention analysis Deepti Sharma, Suresh Jain PII:

S0045-6535(20)30029-1

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.125838

Reference:

CHEM 125838

To appear in:

ECSN

Received Date: 8 October 2019 Revised Date:

19 December 2019

Accepted Date: 3 January 2020

Please cite this article as: Sharma, D., Jain, S., Reduction in black carbon concentration and its exposure in rural settings of Northern India: An intervention analysis, Chemosphere (2020), doi: https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.125838. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Impact of Pre and post intervention and kitchen characteristics

Solid biomass combustion (wood+ crop residue +cow dung cake)

Smoke inhalation

Annapurna forced draft

Cooking hours

Traditional mud cookstove

Time-activity log

Personal exposure to black carbon during cooking

Improved forced draft mud

BC analysis

Filter placed on reference card: capture image sent to server for analysis Reference card

BC concentration

Graphical abstract

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Reduction in black carbon concentration and its exposure in rural settings of Northern

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India: An intervention analysis

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Deepti Sharmaa and Suresh Jainb,1

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a

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Delhi, 10, Institutional Area, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070, India

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b

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Andhra Pradesh – 517 506, India

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Abstract

Department of Energy and Environment, TERI School of Advanced Studies (earlier TERI University),

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati, Tirupati,

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The present study estimated the concentration of black carbon (BC10 and BC2.5) during cooking

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hours in three types of kitchen in ten households and two improved cookstoves (ICS) tested against

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traditional mud cookstoves (TCS) in the real field conditions. The study also used a community-engaged

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approach to involve the local public regarding the benefits of intervention. The results clearly revealed

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that personal BC concentration was highest in an enclosed kitchen (83 µg/m3) while using TCS compared

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to a semi-enclosed (25 µg/m3) and open kitchens (16 µg/m3), respectively. The results showed that

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deployment of ICS would help in reduction in personal BC concentration in all the households ranged

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from 36-84% and 33-89% in BC10 and BC2.5, respectively. The study measured the personal dose of BC

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concentration for women of all the selected households. The reduction in the exposure dose for personal

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BC10 and BC2.5 was 69% and 59%, respectively. The results showed that BC concentration during

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cooking greatly varies with time-activity pattern of users and which in turn affects the exposure levels of

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the participants. Thus, it is imperative to measure the exact time users spend near to the emission source

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to get actual exposure inhalation concentration. The results of the study also shared with the local

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communities to build their capacity for better understanding about the benefits of advanced cooking

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technologies, household design to improve the ventilation conditions in the kitchen areas and health

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benefits in terms of reduction in exposure levels especially for vulnerable group like women and children. 1

Corresponding author, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh – 517 506, India; Phone: +91-(0)877-2503166; Email:[email protected]; [email protected]

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Keywords: Black carbon; Kitchen characteristics; Improved cookstoves; Personal exposure assessment;

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Time activity

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1.0

Introduction

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Black carbon (BC) is a product of incomplete combustion from various stationary (e.g., brick

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kilns, thermal power plants) and mobile sources (e.g., vehicular emissions), open biomass burning (e.g.,

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agriculture, crop residue and wild fire) and residential cooking ( Li et al., 2019; Hussain et al., 2018;

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Savolahti et al., 2016; Arora and Jain, 2016, 2015a). BC emissions are important drivers for causing

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global and regional climate change and also a major threat to human health (Ravindra et al., 2019; Zhu et

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al., 2018; Yadav et al., 2019). India has been experiencing severe combustion-related emissions i.e.

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domestic fuels contributes ~47% making it the second largest contributor to global BC emissions (Rana et

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al., 2019; Paliwal et al., 2016; Bond et al., 2013). Paliwal et al. (2016) also reported that Indo-Gangetic

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Plain had been identified as the major source of BC emissions, having Uttar Pradesh is the largest

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contributor, followed by West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana. Recent estimates showed that, exposure to

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various toxic compounds and their associated health impact (increase in blood pressure, respiratory

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problem, etc.) that largely contains particulate borne organic compounds (BC, PAHs etc.) and trace

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elements (Rana et al., 2019; Junaid et al., 2018; Norris et al., 2016). Consequently, in recent days BC has

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got much attention because of its impact on climate and human health (Whitehouse et al., 2018; Suresh et

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al., 2016; Arora and Jain, 2015b) and mainly associated with the fine PM (PM2.5) (Pokhrel et al., 2017;

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Soneja et al., 2015) in context to household air pollution (HAP). The scenario of HAP due to inefficient

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burning in traditional cookstoves (TCS) has been studied by many researchers (Du et al., 2018a; Chen et

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al., 2017; Liu et al., 2016). The World Health Organization (WHO, 2018) reported that over 3.8 million

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people die prematurely due to exposure to HAP released from burning of solid biomass fuels (SBFs) .

