- Email: [email protected]
Schedule-induced cigarette self-administration
Schedule-Induced Cigarette Self-Administration D. R. CHEREK
Louisianu
State
Psvchiutry Un>versity
Research Unit, Dcpartmrnt of Psychiatry Mdicul Center, School of Medicine, Shreveport, Received
5 February
LA 71130
1982
CHEREK, D. R. Sc.hrdule-inc/lcc,r,d ci~uwtfe srlf-~~dtninistrc!fion. PHARMAC. BIOCHEM. BEHAV. 17(3) 523-527, 1982.-Cigarette self-administration was studied in a controlled laboratory setting by automated recording of the various components of smoking behavior. The effects of intermittent scheduled monetary reinforcement presentation on cigarette smoking was determined in an attempt to demonstrate schedule-induced cigarette self-administration. Schedule-induced cigarette self-administration was indicated by changes in some of the topographical components of cigarette smoking behavior, e.g.. puff frequency and mean puffs per cigarette, as a function of changes in the fixed interval value of a monetary reinforcement schedule. While the number of cigarettes smoked changed only slightly following changes in the FI value of the monetary reinforcement schedule. other components of cigarette smoking behavior, particularly puff frequency and mean puffs per cigarette, were significantly altered. Cigarette puffs were most likely to occur immediately following monetary reinforcement presentation or in the initial segment of the next fixed interval. The demonstration of schedule-induced self-administration in human adds another common factor found to influence infrahuman and human drug self-administration. Cigarette
smoking
Drug self-administration
Schedule-induced
experimental analysis of drug dependence considers drugs to be reinforcers which maintain behavior leading to their self-administration. The pharmacological properties of the drug and the scheduling of its presentation are fundamental determinants of the drug’s ability to maintain selfadministration behavior. However, drug self-administration cannot be considered apart from the historical and current environmental situation in which it occurs. Whether or not a particular drug will be effective in initiating and maintaining self-administration behavior also depends upon the environmental context in which the drug is made available. The intermittent schedule presentation of another reinforcer, e.g., food, is one environmental situation which has been found to initiate and maintain infrahuman drug selfadministration. Drug self-administration in such situations is referred to as schedule-induced drug self-administration, and is one of several schedule-induced behaviors which include polydipsia, aggression and escape [8]. Schedule-induced behavior is behavior occurring at increased probability during the intermittent scheduled presentation of another reinforcer. Such schedule-induced activities are facilitated by the schedule when compared to pre- and post-schedule baselines when no reinforcer is presented (see review, [25]). Early investigations of schedule-induced behavior have shown that intermittent schedule of food presentation were able to induce excessive drinking of water in laboratory animals that were not water deprived [7,24]. Later it was reported that laboratory animals would consume large volumes of ethanol AN
Copyright
0 1982 ANKHO
International
behavior
solutions when food was presented on an intermittent schedule [9, 13, 201. Control laboratory animals provided with free access to ethanol solutions but not exposed to intermittent schedules of food presentation consumed very little ethanol. The intermittent scheduled presentation of food was able to induce ethanol self-administration and establish it as a reinforcer. In addition, the intermittent scheduling of food presentation has also been found to induce selfadministration of amphetamine [26], barbiturates [ 15,191, and opiates [16, 17, 231. These studies of infrahuman drug self-administration induced by the intermittent presentation of food have demonstrated the importance of environmental events in determining the ability of certain drugs to serve as reinforcers. The relationships established in the experimental analysis of infrahuman drug self-administration have been applied to studies of human drug self-administration [I. 2, 21, 22, 271. These studies have “involved establishing drug selfadministration behavior under controlled experimental conditions, providing the basis for examining the effects of specific environmental manipulations” [lo]. In the present study, we have investigated cigarette self-administration in a controlled laboratory setting. Within this context, cigarette smoking is regarding as drug self-administration maintained by the reinforcing properties associated with its use. More specifically, we were interested in studying the effects of intermittent scheduled monetary reinforcement presentation on cigarette smoking.
Inc.-0091-3057/82/090523-05$03.00/O
524
('HEREK METHOD
Suhje¢'Is T w o male (S-30 a n d S-38) a n d o n e f e m a l e (S-31) volunt e e r s p a r t i c i p a t e d in the e x p e r i m e n t a f t e r giving t h e i r inf o r m e d c o n s e n t . T h e s e s u b j e c t s w e r e r e c r u i t e d t h r o u g h adv e r t i s e m e n t s soliciting p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a r e s e a r c h project involving p s y c h o m o t o r p e r f o r m a n c e , m o n e t a r y p a y m e n t and c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g . All s u b j e c t s were c u r r e n t l y s m o k i n g at least fifteen cigarettes p e r day a n d h a d b e e n s m o k i n g for at least four years. A t the e n d o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , s u b j e c t s were p r o v i d e d with i n f o r m a t i o n o n s m o k i n g c e s s a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s and e n c o u r a g e d to stop s m o k i n g .
TABLE 1 MEAN VALUES {N-4,l OF DIFFERENT COMPONEN'I S OF CIGARETTE SMOKING BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF THE FIXED INTERVAL OF THE MONETARY REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE Subject Number: FI Value (sec) 30 60 120 240
Cigarette Smoking Behavior C i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g was m o n i t o r e d by h a v i n g s u b j e c t s s m o k e e a c h c i g a r e t t e t h r o u g h a plastic cigarette h o l d e r w h i c h was c o n n e c t e d to a p r e s s u r e s e n s i t i v e s w i t c h ( M i c r o P n e u m a t i c Logic, M P L - 5 0 2 - V ) by 19 gauge n e e d l e s a n d 18 gauge acid r e s i s t a n t flexible r u b b e r t u b i n g [12]. A n Aquafilter, with all filtering material r e m o v e d , was u s e d as a cigarette holder. This h o l d e r did n o t filter the s m o k e in a n y way, a n d s u b j e c t s r e p o r t e d that they c o u l d d e t e c t n o d i f f e r e n c e s in the i n h a l a t i o n , taste, etc. of c i g a r e t t e s using the device. T h e air p r e s s u r e s w i t c h ( w h i c h r e s p o n d s to > 5 m m H g p r e s s u r e d r o p ) was m o u n t e d o n the r e s p o n s e c o n s o l e a n d c o n n e c t e d to c o n t r o l logic e q u i p m e n t ( C o u l b o u r n I n s t r u m e n t s ) w h i c h a l l o w e d t h e r e c o r d i n g o f the o c c u r r e n c e o f e a c h c i g a r e t t e puff a n d its d u r a t i o n . T h e following c o m p o n e n t s o f c i g a r e t t e s e l f - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w e r e m e a s u r e d : (1) n u m b e r o f c i g a r e t t e s s m o k e d , (2) puff f r e q u e n c y , a n d (3) puff d u r a t i o n . At the b e g i n n i n g o f e a c h s e s s i o n , s u b j e c t s were p r o v i d e d with a pack o f t h e i r p r e f e r r e d b r a n d o f cigarettes. T h e s u b j e c t s were able to initiate c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g at a n y time d u r i n g the experimental sessions.
