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Short-term counseling in the school setting: A diagnostic-therapeutic approach
SHORT-TERM COUNSELING IN THE SCHOOL SETTING: A DIAGNOSTIC-THERAPEUTIC APPROACH : R U D O L P H F. W A G N E R Richmond Public Schools, Virginia The school psychologist1 today is faced with a twofold handicap regarding the counseling of students: (1) lack of time to do intensive counseling, and (2) lack of suitable "techniques" and a specific theoretical orientation. Orthodox methods of counseling, especially those based on psychoanalytic principles, are time-consuming, and their effectiveness has not been proven unequivocably by controlled experimentation. Thus it appears that the two critical factors, time and technique, need to be combined and condensed if progress is to be made. In other words, what seems to be needed is a "compact model", to borrow a term from the automotive trade. However, a compromise regarding technique must not be construed as another eclectic, middle-of-the-road approach to counseling that drifts along without any theoretical orientation. The objective of counselhag in a school setting is clear and precise: academic achievement on expectancy levels under optimal school adjustment conditions. The dilemma of the school psychologist does not end here. Another handicap is that his initial services are usually only diagnostic in natttre, a situation which has proven unsatisfactory and unpopular among educators. Yet, time for a diagnostic workup, which includes testing and behavioral observations during a single session with the student, is usually all that can be accomplished in many school systems, without even considering the question of counseling or therapy. If agency referral for therapy is contemplated, long waiting lists exist. An alternative, such as suspending the student from school, leaves the student untreated and without further education. This course, furthermore, contributes to aggravated symptomatology unless spontaneous recovery occurs. 1. Hereafter, the terms psychologist, school psychologist, and counseling school psychologist will be used interchangeably. The term school counselor is reserved for the guidance counselor or curriculum advisor within a school setting. Furthermore, the term counseling will refer to the process of counseling done by a professional psychologist, as opposed to school counseling done by the guidance counselor in a specific school setting. The terms student and counselee are used interchangeably. 42
A search of the literature for a condensed or combined diagnostictherapeutic approach to counseling in a school setting has revealed an alarming paucity of research studies or recommended procedures in dais area. Kirk (1952) has stated that psychotherapy in the conventional sense of personality assessment and reorganization is called for, and this approach seems to be the universally accepted one. Taylor (1960) may have guided the counseling school psychologist in the right direction by calling a limited-goal approach to counseling "minimum change therapy". Goldburgh and Penney (1962) have discussed their approach to counseling of underachievers under the heading of "sector counseling" stating that it is their intention to take a much narrower goal than total personality reorganization and that a specific technique is called for. They suggest short duration of counseling and restricted objectives. In a case history, Rudikoff and Kirk (1961) discuss a "short-term clinical vocational counseling process" by demonstrating with a case history what can be achieved by the psychologist with specific goals clearly in mind "in no more than three interviews'. Over the past few years, this author has developed his own approach based on counseling underachievers defined as high school students with generally low scholastic records (at least one to two failing grades) in the presence of high average or above average intelligence. The essence of the approach is outlined below. Counseling Procedure The flowchart shown in Table 1 outlines the desired features necessary to accomplish the goals of short-term counseling by a school psychologist. The table is a condensation of the procedure. The approach is cumulative as well as progressive. If the process must be arrested or terminated at any given stage, closure can still be obtained. The various stages are described below and correspond to the Roman numerals in the second column of the flowchart of Table 1. Ordinarily, referrals (Step I) are made by the principal of the school, school counselor, teacher, or pupil personnel worker. Referrals init,iated by the student himself or his parents are also accepted after a conference with the school officials. It should be mentioned here that some research evidence exists regarding successful outcome of counseling x~Sth voluntary referrals (Goodstein and Cries, 1961). Session A Ventilation Interview (Step II). During the first part of the first session the counselee is encouraged to vent his feelings in a free and accepting atmosphere. The counselor is interested in establishing good rapport and assumes a passive and nondirect~ve role. 43