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Existing research on personal exposure of BC during actual cooking hours between different types of

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kitchens is limited in the region (Patange et al., 2015; Kar et al., 2012; Rehman et al., 2011). Thus, in

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order to understand the pattern of personal exposure of participants to HAP, a range of improved

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cookstoves (ICS) technologies have been introduced to overcome the adverse impact of TCS, but this also 2

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varies for the type of fuel used, seasonal effect, type of kitchen, user behaviour and different cooking

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pattern (Lai et al., 2019; Du et al., 2018b; Whitehouse et al., 2018; Arora and Jain, 2016). Hence,

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increasing concern for HAP in terms of health of women has gauged attention in the recent years,

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highlighting several toxic compounds i.e. BC, PAHs and other organic compounds could serve as health

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indicators (Sharma and Jain, 2019; Ravindra, 2019; Chen et al., 2018; Junaid et al., 2018). Therefore, the

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present study was undertaken in the rural setting to measure the personal exposure during actual cooking

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hours in the real-world conditions to BC i.e. BC10 (black carbon associated with particulate matter ≤ 10

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µm) and BC2.5 (black carbon associated with particulate matter ≤ 2.5 µm). Further, personal dose in terms

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of chronic daily intake (CDI) was estimated that gives the actual inhalation of the participants during

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cooking hours. A community-engaged participatory approach (CEPA) was applied where the participants

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were informed about the health risks due to exposure to HAP, impact of interventions, and motivated to

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shift and adopt energy-efficient technologies and fuels (Rohlman et al., 2019; Commodore et al., 2017).

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This study is first of its kind assessing the impact of intervention on personal exposure to BC

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concentrations during actual cooking hours by involving the local community that was willing to

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participate in the study. Therefore, the aim of the study is to investigate the impact of intervention on

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exposure levels of BC in the personal samples of participants of different kitchens as well estimate the

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related inhalation dose.

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2.0

Material and Methods

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This section gives an outline of methodology adopted and steps involved in data collection and

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analysis, as presented in Figure 1. The details of sampling techniques and tools used in measurement and

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analysis have been discussed in following sections.

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Figure 1: Methodological framework

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2.1

Study area

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The study was conducted from March to July in two villages, i.e., Ashrafpur and Tanda in

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Jagdishpur town of Uttar Pradesh. The map of the study area is shown in Figure S1 of Supplementary

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information (SI) Section A. The main reason for selection of this region was that it was already a part of 3

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intervention and people were aware about the ICS and its handling. Additionally, to get the representative

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sample, few of the neighbouring villages have been visited before the selection of these two villages

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(details are provided in Sharma and Jain, 2019).

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2.2

Selection of households and cookstoves

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Household’s selection was based on the type of kitchen characteristics and cookstoves used in the

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study area as shown in Figure 1. The summary of ten households (HHs) selected based on field variables

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is provided in Table 1. In order to assess the impact of intervention on personal exposure of participants

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an extensive and intensive longitudinal study was conducted to assess the impact of cookstove

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intervention under different kitchen characteristics. Around 10-12 days were required to carry out

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personal monitoring in each house for both the phases, i.e. pre and post intervention having 5 replicates in

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each kitchen. Each sample includes BC concentrations from two sessions i.e. morning and evening

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cooking hours. Therefore, to get representative set of data, we have to limit our number of households and

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did an intensive monitoring campaign that includes CEPA. Moreover, personal BC sampling was done

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during cooking hours only and the participants were mainly present inside the house during cooking. This

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reduces the chances of exposure to other sources and any uncertainty in the results as enough replicates

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were taken to avoid such errors in measurements. For the intervention analysis, we have compared two

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types of advanced cookstoves i.e., Annapurna forced draft-TERI SPT-0610 (AFD) and improved forced

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draft mud-TERI SPF143 (IFDM) with TCS (details are provided in Section A, S1 in SI). Mainly three

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types of kitchen have been identified i.e., enclosed, semi-enclosed and open. A schematic diagram of

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different types of kitchen present in the all the selected households has been shown in Figure 2. In

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addition, the details of each household topology have been discussed in SI, Section A, S2. .