Procedure R e s e a r c h s u b j e c t s c a m e into the Medical C e n t e r for two h o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s i o n s five d a y s p e r w e e k . Prior to e a c h daily s e s s i o n , s u b j e c t s r e m a i n e d in a waiting a r e a for 30 m i n u t e s a n d w e r e not a l l o w e d to s m o k e . This s e r v e d to standardize t h e a m o u n t o f c i g a r e t t e d e p r i v a t i o n p r i o r to the beginning o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s i o n . At the e n d o f the waiting period, the s u b j e c t s w e r e t a k e n into a n e x p e r i m e n t a l r o o m a n d s e a t e d in f r o n t of a r e s p o n s e c o n s o l e ( T e s t a n HT300/2). T h e y r e m a i n e d in this r o o m for the next two h o u r s . Cold w a t e r was a v a i l a b l e b y o p e r a t i n g a c o m m e r c i a l v a c u u m t h e r m o s . A light o n the front of the c o n s o l e was i l l u m i n a t e d at the b e g i n n i n g o f the t w o h o u r s e s s i o n a n d was exting u i s h e d at t h e e n d o f the s e s s i o n . T h e s u b j e c t s w e r e told t h a t p u s h i n g a b u t t o n m o u n t e d on the c o n s o l e w o u l d result in the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f m o n e y . T h e y w e r e given no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s c h e d u l e of m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d w e r e simply told that not e v e r y b u t t o n p r e s s would result in m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n . S u b j e c t s w e r e also i n s t r u c t e d t h a t c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g would not i n f l u e n c e the a m o u n t o f m o n e y e a r n e d in daily s e s s i o n s . P u s h i n g the b u t t o n was initially m a i n t a i n e d b y a r e s p o n s e initiated f i x e d - i n t e r v a l (FI) 60 s e c o n d s c h e d u l e [18]. O n such a s c h e d u l e , the first r e s p o n s e a f t e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a tion initiated the n e x t 60 s e c o n d interval, a n d t h e first res p o n s e a f t e r the i n t e r v a l e l a p s e d r e s u l t e d in the n e x t reinf o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n . Tbis s c h e d u l e was e m p l o y e d , since
S-30
S-31
S-38
Mean Number of Cigarettes Smoked -SEM 6.0 + 0.0 4.5 + 0.3 4.0 • 0.0 5.0 ~ (,l.0 3.8 + 0.5 3.0 ~ I,l.0 6.5 +: 0.3 5.0 : 0.0 4.0 ' 0.4 6.3
* 0.4
5.0
~ 0.0
4.tl
~ 0.0
30 60 120 240
Mean Puff& Per Cigarette ~SEM 16.6 + 0.4 13.7 ~ 0.4 24.2 + 0.5 14.5 ~ 1.4 21.8 ~ 1.3 15.3 : 1.0 16.0 + 1.3 13.3 ~ 0.4
12.9 16.2 18.3 15.9
~ , +
30 60 120 240
Mean Puffs Per Hour +SEM 49.8 +: 1.2 29.1 : 1.4 60.4 , 1.3 26.3 - 0.7 70.4 + 1.5 38.3 + 1.3 49.1 ~ 0.6 33.1 ' 0.9
25.4 24.1 35.6 31.9
, 1.5 ~ 0.8 + 1.5 ~ 0.7
30 60 120 240
Mean Puff Duration 0.64 + 0.03 0.75 ~ 0.07 0.70 ~ 0.03 0.70 - 0 . 0 3
ISec) 0.91 0.82 0.79 0.71
+SEM : 0.03 - 0.06 ~ 0.03 + 0.03
0.51 0.49 0.55 0.62
0,7 0,6 1,8 0.3
+ 0.00 + 0.02 • 0.02 - 0.02
All values represent the means+SEM of the lasl four sessions at each FI value.
fixed interval s c h e d u l e s h a v e b e e n f o u n d to i n d u c e inffahum a n (e.g., [5]) a n d h u m a n b e h a v i o r [14]. E a c h r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n was i n d i c a t e d to the s u b j e c t by the i n c r e m e n t ing of a c o u n t e r ( T e s t a n HT464) m o u n t e d on the c o n s o l e a d j a c e n t to the p u s h b u t t o n . E a c h point on the c o u n t e r was equal to ten cents. T h u s , a c o u n t o f 003 was e q u i v a l e n t to thirty c e n t s , a n d a c o u n t o f 030 e q u i v a l e n t to t h r e e dollars, etc. F o r t w o h o u r s , the s u b j e c t s were given a c c e s s to the p u s h b u t t o n . T h e m o n e y e a r n e d d u r i n g the session was paid to the s u b j e c t s daily (ranged f r o m $2.70 to $22.00). E a c h r e s e a r c h subject was e x p o s e d to the following seq u e n c e o f FI m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e values o v e r s u c c e s s i v e sessions: 60, 120, 240 and 30 s e c o n d s . T h e m a x i m u m m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n d i t i o n , i.e., FI 3{) seco n d s , was i n t r o d u c e d last to r e d u c e the p r o b a b i l i t y that subj e c t s w o u l d d i s c o n t i n u e t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n before the s t u d y was c o m p l e t e d . T h e FI v a l u e for e a c h e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s k m r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d until the rate of puffing, i.e., puffs per h o u r , varied less t h a n _+ 10 p e r c e n t for four s u c c e s s i v e sessions. T h e rate o f puffing was s e l e c t e d as the criterion for i n t r o d u c i n g c h a n g e s in FI value, since o t h e r studies [4,111 h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t this c o m p o n e n t of s m o k i n g b e h a v i o r is the m o s t s e n s i t i v e to e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s . RESULTS T h e v a r i o u s c o m p o n e n t s of c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g b e h a v i o r were c o m p a r e d at the four FI v a l u e s (30, 60, 120 and 240
CIGARETTE SELF-ADMINISTRATION
525
!
S 38
70- S-30 35 S-31
IX: D 0
1 65~
i
FgJ re-
ss~
i J
25t
5o-
T
I 30
60
120
240
25.1 ,
r
30
60
, 120
?