Table 1 Flowchart For the Diagnostic-Therapeutic Approach to Short.Term Counseling Content of Counseling Session
Length Time Interval (in min.) to Next Step
Referral from school or agency
depending on workload at hand
Ventilating interview
20-30
Testing and personality evaluation
60-90
Incubation period
1-2 weeks
Student's self-analysis ( Self-
2o-3o
Image ) Counselor's interpretation of test results (Feedback-linage)
30-45
Parental interview(s). Either or both parents ~
45-60
Pinpointing the problem area (s)
30-45
Decision-making ( emergence of solution) and motivation toward adjustment
30-45
1-2 weeks
X
Written report to school or agency
Immediate
XI
Follow-up (school ofl%ial, parents, and/or student)
3-6 weeks
* An extension of parental interviews may be indicated see text) whereby the mother, father, or parent substitute are seen in separate or combined interview sessions. Testing (Step I I I ) . D u r i n g t h e second p a r t of Session A, a n a t t e m p t at an objective and quantifying measure of the counselee's abilities and personality adjustment is made. This will selwe as the basis for an evaluation and interpretation of the results later on. T h e test b a t t e r y includes an individual intelligence test ( W I S C , WAIS, or Stanford-Binet), the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, an estimate of t h e r e a d i n g level ( W i d e Range Achievement Test, Reading G r a d e only), and a projective device 44
(Draw-a-Person, HTP, Rorschach, TAT, or Kahn Test of Symbol Arrangement). The KTSA seems to be very suitable in this connection and its use will be discussed below. This part is highly structured due to the inherent nature of the tasks. The session should end on a friendly note and with an invitation to return at a specified date. Incubation Period (Step IV). An interval of at least one to two weeks is recommended between the first and second session. It is assumed that some positive transference has become apparent then, paving the way for favorable counseling conditions. Session B Self-Image (Step V). The first part of this session is again dominated by the student for the projection of a verbal "self-image", i.e. the way he perceives himself. The counselor takes on a more passive role here except for elieiting responses, if necessary, or steering the counselee into relevant directions by encouraging one type of response and discouraging another. The counselee is asked to relate his feeling regarding intellectual level, social ability, personality, vocatioual ambitions, or other related areas. The sum-total of his remarks is considered his selfimage and may be summarized briefly by the counselor at the end. The self-image may be assessed on the basis of more objective rating scales or adjective checklists. However, the disadvantages in a counseling situation would be that the counselor again has to take the lead in the interpretation of results and the eounselee's participation is rendered passive. Feedback-Image (Step VI). The feedback-image emerges on the basis of an interpretation of tests previously administered, observations by the counselor during the two counseling sessions and, ff available, pertinent entries in the cumulative folder or other records. The approach again will make for a more rigid structuring of the second half of the session. In fact, the student is merely invited to participate in a reflection, as it were, of past behavioral ind~ees and allowed to view the realself by way of feedback. The term feedback-image seems preferable here because it is not all-inclusive and pertains only to the situation and data at hand. Further discussion now centers around a possible disparity between the self-image and the feedback-image. Suggestions for merging, or approaching a merger, of the two images may be brought up b y either the counselor or, preferably, the eounselee himself, for purposes o f a more focused goal orientation and problem solving. At the end of the Session the counselee is asked for permission to see his parents for a brief interpretive interview. His reactions in a permissive atmosphere are usually positive. If permission is not granted, however, it should be 45
respected by the counselor in order not to disturb the relationship. The permission may possibly be sought again in the next session. Parent Interview(s) (Step VII). Between Sessions B and C, the student's parents are invited to make an appointment with the counselor. The purpose of the parent interview is twofold: (1) to secure additional information about the counselee's past behavior, and (2) to interpret the test results. No major decisions are made at this time. The counselor's choice of technique may be structured or unstructured, depending on parental attitudes and individual personalities encountered. If the interview reveals special problem areas related to the parents and the home, more than one interview may be arranged. If severe parental dissention exists, the counselor may decide to interview the parents first separately, and then jointly. This approach has been found very fruitful, and some research evidence exists that points out a new dimension and direction in counseling, namely parental counseling as an adjunct to child guidance (Sehulman et al, 1962). The parents m a y function as counselor-surrogates while student counseling is in progress and after its termination. Session C