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Table 1: Overview of kitchen type, cookstove and household’s characteristics of sampled households

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Figure 2: A Schematic diagram of kitchens present in the selected households

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2.3

Data collection 4

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Personal monitoring was carried out in kitchen area to measure BC concentrations during cooking

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hours along with the time-activity record. The study followed a simple monitoring technique for

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measurement of BC concentration that has been developed by Ramanathan (2011) and his team

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(discussed in subsequent sections) for addressing the local air quality concerns (Kar et al., 2012). An

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intensive and extensive BC monitoring was conducted with five replicates on each cookstove (TCS and

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ICS), respectively, in three different types of kitchens that include pre and post intervention phases. Under

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both conditions, we have collected 50 samples for TCS and 50 samples for ICS during two cooking

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sessions i.e. morning and evening cooking hours as one sample, as presented in Figure 1. The detail of

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instruments and sampling setup has been discussed in following sections.

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2.3.1

Community-engaged participatory approach

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A CEPA was used to assess the indoor and personal exposure of BC through portable, low-cost

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and low power instruments meant for remote location. A household primary survey and visit to sites were

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conducted prior to selection of the study area. Through semi-structured questionnaire survey and focused

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group discussions, preliminary information on household characteristics, types of kitchen present in the

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area, cookstoves and fuel use, willingness to participate and use of advanced cooking sources was

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collected and summarized in Table S1 in Section B (more details are provided in Sharma and Jain, 2019).

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It has been observed that community engaged research focuses on the issues of a particular region,

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identify the problem, and develop a strategy to implement the new technology or method to improve

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human health (Commodore et al., 2017; Rohlman et al., 2015). Therefore, the approach was used with

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the aim to involve the local people at all the stages of research and to get more useable data for the benefit

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of community and environment, particularly in exposure-based studies (Kondo et al., 2014; Morello-

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Frosch et al., 2009).

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2.3.2

Personal monitoring

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Personal monitoring was carried out using a SKC pump (Masih et al., 2017) attached to the body

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of chief cook. Figure 3 shows in field attachment of a personal monitoring system (PMS) to the body of

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participants during cooking hours. The PMS consisted of SKC pump attached with one-stage inertial 5

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impactors (SKC Personal Environmental Monitor, model 200) that captures particles on 37 mm quartz

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filters (Gelman R2PJ037). Flow rates were measured before and after each sampling period using a

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calibrated rotameter. BC concentrations were measured using two types of impactors i.e., PM10 and PM2.5

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that were analysed for BC10 and BC2.5, respectively. The impactor was attached to the collar of the cook

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near her breathing zone. The personal sampling pump was fitted in a small bag that was worn around the

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cooking person’s waist at the time of cooking. The cook was informed and trained about the importance

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of keeping the impactor in proper position. User have to carry and keep the attachment intact during the

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whole cooking cycle and the PMS was removed when they completed the cooking. Thus, in this way we

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get the actual time of exposure in order to estimate the actual health benefit.

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2.3.3

Time activity record

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Daily time activity record was maintained to estimate the time spent in different

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microenvironments by the participant. We obtained the activity records during the entire monitoring

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session based on 24-h recall, which gives the actual time that a person involved in cooking, household

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cleaning, outside work, etc. The total time spent in front of cookstove depends upon the family size, and

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the type of meals cooked. Table S2 summarizes the time that a person spent at different places during

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monitoring (details are provided in Section B and Table S2, SI).

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2.4

Data Analysis

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2.4.1

Black carbon analysis

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BC analysis was done through a cellphone based technology developed by Ramanathan et al.

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(2011). The technology works by calculating reflectance in the “red” wavelength of the exposed BC filter.

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In the present study during monitoring Samsung galaxy core 2 was used to capture the image for BC

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analysis. In this method after setting up a deployment and sampling of filter, an image of the filter was

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captured with the help of a cellphone camera after placing it on the indicated space on a reference card,

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designed for this purpose. The image was then analysed using an algorithm, which includes the flow rate

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of the pump (1 lpm), sampling duration (time taken in cooking by participants for TCS and ICS) and filter

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size (37 mm) to measure the area of BC particles collected on the filter, which gives 6

the BC

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concentration. This method is not meant to be used as a substitute for sophisticated instruments, it is

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meant to be used in resource-poor regions where the easy to handle, light in weight, low power

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consumption would supplement other methods i.e. Aethalometer, thermal-optical methods etc. Further,

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the cellphone method is cost-effective which includes filter image collection, transmission and then

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analysis to measure the real-time BC concentration as reported and validated by Ramanathan et al. (2011)

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and Patange et al. (2015). Furthermore, the method has been validated by de la Sota et al. (2017) and

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results showed a high degree of correlation (R2>0.80) between the cell-phone and thermos-optical

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analysis methods. Therefore, the present study followed a cost-effective method to measure the BC

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concentrations and the local staff was also involved in getting the comprehending of technique.