T
1 30
240
T 60
I 120
[ 240
FIXED INTERVALVALUE ( S E C I FIG. 1. The rate of cigarette smoking, i.e., puffs per hour, for all three subjects at each FI value of the monetary reinforcement is shown in Fig. I. The data points represent the mean puffrate for the last four sessions at each FI value. The vertical lines at each data point are _+SEM.
seconds) of m o n e t a r y reinforcement. Smoking b e h a v i o r data for subjects S-30, S-31 and S-38 appears in Table 1. The values reported represent the mean (+_SEM) for the last four sessions at each FI value. F o r all subjects, the changes in the n u m b e r of cigarettes smoked were slight, with more cigarettes being s m o k e d at FI values of 120 and 240 seconds. Marked changes in the rate of puffing were seen as a function of changes in the FI value of the m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t schedule. The rate of puffing, i.e., puffs per hour at each FI value is also shown in Fig. I. All three subjects had the highest rates of puffing at an FI value of 120 seconds; the puffing rate was l o w e r at FI values lower and higher than 120 seconds. The subjects did differ in the rate of puffing that o c c u r r e d during FI values o t h e r than 120 seconds, although the relationship b e t w e e n puff rate and FI value is very similar for subjects S-31 and S-38. F o r subject S-30, the second highest puff rate was seen at an FI value of 60 seconds and the lowest puff rate o c c u r r e d at an FI 240 seconds. The second highest puff rates for subjects S-31 and S-38 were at an FI value of 240 seconds and the lowest puff rates were at an FI 60 seconds. The n u m b e r of puffs per cigarette was highest at FI values o f 60 and 120 seconds and l o w e r at F1 values of 30 and 240 seconds (refer to Table 1). The mean duration of each puff r e m a i n e d unchanged at the different FI values for all subjects. The rate of button pressing during the last four sessions at each FI value is shown in Table 2. Subjects S-30 and S-38 maintained high rates of button pressing (100 to 200 resp/min) at all FI values. Subject S-31 maintained a low to m o d e r a t e rate of button pressing which increased at each successive FI value. T h e r e were no consistent relationships b e t w e e n puffing rates and button pressing rates across the three subjects. The puffing rate of Subject S-38 increased as button pressing rate decreased at the different FI values. The o t h e r two subjects did not show any systematic relationship b e t w e e n puffing and button pressing rates.
TABLE 2 RATE
OF
MONETARY
REINIFORCED
RESPONDING
(RESP/MIN)
FI Value (sec) 30 60 120 240
S-30 176 151 212 191
± ± ± ±
S-31 6 29 8 2
68 9 28 38
± 15 ± 1 ± 2 ± 2
S-38 142 205 117 120
± ± ± ±
26 30 17 6
Mean rates of button pressing as a function of the fixed interval value of the monetary reinforcement schedule. All values represent the means±SEM of the last four sessions at each FI value.
The n u m b e r of cigarette puffs during successive segments of the fixed interval on the last four sessions at each FI value is shown in Table 3. Each FI was divided into three equal segments of 10, 20, 30 or 80 seconds. F o r all three subjects, approximately 70 percent of the cigarette puffs occurred during the first segment of the fixed interval. This first segment represents the time b e t w e e n m o n e t a r y reinforcement, i.e., point delivery and the first 10 to 80 seconds of the next fixed interval. Since the subjects initiated the next interval immediately following r e i n f o r c e m e n t presentation, the duration of the first segment was equal to the second and third segments. Fifteen to 25 percent of the cigarette puffs o c c u r r e d during the second segment of the fixed interval which represents the middle of the fixed interval. The lowest n u m b e r of cigarette puffs from 5 to 15 percent occurred during the third segment of the fixed interval from the last segment up to m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t delivery.
526
CHEREK DISCUSSION
This s t u d y has d e m o n s t r a t e d s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d c i g a r e t t e s e l f - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in h u m a n s . O n e o f the most powerful d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r is o b s e r v i n g c h a n g e s in the rate o f b e h a v i o r , e.g., c i g a r e t t e sell'a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , as a f u n c t i o n of c h a n g e s in the FI v a l u e of the i n d u c i n g s c h e d u l e . T h e results o f this e x p e r i m e n t s h o w that c h a n g e s in the F1 v a l u e of a m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e r e s u l t e d in significant c h a n g e s in the rate o f cigarette s m o k i n g . C h a n g e s in puff d u r a t i o n a n d n u m b e r of cigar e t t e s s m o k e d at the different FI values were minimal. T h e effect o f FI v a l u e o n c i g a r e t t e puffing rate a d d s s u p p o r t to a p r e v i o u s p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t of s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g [41. T h e m o s t c o n s i s t e n t finding of the p r e s e n t s t u d y was the t e m p o r a l locus o f cigarette puffs in relation to the FI schedule of monetary reinforcement. More than two-thirds o f the c i g a r e t t e puffs o c c u r r e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n or d u r i n g the initial p o r t i o n o f the next fixed interval. T h e majority o f c i g a r e t t e puffs c o n t i n u e d to o c c u r in the p o s t - r e i n f o r c e m e n t s e g m e n t o f the s c h e d u l e as the FI v a l u e was c h a n g e d . This i n d i c a t e s t h a t the intermittent p r e s e n t a t i o n o f points was e x e r t i n g s o m e c o n t r o l o v e r the t e m p o r a l p a t t e r n of c i g a r e t t e puffs. T h e o b s e r v a t i o n that m o s t cigarette puffs o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the p o s t - r e i n f o r c e m e n t s e g m e n t o f t h e FI s c h e d u l e is c o n s i s t e n t with the locus of o t h e r s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r s , such as a g g r e s s i o n and p o l y d i p s i a (e.g., [5, 8, 2511. S c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d cigarette s m o k i n g in the p r e s e n t s t u d y adds drug s e l f - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n to the types of s c h e d u l e i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r s e v i d e n c e d in h u m a n s . S c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d w a t e r d r i n k i n g h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d in h o s p i t a l i z e d patients d u r i n g r e s p o n d i n g m a i n t a i n e d by FI m o n e t a r y reinf o r c e m e n t [14]. S c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d i n c r e a s e s in o b s e r v e d m o t o r activity w e r e r e p o r t e d d u r i n g playing g a m e s of c h a n c e [6,30] and r e s p o n d i n g for c a n d y [28] on an FI schedule. Ano t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d m o t o r activity during FI s c h e d u l e d a c c e s s to a c o g n i t i v e m a z e d r a w i n g task, also r e p o r t e d i n c r e a s e s in c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g d u r i n g maze access [29]. T h e s e and the p r e s e n t s t u d y clearly d e m o n s t r a t e the a c r o s s species validity of s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r and indicate that h u m a n s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r can be studied in a c o n t r o l l e d l a b o r a t o r y e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d cigarette s m o k i n g e m p h a s i z e s the c o n t r o l which e n v i r o n m e n t a l stimuli can e x e r t o v e r c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g b e h a v i o r . T h e i n t e r m i t t e n t pres e n t a t i o n of points was f o u n d to set the o c c a s i o n for and
TABLE 3 NUMBER OF CIGARETTE PUFFS FI Value (see) Total
Fixed Intcrwd Segments I st
2nd
Ird
398 481 563 393
322 364 426 237
51 83 88 '97
25 34 49 s9
233 2 I11 306 265
169 146 2(15 173
q3 37 61 63
II 27 38 29
30 60
203 [ 94
128 155
at; 25
2~ 14
120 241)
285 255
2(13 157
s9 62
23 3~'~
Subject S-30 30 60 t20 240 Subject S-3 I 30 60 120 240
Subject S-38
Number of cigarette puffs during three successive segments of the fixed interval at each FI value. Values represent the total number of puffs in each segment during the last lkmr sessions at each FI value.