Pinpointing the Problem Area(s) (Step VIII). The final session with the counselee carries the major emphasis of the entire process insofar as it brings the material of past counseling into sharper focus and sets the stage for a presolution phase. The problem areas are now pinpointed one by one to prepare the ground for decision-making. It is assumed that the student has gained suffieient information and insight for realizing his difficulties and crystallizing his thinking. The counselor's role remains essentially passive and nondirective, only reflecting feelings occasionally if necessary. Decision-Making (Step IX). After the problems have been summarized by the counselor, the student formulates the steps necessary for a satisfactory solution of his problems. His decisions may involve improvement of study habits, dropping certain classes, referral to a guidance clinic or enrollment in a remedial reading class. Decisions are made and possible alternate avenues are explored. Motivation and goaldirection are provided for the immediate future. Long-range planning is discussed but not spelled out in detail. This final phase is the quintessence of the student-counselor relationship and must end on a mutually satisfying note. Report to School (Step X). A written report is prepared for the school personnel, including the classroom teacher, principal, school counselor, and other pupil personnel workers in contact with the coun46
selee. The report is sent directly to the school and contains the test results and impressions gained during the counseling sessions. Specific recommendations are spelled out for the school personnel to follow or to take under advisement. Follow-up Session (Step XI). After a certain lapse of time, usually from four to six weeks, an additional appointment is made with the student. At this time the decisions previously made are assessed and evaluated in terms of realistic accomplishments. Alternate routes may need to be chosen if the original plans did not work out satisfactorily. The counselor may also obtain his first measures of evaluating improvement against criteria to be discussed below. The ultimate aim of the entire counseling approach is the student's self-sufllciency in school while achieving academically as close to his potential abili~ as possible. Discussion
The major advantages in the diagnostic-therapeutic or "compact" approach to counseling are seen in (1) flexibility of technique; (2) economy of time and effort; (3) immediacy of action; (4) built-in measurements and simultaneous therapy; (5) continuity or closure at any given point; and (6) standardization of procedure for comparative research purposes. Figure 1 Overlapping Areas in an Image-Triad Indicating Scope of Adjustment (S--Self-Image; F--Feedback-Image; P--Parental Image)
( a. Small area shows disagreement in the student's adjustment.
b. Large area shows agreement in the student's adjustment. 47
Psychometric and projective testing o f t h e student and parental interviews allow for the collection of data that form the basis of three conceptual "images". This image triad consists of the self-image, the feedback-image, and the parental-image in terms of parental expectancies. All three can be assessed with more accurate instruments if required. The constellation of the three images is shown graphically in Figure 1. The larger the overlapping area, the more agreement or conformity exists with regard to the student's behavioral adjustment. Or, stated negatively, the smaller the overlapping area in the triad, the more intense ~the student's problems are at this point. The suggested development of a parental image is only in an inchoate stage and will require further experimentation. The most controversial question in counseling research undoubtedly centers around a valid criterion as a measure of improvement after counseling. Since academic achievement and school adjustment are usually the most immediate and pressing problems, they receive first rank in the brief counseling procedure. Parents and educators certainly emphasize the academic areas and consider them of primary importance. If the student's school record improves, they also regard the counseling as successful. A measure based on grades as reflecting academic achievement, therefore, must be among the criteria that should receive attention. However, grades cannot be considered the sole criterion. Others may have to be added to form multiple criteria for improvement. Among the more promising ones for brief counseling, the following are