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2.4.2

Estimation of chronic daily intake (CDI)

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The CDI of BC inhalation concentrations was estimated using the general equation for daily dose

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measurement given by US EPA, 2011. Estimation was done during cooking session both for TCS and

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ICS. An estimate of other variables for measurement of CDI was also taken during monitoring period. We

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have estimated the effect of three different types of kitchen on dose of pollutant in that particular

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environment. We have also used the actual body weight and exposure duration according to the age of

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participants for better understating about the CDI. Therefore, dose was calculated in both ways i.e. on the

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basis of average body weight and exposure duration constant for all and actual body weight and exposure

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duration recorded during the questionnaire survey and sampling. The equation is given as below:

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Chronic daily intake (CDI) (mg/kg-day) = C x IR x ET x EF x ED/ (BW x AT) …. (1)

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C = Concentration (mg/m3): Personal BC concentration

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IR = Inhalation Rate (m3/day): Inhalation rates were used as per US EPA standards (Exposure Factors

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Handbook, 2011). Average long-term inhalation rate for per day was estimated according to the average

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body weight.

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ET = Exposure time (hours/day): Exposure time was considered the actual time of cooking when the

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cooking was done, and the participant sits in the front of stove. The average value was calculated both for

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the TCS and ICS cooking sessions in every household.

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EF = Exposure frequency (days/year): The exposure was the relative days per year. We have taken

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average 350 days/year as the days on which cooking was done.

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ED = Exposure duration (year): Exposure duration was defined as the number of years to which the

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participant was exposed. We have considered 40 years as the average time period into which the person

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was involved in cooking, however to estimate the actual amount of dose inhaled, dose was also calculated

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on the basis of actual years of exposure.

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BW = Body weight (kg): The average body weight taken was 60 kg for a normal person and dose was

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also estimated using actual body weight of the person involved in cooking.

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AT = Average time of exposure (days)

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2.4.3

Statistical analysis

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We have applied descriptive statistics, student’s t-test to determine the statistical significance of

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personal BC mean concentrations for TCS and ICS. All the statistical analysis was performed using SPSS

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20.

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2.5

Ethical approval

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A consent was obtained at household level prior to the initiation of personal monitoring in each

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participating household. Ethical approval for the attachment of personal monitoring system to the body of

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chief cook was also taken and participants were informed about the importance of sampling and

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instruments sensitivity. Data collection, including baseline information through primary survey and

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personal sampling was covered under this consent.

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3.0

Results and Discussion

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3.1

Personal BC concentration during cooking hours 8

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Figure 4(a) and 4(b) shows the summary of BC concentrations measured using a personal sampler

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during cooking hours. In the first phase, households using AFD along with TCS were selected to include

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in the sampling. The average BC10 and BC2.5 concentrations during use of TCS (pre-intervention phase) in

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first six households were ranged between 10.1-154.4 µg/m3 and 7.3-43.7 µg/m3, respectively. Whereas,

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post intervention of AFD cookstove, it was 3.8-68 µg/m3 and 1.6-27.8 µg/m3 for BC10 and BC2.5,

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respectively, as presented in Table 2. The total reduction in BC10 and BC2.5 concentrations while using

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AFD was nearly 59% and 55%, respectively, and it was statistically significant (p=0.005 for BC10 and

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p=0.001 for BC2.5). In the second phase, IFDM cookstove was tested against TCS in HHs 7-10. In case of

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TCS, the concentration measured in these HHs varied between 24.8-59.5 µg/m3 and 6.9-28.2 µg/m3 for

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BC10 and BC2.5, respectively, compared with 7.2-16.9 µg/m3 and 4.7-7.5 µg/m3 for BC10 and BC2.5,

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respectively, in case of IFDM cookstove. Intervention of IFDM cookstove resulted in significant

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reductions (p=0.005 for BC10 and p=0.002 for BC2.5) in personal BC concentration i.e. 63% and 55%,

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respectively. In addition, the average BC reduction among different kitchens was found highest for semi-

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enclosed kitchen (64 and 65%) followed by enclosed (60 and 51%) and open (55 and 51%) for BC10 and

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BC2.5, respectively. This showed that besides cookstove technology, kitchen characteristics, i.e.,

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ventilation option (presence of windows), size of kitchen, placement of cookstove and the subject

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variability during cooking time are the important aspects which describe the exposure of participants

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during cooking hours.

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Based on the review of literature it has been observed that personal BC concentration reported by

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Norris et al. (2016) was found higher during open fire (60 µg/m3) compared to chimney cookstoves (45

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µg/m3) during summer season. Likewise, Kar et al. (2012) reported a higher BC concentration during

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cooking with TCS (128 µg/m3) and forced draft cookstove (38 µg/m3) in the breathing zone. The results

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reported by other studies are found in line with the present study for TCS (Downward et al., 2016; Xiao et

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al., 2015), but rarely any study measured the personal BC concentration during the actual time of cooking

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in the study region.