influence the p a t t e r n of cigarette puffing. As with o t h e r s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r s , cigarette pufl~ were f o u n d 1o o c c u r primarily in the p o s t - r e i n f o r c e m e n t s e g m e n t of the FI m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e . Several i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d that the a v e r s i v e p r o p e r t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with the p o s t - r e i n f o r c e m e n t period, i.e., low probability of rein f o r c e r p r e s e n t a t i o n , are the setting a n d / o r eliciting c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h result in s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r [5, 8, 251. T h e s e a v e r s i v e p r o p e r t i e s might also a u g m e n t the p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l r e i n f o r c i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t o b a c c o smoking. In support of this p r e m i s e , s m o k i n g has r e c e n t l y b e e n found to p r o d u c e selective d o s e - d e p e n d e n t (in t e r m s of nicotine) d e c r e a s e s in h u m a n aggressive b e h a v i o r elicited by p r e s e n t a t i o n of aversive stimuli [3]. R e d u c i n g the eliciting p r o p e r t i e s of a v e r s i v c e n v i r o n m e n t a l stimuli would be a potentially powerful reinforcing c o n s e q u e n c e of t o b a c c o s m o k i n g .
REFERENCES I. Bigelow, G., R. R. Griffiths and I. Liebson. Experimental models for the modification of human drug self-administration: Methodological developments in the study of ethanol selfadministration by alcoholics. Fedn Proc. 34: 1785-1792, 1975. 2. Bigelow, G., R. R. Griffiths and 1, Liebson. Experimental human drug self-administration: Methodology and application to the study of sedative abuse. Pharmac. Roy. 27: 523-531, 1975. 3. Cherek, D. R. Effects of smoking different doses of nicotine on human aggressive behavior. Psvch,q/tarmacol<~,,y 75: 33%345. 1981. 4. Cherek, D. R. and J. T. Brauchi. Schedule-induced cigarette smoking behavior during fixed-interval monetary reinforced responding. In: Quantification ql'St¢,ad3,-.~'tate Operant Behavior, edited by C. M. Bradshaw, E. Szabadi and C. F. Lowe. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1981, pp. 38%392.
5. Cherek, D. R., T. Thompson and G. T. Heistad. Responding maintained by the opportunity to attack during an interval R~od reinforcement schedule. ,I. c~p. Anah'~'i~ Bchal'. 19:113 123. 1973. 6. Chtrke, J., M. Gannon, 1. Hughes, C. Keogh. ('. Singer and M. Wallace. Adjunctive behavior in humans in a group gambling situation. Physiol. Behav. 18: 159-161, 1977. 7. Falk. J. L. Production of polydipsia in normal rats by an inter mittent food schedule. Scienct' 133: 195-196, 1961. 8. Falk, J. I~. The nature of determinants of adjunctive behavior Physiol. Behav. 6: 577-588, 1971. 9. Falk, J. L., H. H. Samson and G. Winger. Behavioral maintenance of high concentrations of blood ethanol and physical tic pendence in the rat..%'iem'~' 177: gl 1-813, 1972. 10. Griffiths, R, R. and G. E. Bigelow. Commonalities in human and infrahuman drug self-administration. In: Ba,~¢.~ ~{/'Addi~ tioH, edited by J. Fishman. Berlin: Dahlem, 1978, pp. 157 174.
CIGARETTE SELF-ADMINISTRATION
11. Henningfield, J. E. and R. R. Griffiths. Effects of ventilated cigarette holders on cigarette smoking by humans. Psychopharmacology 68:115-119, 1980. 12. Henningfield, J. E., J. Yingling, R. R. Griffiths and R. Pickens. An inexpensive portable device for measuring puffing behavior by cigarette smokers. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav. 12:811-813, 1980. 13. Holman, R. B. and R. D. Myers. Ethanol consumption under conditions of psychogenic polydipsia. Physiol. Behav. 3: 369371, 1968. 14. Kachanoff, R., R. Leveille, J. P. McLelland and J. J. Wayner. Schedule-induced behavior in humans. Physiol. Behav. 11: 395-398, 1973. 15. Kodluboy, D. W. and T. Thompson. Adjunctive selfadministration of barbiturate solutions. Proc. 79th American Psychol~gical Association Convention. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol, Ass., 1971, pp. 74%750. 16. Leander, J. D. and D. E. McMillan. Schedule-induced narcotic ingestion. Pharmac. Rev. 27: 475-487, 1975. 17. Leander, J. D., D. E. McMillan and L. S. Harris. Effects of narcotic agonists and antagonists on schedule-induced water and morphine ingestion. J. Pharmac. exp. Ther. 195: 271-278, 1975. 18. Mechner, F., L. Guevrekian and V. Mechner. A fixed-interval schedule in which the interval is initiated by a response. J. exp. Analysis Behav. 6: 323-330, 1963. 19. Meisch, R. A. Self-administration of pentobarbital by means of schedule-induced polydipsia. Psychon. Sci. 16: 16-17, 1969. 20. Meisch, R. A. and T. Thompson. Ethanol intake during schedule-induced polydipsia. Physiol. Behav. 8:471-475, 1972.
527
21. Mello, N. Behavioral studies of alcoholism. In: l'he Biology oj Alcoholism, vol. 2, edited by B. Kissin and H. Begleiter. New York: Plenum Press, 1972, pp. 21%291. 22. O'Brien, C. P. Experimental analysis of conditioning factors in human narcotic addiction. Pharmac. Rev. 27: 533-543, 1975. 23. Oei, T. P. S., G. Singer, D. Jefferys, W. Lang and A. Latiff. Schedule-induced self-injection of nicotine, heroin and methadone by naive animals. In: Stimulus Properties o f Drugs: Ten Years o f Progress, edited by F. C. Colpaert and J. A. Rosecrans. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1978, pp. 503-516. 24. Schuster, C. R. and J. H. Woods, Schedule-induced polydipsia in the monkey. Psychol. Rep. 19: 823-828, 1966. 25. Staddon, J. E. R. Schedule-induced behavior. In: Handbook ~f Operant Behavior. edited by W. K. H6nig and J. E. R. Staddon. Englewood Cliffs, N J: Prentice-Hall, 1977, pp. 125-152. 26. Takahashi, R. N., G. Singer and T. P. S. Oei. Schedule-induced self-injection of d-amphetamine by naive animals. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav. 9: 857-861, 1978. 27. Thompson, T. and R. Pickens. An experimental analysis of behavioral factors in drug dependence. Fedn Proc. 34: 175%1770, 1975. 28. Wallace, M., A. Sanson and G. Singer. Adjunctive behavior in humans on a food delivery schedule. Physiol. Behav. 20: 203204, 1978. 29. Wallace, M. and G. Singer. Adjunctive behavior and smoking induced by a maze solving schedule in humans. Physiol. Behav. 17: 84%852, 1976. 30. Wallace, M., G. Singer, M. J. Wayner and P. Cook. Adjunctive behavior in humans during game playing, Physiol. Behav. 14: 651-654, 1975.