suggested worthy of consideration in validity studies: (1) Academic school records (Grade Point Average or Grade Point Index); (2) change of self-image as measured by inventories, check-lists or rating scales; (3) discrepancy scores between self-image and feedback-image; (4) selfevaluation by counselee or parents, before and after the counseling procedure; (5) teacher and/or parent rating scales; and (6) psycholinguistic measures based on spoken samples. In some instances where no progress with the student appears evident, terminating counseling with the student and continuing with the parents alone may become advisable. It is a sort of "switching tracks" while keeping the same destination or goal in mind. The parent will then function as counselor surrogate, as ,it were, assuming the counselor's role after the counseling sessions with the school psychologist have been terminated. Extensive practical use of the diagnostic-therapeutic approach, in general, has yielded encouraging results. More favorable prognoses were observed in certain clinical categories, Among the more:favorable groups were: mild to moderate anxiety states; "motivationalapathy"; 48
withdrawn personalties; gifted and academically talented students with adjustment problems; emotional reactions due to personal or family crises; compulsive personalties; and problems of vocational choice. Less favorable results were obtained with: behavior disorders (especially the overt-aggressive and acting-out types); character disorders; psychotic states; mental defectives; and severe anxiety-neuroses. It may thus become advisable to screen students before they enter short-term counseling with the school psychologist. The approach described above permits such screening because the sequence of sessions can be interrupted at any phase. Closure can be obtained even if the process is terminated at the end of the first session because a diagnostic workup for the student is available. As a screening device, the Kahn Test of Symbol Arrangement has been found very useful in this connection (Kahn, 1956 and Wagner, 1961 ). Among the theoretical and research implications of short-term counseling are: (1) Combining diagnosis and therapy in a concurrent counseling technique; (2) Providing for progressive continuity in the counseling sequence that can be terminated at any given stage without loss of closure; (3) Standardizing an approach which would make it more amenable to experimental research; (4) Employing the Image-Triad (Self-Feedback-Parental) as a measure of problem scope and intensity; (5) Using parents as counselor-surrogates during and after individual student counseling with the school psychologist. The approach lends itself to an accumulation of comparable results in a "data pool", which might encompass a cluster of school populations or an entire school system. Comparability is assured through standardization of the technique. In research designs, differences in treatments consisting of individual vs. group counseling, with one or more control groups, could be arranged. The effectiveness of such treatments in specific groups of students with various problem areas could then be tested under more rigid experimental conditions.
Summary A compact approach to short-term counseling by the school psychologist has been described which combines features of both diagnosis and therapy. Among the advantages of the approach are flexibility of technique, economy of time and effort, termination with possible closure at any given stage, and the employment of parents as counselor surrogates. Further discussion centered around clinical categories with favorable and unfavorable prognoses, theoretical implications and advantages of the approach in comparative research. During the process of counseling an image-triad emerges (self, feedback, and parental)
49
that can be used for an assessment ef the student's problem with regard to scope and intensity. Among suggested criteria for assessing improvement during counseling, academic grades were considered of primary importance due to parental expectancies. REFERENCES Goldburgh, S. and Penney, J. A note on counseling underachieving college students. ]. couns. Psychol., 1962, 9, 133-138. Goodstein, L.D. and Crites, J.O. Brief counseling with poor college risks. J. couns. Psychol., 1961, 8, 318-321. Kahn, T.C. The Kahn Test of Symbol Arrangement: Clinical Manual. Perc. and motor skills, Monogr. Suppl. !, 1957. Kirk, B. Test versus academic performance in malfunctioning students. ]. couns. Psychol., 1952, 16, 213-216. Rudikoff, L. and Kirk, B. Goals of Counseling: Mobilizing the Counselee. J. couns. Psychol., 1961, 8, 243-249. Schulman, R., Shoemaker, D., Moelis, I. Laboratory measurement of parental behavior. J. consult. Psychol., 1962, 26, 109-114. Tyler, L. Minimum change therapy. Personnel guid. 1., 1960, 38, 475-479. Wagner, R.F. An auxiliary manual for the Kahn Test of Symbol Arrangement as used with adolescents in a high school setting. Unpublished manuscript, Richmond, Va.: Author, 1961.