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Table 2: Mean personal BC (BC10 and BC2.5 µg/m3) and kitchen area concentration of 10 selected

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household kitchens

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Figure 4(a) and (b): Box and whiskers plots shows the personal BC concentration (BC10 and BC2.5)

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compared in terms of traditional and improved cookstoves

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3.2

Personal CDI

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The summary of CDI (mg/kg-day) calculated from personal exposure during cooking hours for

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BC10 and BC2.5 is presented in Table 2. The average dose estimated among AFD HHs while using TCS

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and ICS for BC10 and BC2.5 was 2.26E-03 and 7.99E-04 mg/kg-day and 9.73E-04 and 4.34E-04 mg/kg-

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day resulting in 65% and 55% reduction, respectively. While, the average dose estimated in IFDM HHs

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during TCS and ICS for BC10 and BC2.5 was 1.78E-03 and 4.21E-04 mg/kg-day and 6.68E-04 and 2.25E-

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04 mg/kg-day resulting in 76% and 66% reduction, respectively. However, comparison of TCS with ICS

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with respect to different kitchen characteristics showed that there is 64% and 53% reduction in BC10 and

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BC2.5 concentrations, respectively in enclosed kitchen. Additionally, different factors have been identified

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based on time-activity record that affects the overall exposure of the participants in the sampling

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households. For e.g., the average time user spent in front of cookstove was higher in the enclosed kitchen

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(~3 h 15 min and 2:30 h) compared to other two types of kitchens (~2 h 30 min and 2 h) during both TCS

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and ICS, as presented in time activity Table S2 (Section B, SI). Moreover, the average time participants

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usually present in front of cookstove was less ~10-20% as compared to total cooking duration (presented

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in Figure S2, Section B of SI). Furthermore, in terms of energy efficiency of cookstoves, AFD was ~5%

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more efficient than IFDM, but reduction in personal CDI was more in IFDM users i.e. 76% and 66% for

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BC10 and BC2.5 as compared to AFD i.e. 65% and 56%, respectively. This is attributed to the average time

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~15% more spent by a cook in case of AFD during cooking along with participants’ handling and

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operational techniques like frequency of fuel input and fire presence (Rupakheti et al., 2019). The study

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also noted that concentration and exposure time are the key factors that determine the inhalation dose of

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participants (more details are presented in SI, S3 of Section B). However, participant’s activity during

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actual cooking hours was the major driving force that affects the inhalation concentration, as users were 10

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also involved in other household tasks i.e. dish washing, dough kneading, vegetable cutting, food serving

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etc. Hence, variation in BC concentration during actual cooking hours along with actual measurements of

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participant’s dose may be used as possible indicator to measure the human lifetime excess cancer risk. As,

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most of the studies estimate the exposure risk on the basis of indoor concentrations only (Ravindra,

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2019; Rupakheti et al., 2019), that would give the false representation of the actual benefit of

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intervention. Therefore, the dose estimated in all the HHs varies according to change in type of kitchen,

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cooking time, user activity and type of cookstove (Patange et al., 2015). Like, Whitehouse et al. (2018)

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also reported that use of cleaner biomass cookstoves by women reduced the inhaled dose of carbonaceous

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PM. Moreover, it has been also observed that during the start of fire user has to sit in front of the

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cookstove to light the fire that results in high emission thereby exposing the cook to high levels of

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pollutants (Rupakheti et al., 2019; Arora et al., 2014; Kar et al., 2012). It is important to highlight that

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rarely any field study have estimated the impact of kindling stage on BC concentration during the start of

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cooking cycle. However, the present study has included all the cooking phases (i.e. from lighting of

266

cookstoves) to the end of cooking cycle (i.e. stop of fire). Therefore, the present study measured the

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actual exposure dose of participants during a complete cooking cycle.

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3.3

Validation and understanding the variability of BC concentration

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A brief overview of some of the studies conducted in the similar settings has been presented in

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Table 3. To understand the variability of personal BC concentration of pollutants’ different factors has

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been taken in order to account i.e. exposure time, kitchen characteristics, type of cookstove, actual

272

cooking hours based on participant’s activity, etc. The average BC concentration in an enclosed kitchen

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using TCS was 3-4 times higher as compared to semi-enclosed and open kitchen. Moreover, similar trend

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has also been observed during post-intervention phase ~4 times higher in enclosed kitchen during

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cooking, attributed to the type of kitchen (poor ventilation) and user activity. Similarly, Rupakheti et al.