Louisianu
State
Psvchiutry Un>versity
Research Unit, Dcpartmrnt of Psychiatry Mdicul Center, School of Medicine, Shreveport, Received
5 February
LA 71130
1982
CHEREK, D. R. Sc.hrdule-inc/lcc,r,d ci~uwtfe srlf-~~dtninistrc!fion. PHARMAC. BIOCHEM. BEHAV. 17(3) 523-527, 1982.-Cigarette self-administration was studied in a controlled laboratory setting by automated recording of the various components of smoking behavior. The effects of intermittent scheduled monetary reinforcement presentation on cigarette smoking was determined in an attempt to demonstrate schedule-induced cigarette self-administration. Schedule-induced cigarette self-administration was indicated by changes in some of the topographical components of cigarette smoking behavior, e.g.. puff frequency and mean puffs per cigarette, as a function of changes in the fixed interval value of a monetary reinforcement schedule. While the number of cigarettes smoked changed only slightly following changes in the FI value of the monetary reinforcement schedule. other components of cigarette smoking behavior, particularly puff frequency and mean puffs per cigarette, were significantly altered. Cigarette puffs were most likely to occur immediately following monetary reinforcement presentation or in the initial segment of the next fixed interval. The demonstration of schedule-induced self-administration in human adds another common factor found to influence infrahuman and human drug self-administration. Cigarette
smoking
Drug self-administration
Schedule-induced
experimental analysis of drug dependence considers drugs to be reinforcers which maintain behavior leading to their self-administration. The pharmacological properties of the drug and the scheduling of its presentation are fundamental determinants of the drug’s ability to maintain selfadministration behavior. However, drug self-administration cannot be considered apart from the historical and current environmental situation in which it occurs. Whether or not a particular drug will be effective in initiating and maintaining self-administration behavior also depends upon the environmental context in which the drug is made available. The intermittent schedule presentation of another reinforcer, e.g., food, is one environmental situation which has been found to initiate and maintain infrahuman drug selfadministration. Drug self-administration in such situations is referred to as schedule-induced drug self-administration, and is one of several schedule-induced behaviors which include polydipsia, aggression and escape [8]. Schedule-induced behavior is behavior occurring at increased probability during the intermittent scheduled presentation of another reinforcer. Such schedule-induced activities are facilitated by the schedule when compared to pre- and post-schedule baselines when no reinforcer is presented (see review, [25]). Early investigations of schedule-induced behavior have shown that intermittent schedule of food presentation were able to induce excessive drinking of water in laboratory animals that were not water deprived [7,24]. Later it was reported that laboratory animals would consume large volumes of ethanol AN
Copyright
0 1982 ANKHO
International
behavior
solutions when food was presented on an intermittent schedule [9, 13, 201. Control laboratory animals provided with free access to ethanol solutions but not exposed to intermittent schedules of food presentation consumed very little ethanol. The intermittent scheduled presentation of food was able to induce ethanol self-administration and establish it as a reinforcer. In addition, the intermittent scheduling of food presentation has also been found to induce selfadministration of amphetamine [26], barbiturates [ 15,191, and opiates [16, 17, 231. These studies of infrahuman drug self-administration induced by the intermittent presentation of food have demonstrated the importance of environmental events in determining the ability of certain drugs to serve as reinforcers. The relationships established in the experimental analysis of infrahuman drug self-administration have been applied to studies of human drug self-administration [I. 2, 21, 22, 271. These studies have “involved establishing drug selfadministration behavior under controlled experimental conditions, providing the basis for examining the effects of specific environmental manipulations” [lo]. In the present study, we have investigated cigarette self-administration in a controlled laboratory setting. Within this context, cigarette smoking is regarding as drug self-administration maintained by the reinforcing properties associated with its use. More specifically, we were interested in studying the effects of intermittent scheduled monetary reinforcement presentation on cigarette smoking.
Inc.-0091-3057/82/090523-05$03.00/O
524
('HEREK METHOD
Suhje¢'Is T w o male (S-30 a n d S-38) a n d o n e f e m a l e (S-31) volunt e e r s p a r t i c i p a t e d in the e x p e r i m e n t a f t e r giving t h e i r inf o r m e d c o n s e n t . T h e s e s u b j e c t s w e r e r e c r u i t e d t h r o u g h adv e r t i s e m e n t s soliciting p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a r e s e a r c h project involving p s y c h o m o t o r p e r f o r m a n c e , m o n e t a r y p a y m e n t and c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g . All s u b j e c t s were c u r r e n t l y s m o k i n g at least fifteen cigarettes p e r day a n d h a d b e e n s m o k i n g for at least four years. A t the e n d o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , s u b j e c t s were p r o v i d e d with i n f o r m a t i o n o n s m o k i n g c e s s a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s and e n c o u r a g e d to stop s m o k i n g .
TABLE 1 MEAN VALUES {N-4,l OF DIFFERENT COMPONEN'I S OF CIGARETTE SMOKING BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF THE FIXED INTERVAL OF THE MONETARY REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE Subject Number: FI Value (sec) 30 60 120 240
Cigarette Smoking Behavior C i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g was m o n i t o r e d by h a v i n g s u b j e c t s s m o k e e a c h c i g a r e t t e t h r o u g h a plastic cigarette h o l d e r w h i c h was c o n n e c t e d to a p r e s s u r e s e n s i t i v e s w i t c h ( M i c r o P n e u m a t i c Logic, M P L - 5 0 2 - V ) by 19 gauge n e e d l e s a n d 18 gauge acid r e s i s t a n t flexible r u b b e r t u b i n g [12]. A n Aquafilter, with all filtering material r e m o v e d , was u s e d as a cigarette holder. This h o l d e r did n o t filter the s m o k e in a n y way, a n d s u b j e c t s r e p o r t e d that they c o u l d d e t e c t n o d i f f e r e n c e s in the i n h a l a t i o n , taste, etc. of c i g a r e t t e s using the device. T h e air p r e s s u r e s w i t c h ( w h i c h r e s p o n d s to > 5 m m H g p r e s s u r e d r o p ) was m o u n t e d o n the r e s p o n s e c o n s o l e a n d c o n n e c t e d to c o n t r o l logic e q u i p m e n t ( C o u l b o u r n I n s t r u m e n t s ) w h i c h a l l o w e d t h e r e c o r d i n g o f the o c c u r r e n c e o f e a c h c i g a r e t t e puff a n d its d u r a t i o n . T h e following c o m p o n e n t s o f c i g a r e t t e s e l f - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w e r e m e a s u r e d : (1) n u m b e r o f c i g a r e t t e s s m o k e d , (2) puff f r e q u e n c y , a n d (3) puff d u r a t i o n . At the b e g i n n i n g o f e a c h s e s s i o n , s u b j e c t s were p r o v i d e d with a pack o f t h e i r p r e f e r r e d b r a n d o f cigarettes. T h e s u b j e c t s were able to initiate c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g at a n y time d u r i n g the experimental sessions.