276

(2019) reported BC concentration that was ~2.5 times higher during cooking hours as compared to non-

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cooking hours and also shows the variation among the two selected kitchens. Rehman et al. (2011) also

11

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showed high variability in BC concentration during morning (3 to 1970 µg/m3) and evening (3 to 1070

279

µg/m3) cooking sessions, respectively. Further, the low BC concentration during ICS was attributed to

280

improved air supply in forced draft cookstoves, that triggers the performance of cookstoves and give

281

clean combustion as compared to TCS signifying micro-gasification (Kar et al., 2012; Mukunda et al.,

282

2010). Thus, it has been clearly demonstrated that cookstove technology and kitchen characteristics had a

283

significant impact on the BC concentration (Rupakheti et al., 2019; Patange et al., 2015). Reduction in

284

BC10 and BC2.5 concentrations post-intervention varies between 36 to 84% and 33 to 89%, are similar.

285

Therefore, the study suggests that forced draft cookstove can be used as to mitigate the climate the health

286

concerns. Additionally, the current study also established that the micrometeorology of a particular

287

environment would change the pollutant concentration when we monitor IAQ using fixed monitors in the

288

single microenvironment. Thus, personal monitoring is almost prerequisite for any exposure assessment

289

to measure the actual concentrations of a person exposed under real field conditions. Additionally, a few

290

of the studies also reported different factors such as smoking, incense burning, quality and quantity of

291

fuel, time in cooking and type of cookstove contributing to personal and kitchen area BC concentration

292

(Hussain et al., 2018; Clark et al., 2013).

293

Figure 5: Comparison of personal BC concentration by various studies found in the literature with

294

present study

295

Table 3: Summary of reported BC concentration at various locations for previous studies and present

296

study

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4.0

Conclusion

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This is the first of its kind study, which extensively monitored the personal BC concentration

299

during actual cooking hours with respect to the dominant field variables such as kitchen characteristics

300

and intervention of cookstove technologies along with the inhaled BC dose. Personal BC concentration

301

showed the effect of long-term inhalation of toxic smoke by women at the time of cooking increases risk

302

significantly. Moreover, through CEPA the study highlighted the importance of cooking methods, kitchen

303

characteristics, user’s perception and region-specific requirements of a community to reduce overall 12

304

exposure to toxic pollutants especially during cooking hours. The study also suggested that simple

305

changes in the kitchen characteristics or increase in ventilation can help in improving the overall indoor

306

air quality, along with the efficient sources of energy (like liquid petroleum gas to rural households as

307

initiated government of India under Prime Minister Ujjwala Scheme) or cookstove technology like ICS.

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To aware people and the overall community about such practical solutions can turn out to be an effective

309

measure in the developing nations. Additionally, studies on assessing the short-lived climate pollutants

310

like BC would provide an additional impetus for focusing on climate forcers in intervention-based

311

studies. Further, regional policies should aim to reduce local particulate borne compounds such as BC

312

through better cooking technologies to benefit indoor air quality, climatic and human health. Overall,

313

CEPA resulted in better understanding of user requirement and perception. CEPA further motivated the

314

participants to adopt ICS through knowledge gained during interactions and feedback given to them after

315

the intervention analysis about the benefits of advanced cookstove technologies and importance of

316

ventilations in the kitchen area. In this study, gravimetric measurement of BC10 and BC2.5 quartz filters

317

were not made on the field due to the unavailability of sensitive mass balance. Thus, for future research

318

more studies are required to explore the personal exposure with respect to different cooking scenarios,

319

focus on measurement of personal real time PM concentrations along with chemical characterization of

320

other toxic pollutants to get actual exposure assessment.

321

5.0

322

Arora, P., Das, P., Jain, S., Kishore, V.V.N., 2014. A laboratory based comparative study of Indian

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18

List of Tables Table 1: Overview of kitchen type, cookstove and household’s characteristics of selected households

HH. No

Type of cookstove

Type of House

Type of kitchen

Source of Ventilation

HH1

Annapurna forced draft Annapurna forced draft Annapurna forced draft Annapurna forced draft Annapurna forced draft Annapurna forced draft Improved forced draft mud Improved forced draft mud Improved forced draft mud Improved forced draft mud

Kaccha (mud house)

Enclosed kitchen

Pucca (made of brick and cement) Kaccha (mud house)

Open kitchen

No window, one low height door, covered by thatched roof and mud Open to sky (have open space covered by iron bars) Covered by thatched roof only

HH2 HH3 HH4 HH5 HH6 HH7 HH8 HH9 HH10

Semi-enclosed kitchen

Pucca (cemented house) Kaccha (mud house)

Semi-enclosed kitchen

Kaccha (mud house)

Semi-enclosed kitchen

Pucca (cemented house) Pucca (cemented house) Kaccha (mud house)