Procedure R e s e a r c h s u b j e c t s c a m e into the Medical C e n t e r for two h o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s i o n s five d a y s p e r w e e k . Prior to e a c h daily s e s s i o n , s u b j e c t s r e m a i n e d in a waiting a r e a for 30 m i n u t e s a n d w e r e not a l l o w e d to s m o k e . This s e r v e d to standardize t h e a m o u n t o f c i g a r e t t e d e p r i v a t i o n p r i o r to the beginning o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s i o n . At the e n d o f the waiting period, the s u b j e c t s w e r e t a k e n into a n e x p e r i m e n t a l r o o m a n d s e a t e d in f r o n t of a r e s p o n s e c o n s o l e ( T e s t a n HT300/2). T h e y r e m a i n e d in this r o o m for the next two h o u r s . Cold w a t e r was a v a i l a b l e b y o p e r a t i n g a c o m m e r c i a l v a c u u m t h e r m o s . A light o n the front of the c o n s o l e was i l l u m i n a t e d at the b e g i n n i n g o f the t w o h o u r s e s s i o n a n d was exting u i s h e d at t h e e n d o f the s e s s i o n . T h e s u b j e c t s w e r e told t h a t p u s h i n g a b u t t o n m o u n t e d on the c o n s o l e w o u l d result in the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f m o n e y . T h e y w e r e given no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s c h e d u l e of m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d w e r e simply told that not e v e r y b u t t o n p r e s s would result in m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n . S u b j e c t s w e r e also i n s t r u c t e d t h a t c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g would not i n f l u e n c e the a m o u n t o f m o n e y e a r n e d in daily s e s s i o n s . P u s h i n g the b u t t o n was initially m a i n t a i n e d b y a r e s p o n s e initiated f i x e d - i n t e r v a l (FI) 60 s e c o n d s c h e d u l e [18]. O n such a s c h e d u l e , the first r e s p o n s e a f t e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a tion initiated the n e x t 60 s e c o n d interval, a n d t h e first res p o n s e a f t e r the i n t e r v a l e l a p s e d r e s u l t e d in the n e x t reinf o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n . Tbis s c h e d u l e was e m p l o y e d , since
S-30
S-31
S-38
Mean Number of Cigarettes Smoked -SEM 6.0 + 0.0 4.5 + 0.3 4.0 • 0.0 5.0 ~ (,l.0 3.8 + 0.5 3.0 ~ I,l.0 6.5 +: 0.3 5.0 : 0.0 4.0 ' 0.4 6.3
* 0.4
5.0
~ 0.0
4.tl
~ 0.0
30 60 120 240
Mean Puff& Per Cigarette ~SEM 16.6 + 0.4 13.7 ~ 0.4 24.2 + 0.5 14.5 ~ 1.4 21.8 ~ 1.3 15.3 : 1.0 16.0 + 1.3 13.3 ~ 0.4
12.9 16.2 18.3 15.9
~ , +
30 60 120 240
Mean Puffs Per Hour +SEM 49.8 +: 1.2 29.1 : 1.4 60.4 , 1.3 26.3 - 0.7 70.4 + 1.5 38.3 + 1.3 49.1 ~ 0.6 33.1 ' 0.9
25.4 24.1 35.6 31.9
, 1.5 ~ 0.8 + 1.5 ~ 0.7
30 60 120 240
Mean Puff Duration 0.64 + 0.03 0.75 ~ 0.07 0.70 ~ 0.03 0.70 - 0 . 0 3
ISec) 0.91 0.82 0.79 0.71
+SEM : 0.03 - 0.06 ~ 0.03 + 0.03
0.51 0.49 0.55 0.62
0,7 0,6 1,8 0.3
+ 0.00 + 0.02 • 0.02 - 0.02
All values represent the means+SEM of the lasl four sessions at each FI value.
fixed interval s c h e d u l e s h a v e b e e n f o u n d to i n d u c e inffahum a n (e.g., [5]) a n d h u m a n b e h a v i o r [14]. E a c h r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n was i n d i c a t e d to the s u b j e c t by the i n c r e m e n t ing of a c o u n t e r ( T e s t a n HT464) m o u n t e d on the c o n s o l e a d j a c e n t to the p u s h b u t t o n . E a c h point on the c o u n t e r was equal to ten cents. T h u s , a c o u n t o f 003 was e q u i v a l e n t to thirty c e n t s , a n d a c o u n t o f 030 e q u i v a l e n t to t h r e e dollars, etc. F o r t w o h o u r s , the s u b j e c t s were given a c c e s s to the p u s h b u t t o n . T h e m o n e y e a r n e d d u r i n g the session was paid to the s u b j e c t s daily (ranged f r o m $2.70 to $22.00). E a c h r e s e a r c h subject was e x p o s e d to the following seq u e n c e o f FI m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e values o v e r s u c c e s s i v e sessions: 60, 120, 240 and 30 s e c o n d s . T h e m a x i m u m m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n d i t i o n , i.e., FI 3{) seco n d s , was i n t r o d u c e d last to r e d u c e the p r o b a b i l i t y that subj e c t s w o u l d d i s c o n t i n u e t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n before the s t u d y was c o m p l e t e d . T h e FI v a l u e for e a c h e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s k m r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d until the rate of puffing, i.e., puffs per h o u r , varied less t h a n _+ 10 p e r c e n t for four s u c c e s s i v e sessions. T h e rate o f puffing was s e l e c t e d as the criterion for i n t r o d u c i n g c h a n g e s in FI value, since o t h e r studies [4,111 h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t this c o m p o n e n t of s m o k i n g b e h a v i o r is the m o s t s e n s i t i v e to e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s . RESULTS T h e v a r i o u s c o m p o n e n t s of c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g b e h a v i o r were c o m p a r e d at the four FI v a l u e s (30, 60, 120 and 240
CIGARETTE SELF-ADMINISTRATION
525
!
S 38
70- S-30 35 S-31
IX: D 0
1 65~
i
FgJ re-
ss~
i J
25t
5o-
T
I 30
60
120
240
25.1 ,
r
30
60
, 120
?