Enclosed kitchen

Big center courtyard: open to sky and covered by iron bars Covered by thatched roof and have one side small 2.5ft wall Covered by thatched roof and have open courtyard 1 window (usually closed)

Enclosed kitchen

1 window (usually closed)

Semi-enclosed kitchen

Covered by thatched roof (have two nearby rooms) Covered by thatched roof only and opens into a room which further opens backside

Kaccha (mud house covered by thatched roof)

Open kitchen

Semi-enclosed kitchen

Kitchen area dimensions Kitchen area: 7× 8× 8ft Door height: ~4.5ft Kitchen area: 6× 5×10ft  Kitchen area: 8× 4× 7ft Kitchen area:11× 8× 10ft Kitchen area: 7 × 5 × 7ft Kitchen area: 8 × 5 × 9ft Kitchen area: 10× 4× 8ft Window size: 1 × 1.5ft Kitchen area: 6× 3× 8ft Window size: 1 × 1ft Kitchen area: 8 × 6 × 6ft Kitchen area: 7× 4 × 8ft

Table 2: Mean personal BC (BC10 and BC2.5) concentration and dose reduction using two improved cookstoves among three types of kitchens Cookstove Type

HH No.

Annapurn a forced draft

HH1 HH2 HH3 HH4 HH5 HH6 HH7 HH8 HH9 HH10

Improved mud forced draft

Type of kitchen Enclosed Open Semi-enclosed Open Semi-enclosed Semi-enclosed Enclosed Enclosed Semi-enclosed Semi-enclosed

BC10 TCS 154±79 10±5 23±0 22±1 22±1 29±1 60±1 34±0 25±0 26±0

Personal BC concentration ( Avg.± SD) (µg/m3) BC10I Percentage BC2.5TC BC2.5I Percentage CS of reduction S CS of reduction 68±9 56% 44±23 28±3 36% 4±3 62% 7±4 2±1 72% 5±0 79% 16±6 2±0 88% 11±1 52% 15±7 9±0 40% 14±0 36% 19±0 9±1 52% 5±1 84% 14±0 2±0 89% 17±0 72% 28±1 8±2 73% 15±0 57% 14±0 7±4 51% 7±1 71% 7±0 5±4 33% 14±1 45% 9±0 6±2 38%

Personal BC dose ( mg/kg-day) BC10 ICS BC10 BC2.5 BC2.5 TCS TCS ICS 9.38E-03 3.68E-03 2.59E-03 1.56E-03 4.51E-04 1.59E-04 2.53E-04 8.04E-05 8.66E-04 1.68E-04 1.16E-03 7.62E-05 9.54E-04 4.10E-04 5.40E-04 3.25E-04 8.52E-04 2.49E-04 7.24E-04 5.22E-04 1.06E-03 1.22E-04 5.72E-04 4.18E-05 2.21E-03 6.24E-04 1.63E-03 3.14E-04 1.96E-03 6.33E-04 3.75E-04 2.80E-04 1.44E-03 1.43E-04 3.18E-04 1.66E-04 1.50E-03 2.85E-04 3.43E-04 1.40E-04

(BC10= Black carbon associated with PM10 and BC2.5= Black carbon associated with PM2.5; Concentration=Mean Standard deviation)

Table 3: Summary of reported BC concentration at various locations for previous studies and present study Reference

Kar et al., 2012 Surya village, Uttar Pradesh, India Volunteer cook

Van Vliet et al., 2013 Rural/ Ghana

Study type/ Population

Rehman et al., 2011 Surya village, Uttar Pradesh, India Household sampling

Sampling area/type

Kitchen area indoor

Instrument

Aethalometer/ MAS sampler

Indoor simulated kitchen Aethalometer

Sampling duration

Morning and Evening cooking hours NA

Area and Personal sampling BGI air pump and Personal Data Ram 24 h

Location

Intervention

BC concentration (µg/m3): Traditional cookstoves BC concentration (µg/m3): Improved cookstoves

10:00-17:00 h

Household sampling

Patange et al., 2015 Surya village, Uttar Pradesh, India Household sampling/ Women cooks Kitchen area near breathing zone MAS sampler

Rupakheti et al., 2019 Nepal, India

Ravindra, 2019 Rural, Punjab, India

Households sampling in real field conditions Kitchen area

Household sampling

Household sampling/Women cooks

Kitchen area

Personal sampling

Aethalometer

Aethalometer

SKC pump and impactor

24 h; Cooking hour

24 h; Cooking period

Varies from 21 h to 102 h

Cooking hours

Different kitchen

Cookstove/ Kitchen characteristics

Indoor: 14.54; Semi-open 24.69; Outdoor: 14.28

BC10 Enclosed: 83 Semi-enclosed: 25 Open: 16

BC2.5 Enclosed: 28. 66 Semi-enclosed: 13.13 Open: 11.07

NA

BC10 Enclosed: 33.0 Semi enclosed: 9.0 Open: 7.2

BC2.5 Enclosed: 14.0 Semi enclosed: 4.6 Open: 5.5

Cookstove: FD and ND VS Mud

Kitchen characteristics

Cookstove/ Kitchen characteristics

Morning: 54; Evening: 62

Breathing zone: 127.55; Plume zone: 355.22

24h: 26.2; Cooking hour: 91.7

NA

Breathing zone: 44.72; Plume zone: 192.77

Kitchen area: 14.5; Enclosed: 13.8; Semienclosed: 15.6; Outdoor: 13.7 NA

2 types of kitchen: Kitchen 1 separated and Kitchen 2 inside house Kitchen 1: 9.1 ± 7.5; Kitchen 2: 4.6 ± 4.1

24h: 15.8; Cooking hour: 58.9

Kitchen 1: 8.4 ± 9.2; Kitchen 2: 6.1 ± 4.4

Present Study Jagdishpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Dissemination and implementation Questionnaire survey

Group discussions

Community Engaged Participatory Approach

SKC pump

Impactors: PM10 and PM2.5

Data collection: Selection of households for sampling of personal black carbon (n=10)

BC sampling pre and post intervention :5 replicates both before and after intervention On the basis of cookstove designs n=6

n=4

Annapurna forced draft cookstove Improved mud forced draft

Time-activity record Morning and evening cooking sessions

On the basis of kitchen characteristics n=3

Enclosed kitchen

n=5

Semi enclosed kitchen

n=2 Actual time in cooking and near the source. Time spent in different tasks Total number of households considered = 10 No of replicates: 5 Cooking sessions: 2 (morning and evening) Total no of samples for TCS= 5*10= 50 samples Total no of samples for ICS= 5*10= 50 samples

Open kitchen

Data analysis and outcome of the study Cellphone based BC analysis

BC Concentration

Feedback and updates about findings from intervention analysis

Personal exposure assessment during cooking hours: Attachment of Personal monitoring system to women cook mainly consists of SKC pump and two different impactors for PM collection on filter papers.

BC Potential dose

Benefits communicated to community in terms of reduction in BC concentrations, exposure and improved health due to intervention Figure 1: Methodological framework for measuring exposure to BC concentrations using personal monitoring

HH1: Enclosed kitchen

HH2: Open kitchen

HH3: Semi-enclosed kitchen

HH6: Semi-enclosed kitchen

HH7: Enclosed kitchen

HH8: Enclosed kitchen

HH4: Open kitchen HH9: Semi-enclosed kitchen

HH5: Semi-enclosed kitchen

HH10: Semi-enclosed kitchen

Figure 2: A schematic diagram of three types of kitchen identified in the study region: Enclosed kitchen (very less or no source of ventilation); Semi-enclosed kitchen (Covered by thatched roof); Open kitchen (Placement of stove in veranda that was open to sky) in the 10 selected households

SKC pump kept in bag

PM impactor

PM impactor

TCS TCS

ICS

PM impactor

PM impactor

SKC pump PM impactor

ICS

impactor PM PM impactor TCS

PM impactor

TCS ICS

ICS

Figure 3: Personal monitoring system (PMS) attached to the body of cook having SKC pump fitted in the waist bag while the impactor was attached to the collar of the participant near breathing zone.

Figure 4 (a) and (b): Box and whiskers plots shows the personal BC (BC10 and BC2.5) concentration compared in traditional and improved cookstoves among three kitchen categories, respectively. The upper and lower boundary of the box represents 75th and 25th percentile, respectively. The mid-line in each box represents median and the cross mark represents the mean.

Personal BC concentration

This study

ICS

Norris et al., 2016

TCS

Xiao et al., 2015 Downward et al., 2015 Baumgartner et al., 2014 Buonanno et al., 2013 Kar et al., 2012 0

20

40 60 80 100 BC concentration (µg/m3)

120

140

Figure 5: Comparison of personal BC concentration by various studies found in the literature with present study

Highlights: • • • •

Black carbon (BC) concentration during cooking greatly varies with type of kitchen and user’s activity BC concentration in an enclosed kitchen was 4-5 times higher as compared to semienclosed and open kitchens Participants’ time-activity during cooking have significant influence on BC inhalation dose Intervention of improved cookstoves results in significant reductions in BC concentrations

Author contribution Deepti Sharma: Methodology, field measurements and data analysis, writing original draft, review and editing. Suresh Jain: Conceptualization, research design and supervision, Indoor air quality monitoring guidelines, field measurements, data analysis and review and editing.