T
1 30
240
T 60
I 120
[ 240
FIXED INTERVALVALUE ( S E C I FIG. 1. The rate of cigarette smoking, i.e., puffs per hour, for all three subjects at each FI value of the monetary reinforcement is shown in Fig. I. The data points represent the mean puffrate for the last four sessions at each FI value. The vertical lines at each data point are _+SEM.
seconds) of m o n e t a r y reinforcement. Smoking b e h a v i o r data for subjects S-30, S-31 and S-38 appears in Table 1. The values reported represent the mean (+_SEM) for the last four sessions at each FI value. F o r all subjects, the changes in the n u m b e r of cigarettes smoked were slight, with more cigarettes being s m o k e d at FI values of 120 and 240 seconds. Marked changes in the rate of puffing were seen as a function of changes in the FI value of the m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t schedule. The rate of puffing, i.e., puffs per hour at each FI value is also shown in Fig. I. All three subjects had the highest rates of puffing at an FI value of 120 seconds; the puffing rate was l o w e r at FI values lower and higher than 120 seconds. The subjects did differ in the rate of puffing that o c c u r r e d during FI values o t h e r than 120 seconds, although the relationship b e t w e e n puff rate and FI value is very similar for subjects S-31 and S-38. F o r subject S-30, the second highest puff rate was seen at an FI value of 60 seconds and the lowest puff rate o c c u r r e d at an FI 240 seconds. The second highest puff rates for subjects S-31 and S-38 were at an FI value of 240 seconds and the lowest puff rates were at an FI 60 seconds. The n u m b e r of puffs per cigarette was highest at FI values o f 60 and 120 seconds and l o w e r at F1 values of 30 and 240 seconds (refer to Table 1). The mean duration of each puff r e m a i n e d unchanged at the different FI values for all subjects. The rate of button pressing during the last four sessions at each FI value is shown in Table 2. Subjects S-30 and S-38 maintained high rates of button pressing (100 to 200 resp/min) at all FI values. Subject S-31 maintained a low to m o d e r a t e rate of button pressing which increased at each successive FI value. T h e r e were no consistent relationships b e t w e e n puffing rates and button pressing rates across the three subjects. The puffing rate of Subject S-38 increased as button pressing rate decreased at the different FI values. The o t h e r two subjects did not show any systematic relationship b e t w e e n puffing and button pressing rates.
TABLE 2 RATE
OF
MONETARY
REINIFORCED
RESPONDING
(RESP/MIN)
FI Value (sec) 30 60 120 240
S-30 176 151 212 191
± ± ± ±
S-31 6 29 8 2
68 9 28 38
± 15 ± 1 ± 2 ± 2
S-38 142 205 117 120
± ± ± ±
26 30 17 6
Mean rates of button pressing as a function of the fixed interval value of the monetary reinforcement schedule. All values represent the means±SEM of the last four sessions at each FI value.
The n u m b e r of cigarette puffs during successive segments of the fixed interval on the last four sessions at each FI value is shown in Table 3. Each FI was divided into three equal segments of 10, 20, 30 or 80 seconds. F o r all three subjects, approximately 70 percent of the cigarette puffs occurred during the first segment of the fixed interval. This first segment represents the time b e t w e e n m o n e t a r y reinforcement, i.e., point delivery and the first 10 to 80 seconds of the next fixed interval. Since the subjects initiated the next interval immediately following r e i n f o r c e m e n t presentation, the duration of the first segment was equal to the second and third segments. Fifteen to 25 percent of the cigarette puffs o c c u r r e d during the second segment of the fixed interval which represents the middle of the fixed interval. The lowest n u m b e r of cigarette puffs from 5 to 15 percent occurred during the third segment of the fixed interval from the last segment up to m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t delivery.
526
CHEREK DISCUSSION
This s t u d y has d e m o n s t r a t e d s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d c i g a r e t t e s e l f - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in h u m a n s . O n e o f the most powerful d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r is o b s e r v i n g c h a n g e s in the rate o f b e h a v i o r , e.g., c i g a r e t t e sell'a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , as a f u n c t i o n of c h a n g e s in the FI v a l u e of the i n d u c i n g s c h e d u l e . T h e results o f this e x p e r i m e n t s h o w that c h a n g e s in the F1 v a l u e of a m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e r e s u l t e d in significant c h a n g e s in the rate o f cigarette s m o k i n g . C h a n g e s in puff d u r a t i o n a n d n u m b e r of cigar e t t e s s m o k e d at the different FI values were minimal. T h e effect o f FI v a l u e o n c i g a r e t t e puffing rate a d d s s u p p o r t to a p r e v i o u s p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t of s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g [41. T h e m o s t c o n s i s t e n t finding of the p r e s e n t s t u d y was the t e m p o r a l locus o f cigarette puffs in relation to the FI schedule of monetary reinforcement. More than two-thirds o f the c i g a r e t t e puffs o c c u r r e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n or d u r i n g the initial p o r t i o n o f the next fixed interval. T h e majority o f c i g a r e t t e puffs c o n t i n u e d to o c c u r in the p o s t - r e i n f o r c e m e n t s e g m e n t o f the s c h e d u l e as the FI v a l u e was c h a n g e d . This i n d i c a t e s t h a t the intermittent p r e s e n t a t i o n o f points was e x e r t i n g s o m e c o n t r o l o v e r the t e m p o r a l p a t t e r n of c i g a r e t t e puffs. T h e o b s e r v a t i o n that m o s t cigarette puffs o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the p o s t - r e i n f o r c e m e n t s e g m e n t o f t h e FI s c h e d u l e is c o n s i s t e n t with the locus of o t h e r s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r s , such as a g g r e s s i o n and p o l y d i p s i a (e.g., [5, 8, 2511. S c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d cigarette s m o k i n g in the p r e s e n t s t u d y adds drug s e l f - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n to the types of s c h e d u l e i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r s e v i d e n c e d in h u m a n s . S c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d w a t e r d r i n k i n g h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d in h o s p i t a l i z e d patients d u r i n g r e s p o n d i n g m a i n t a i n e d by FI m o n e t a r y reinf o r c e m e n t [14]. S c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d i n c r e a s e s in o b s e r v e d m o t o r activity w e r e r e p o r t e d d u r i n g playing g a m e s of c h a n c e [6,30] and r e s p o n d i n g for c a n d y [28] on an FI schedule. Ano t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d m o t o r activity during FI s c h e d u l e d a c c e s s to a c o g n i t i v e m a z e d r a w i n g task, also r e p o r t e d i n c r e a s e s in c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g d u r i n g maze access [29]. T h e s e and the p r e s e n t s t u d y clearly d e m o n s t r a t e the a c r o s s species validity of s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r and indicate that h u m a n s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r can be studied in a c o n t r o l l e d l a b o r a t o r y e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d cigarette s m o k i n g e m p h a s i z e s the c o n t r o l which e n v i r o n m e n t a l stimuli can e x e r t o v e r c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g b e h a v i o r . T h e i n t e r m i t t e n t pres e n t a t i o n of points was f o u n d to set the o c c a s i o n for and
TABLE 3 NUMBER OF CIGARETTE PUFFS FI Value (see) Total
Fixed Intcrwd Segments I st
2nd
Ird
398 481 563 393
322 364 426 237
51 83 88 '97
25 34 49 s9
233 2 I11 306 265
169 146 2(15 173
q3 37 61 63
II 27 38 29
30 60
203 [ 94
128 155
at; 25
2~ 14
120 241)
285 255
2(13 157
s9 62
23 3~'~
Subject S-30 30 60 t20 240 Subject S-3 I 30 60 120 240
Subject S-38
Number of cigarette puffs during three successive segments of the fixed interval at each FI value. Values represent the total number of puffs in each segment during the last lkmr sessions at each FI value.
influence the p a t t e r n of cigarette puffing. As with o t h e r s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r s , cigarette pufl~ were f o u n d 1o o c c u r primarily in the p o s t - r e i n f o r c e m e n t s e g m e n t of the FI m o n e t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e . Several i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d that the a v e r s i v e p r o p e r t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with the p o s t - r e i n f o r c e m e n t period, i.e., low probability of rein f o r c e r p r e s e n t a t i o n , are the setting a n d / o r eliciting c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h result in s c h e d u l e - i n d u c e d b e h a v i o r [5, 8, 251. T h e s e a v e r s i v e p r o p e r t i e s might also a u g m e n t the p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l r e i n f o r c i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t o b a c c o smoking. In support of this p r e m i s e , s m o k i n g has r e c e n t l y b e e n found to p r o d u c e selective d o s e - d e p e n d e n t (in t e r m s of nicotine) d e c r e a s e s in h u m a n aggressive b e h a v i o r elicited by p r e s e n t a t i o n of aversive stimuli [3]. R e d u c i n g the eliciting p r o p e r t i e s of a v e r s i v c e n v i r o n m e n t a l stimuli would be a potentially powerful reinforcing c o n s e q u e n c e of t o b a c c o s m o k i n g .
REFERENCES I. Bigelow, G., R. R. Griffiths and I. Liebson. Experimental models for the modification of human drug self-administration: Methodological developments in the study of ethanol selfadministration by alcoholics. Fedn Proc. 34: 1785-1792, 1975. 2. Bigelow, G., R. R. Griffiths and 1, Liebson. Experimental human drug self-administration: Methodology and application to the study of sedative abuse. Pharmac. Roy. 27: 523-531, 1975. 3. Cherek, D. R. Effects of smoking different doses of nicotine on human aggressive behavior. Psvch,q/tarmacol<~,,y 75: 33%345. 1981. 4. Cherek, D. R. and J. T. Brauchi. Schedule-induced cigarette smoking behavior during fixed-interval monetary reinforced responding. In: Quantification ql'St¢,ad3,-.~'tate Operant Behavior, edited by C. M. Bradshaw, E. Szabadi and C. F. Lowe. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1981, pp. 38%392.
5. Cherek, D. R., T. Thompson and G. T. Heistad. Responding maintained by the opportunity to attack during an interval R~od reinforcement schedule. ,I. c~p. Anah'~'i~ Bchal'. 19:113 123. 1973. 6. Chtrke, J., M. Gannon, 1. Hughes, C. Keogh. ('. Singer and M. Wallace. Adjunctive behavior in humans in a group gambling situation. Physiol. Behav. 18: 159-161, 1977. 7. Falk. J. L. Production of polydipsia in normal rats by an inter mittent food schedule. Scienct' 133: 195-196, 1961. 8. Falk, J. I~. The nature of determinants of adjunctive behavior Physiol. Behav. 6: 577-588, 1971. 9. Falk, J. L., H. H. Samson and G. Winger. Behavioral maintenance of high concentrations of blood ethanol and physical tic pendence in the rat..%'iem'~' 177: gl 1-813, 1972. 10. Griffiths, R, R. and G. E. Bigelow. Commonalities in human and infrahuman drug self-administration. In: Ba,~¢.~ ~{/'Addi~ tioH, edited by J. Fishman. Berlin: Dahlem, 1978, pp. 157 174.
CIGARETTE SELF-ADMINISTRATION
11. Henningfield, J. E. and R. R. Griffiths. Effects of ventilated cigarette holders on cigarette smoking by humans. Psychopharmacology 68:115-119, 1980. 12. Henningfield, J. E., J. Yingling, R. R. Griffiths and R. Pickens. An inexpensive portable device for measuring puffing behavior by cigarette smokers. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav. 12:811-813, 1980. 13. Holman, R. B. and R. D. Myers. Ethanol consumption under conditions of psychogenic polydipsia. Physiol. Behav. 3: 369371, 1968. 14. Kachanoff, R., R. Leveille, J. P. McLelland and J. J. Wayner. Schedule-induced behavior in humans. Physiol. Behav. 11: 395-398, 1973. 15. Kodluboy, D. W. and T. Thompson. Adjunctive selfadministration of barbiturate solutions. Proc. 79th American Psychol~gical Association Convention. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol, Ass., 1971, pp. 74%750. 16. Leander, J. D. and D. E. McMillan. Schedule-induced narcotic ingestion. Pharmac. Rev. 27: 475-487, 1975. 17. Leander, J. D., D. E. McMillan and L. S. Harris. Effects of narcotic agonists and antagonists on schedule-induced water and morphine ingestion. J. Pharmac. exp. Ther. 195: 271-278, 1975. 18. Mechner, F., L. Guevrekian and V. Mechner. A fixed-interval schedule in which the interval is initiated by a response. J. exp. Analysis Behav. 6: 323-330, 1963. 19. Meisch, R. A. Self-administration of pentobarbital by means of schedule-induced polydipsia. Psychon. Sci. 16: 16-17, 1969. 20. Meisch, R. A. and T. Thompson. Ethanol intake during schedule-induced polydipsia. Physiol. Behav. 8:471-475, 1972.
527
21. Mello, N. Behavioral studies of alcoholism. In: l'he Biology oj Alcoholism, vol. 2, edited by B. Kissin and H. Begleiter. New York: Plenum Press, 1972, pp. 21%291. 22. O'Brien, C. P. Experimental analysis of conditioning factors in human narcotic addiction. Pharmac. Rev. 27: 533-543, 1975. 23. Oei, T. P. S., G. Singer, D. Jefferys, W. Lang and A. Latiff. Schedule-induced self-injection of nicotine, heroin and methadone by naive animals. In: Stimulus Properties o f Drugs: Ten Years o f Progress, edited by F. C. Colpaert and J. A. Rosecrans. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1978, pp. 503-516. 24. Schuster, C. R. and J. H. Woods, Schedule-induced polydipsia in the monkey. Psychol. Rep. 19: 823-828, 1966. 25. Staddon, J. E. R. Schedule-induced behavior. In: Handbook ~f Operant Behavior. edited by W. K. H6nig and J. E. R. Staddon. Englewood Cliffs, N J: Prentice-Hall, 1977, pp. 125-152. 26. Takahashi, R. N., G. Singer and T. P. S. Oei. Schedule-induced self-injection of d-amphetamine by naive animals. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav. 9: 857-861, 1978. 27. Thompson, T. and R. Pickens. An experimental analysis of behavioral factors in drug dependence. Fedn Proc. 34: 175%1770, 1975. 28. Wallace, M., A. Sanson and G. Singer. Adjunctive behavior in humans on a food delivery schedule. Physiol. Behav. 20: 203204, 1978. 29. Wallace, M. and G. Singer. Adjunctive behavior and smoking induced by a maze solving schedule in humans. Physiol. Behav. 17: 84%852, 1976. 30. Wallace, M., G. Singer, M. J. Wayner and P. Cook. Adjunctive behavior in humans during game playing, Physiol. Behav. 14: 651-654, 1975.