50
A search of the literature for a condensed or combined diagnostictherapeutic approach to counseling in a school setting has revealed an alarming paucity of research studies or recommended procedures in dais area. Kirk (1952) has stated that psychotherapy in the conventional sense of personality assessment and reorganization is called for, and this approach seems to be the universally accepted one. Taylor (1960) may have guided the counseling school psychologist in the right direction by calling a limited-goal approach to counseling "minimum change therapy". Goldburgh and Penney (1962) have discussed their approach to counseling of underachievers under the heading of "sector counseling" stating that it is their intention to take a much narrower goal than total personality reorganization and that a specific technique is called for. They suggest short duration of counseling and restricted objectives. In a case history, Rudikoff and Kirk (1961) discuss a "short-term clinical vocational counseling process" by demonstrating with a case history what can be achieved by the psychologist with specific goals clearly in mind "in no more than three interviews'. Over the past few years, this author has developed his own approach based on counseling underachievers defined as high school students with generally low scholastic records (at least one to two failing grades) in the presence of high average or above average intelligence. The essence of the approach is outlined below. Counseling Procedure The flowchart shown in Table 1 outlines the desired features necessary to accomplish the goals of short-term counseling by a school psychologist. The table is a condensation of the procedure. The approach is cumulative as well as progressive. If the process must be arrested or terminated at any given stage, closure can still be obtained. The various stages are described below and correspond to the Roman numerals in the second column of the flowchart of Table 1. Ordinarily, referrals (Step I) are made by the principal of the school, school counselor, teacher, or pupil personnel worker. Referrals init,iated by the student himself or his parents are also accepted after a conference with the school officials. It should be mentioned here that some research evidence exists regarding successful outcome of counseling x~Sth voluntary referrals (Goodstein and Cries, 1961). Session A Ventilation Interview (Step II). During the first part of the first session the counselee is encouraged to vent his feelings in a free and accepting atmosphere. The counselor is interested in establishing good rapport and assumes a passive and nondirect~ve role. 43
Table 1 Flowchart For the Diagnostic-Therapeutic Approach to Short.Term Counseling Content of Counseling Session
Length Time Interval (in min.) to Next Step
Referral from school or agency
depending on workload at hand
Ventilating interview
20-30
Testing and personality evaluation
60-90
Incubation period
1-2 weeks
Student's self-analysis ( Self-
2o-3o
Image ) Counselor's interpretation of test results (Feedback-linage)
30-45
Parental interview(s). Either or both parents ~
45-60
Pinpointing the problem area (s)
30-45
Decision-making ( emergence of solution) and motivation toward adjustment
30-45
1-2 weeks
X
Written report to school or agency
Immediate
XI
Follow-up (school ofl%ial, parents, and/or student)
3-6 weeks
* An extension of parental interviews may be indicated see text) whereby the mother, father, or parent substitute are seen in separate or combined interview sessions. Testing (Step I I I ) . D u r i n g t h e second p a r t of Session A, a n a t t e m p t at an objective and quantifying measure of the counselee's abilities and personality adjustment is made. This will selwe as the basis for an evaluation and interpretation of the results later on. T h e test b a t t e r y includes an individual intelligence test ( W I S C , WAIS, or Stanford-Binet), the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, an estimate of t h e r e a d i n g level ( W i d e Range Achievement Test, Reading G r a d e only), and a projective device 44
(Draw-a-Person, HTP, Rorschach, TAT, or Kahn Test of Symbol Arrangement). The KTSA seems to be very suitable in this connection and its use will be discussed below. This part is highly structured due to the inherent nature of the tasks. The session should end on a friendly note and with an invitation to return at a specified date. Incubation Period (Step IV). An interval of at least one to two weeks is recommended between the first and second session. It is assumed that some positive transference has become apparent then, paving the way for favorable counseling conditions. Session B Self-Image (Step V). The first part of this session is again dominated by the student for the projection of a verbal "self-image", i.e. the way he perceives himself. The counselor takes on a more passive role here except for elieiting responses, if necessary, or steering the counselee into relevant directions by encouraging one type of response and discouraging another. The counselee is asked to relate his feeling regarding intellectual level, social ability, personality, vocatioual ambitions, or other related areas. The sum-total of his remarks is considered his selfimage and may be summarized briefly by the counselor at the end. The self-image may be assessed on the basis of more objective rating scales or adjective checklists. However, the disadvantages in a counseling situation would be that the counselor again has to take the lead in the interpretation of results and the eounselee's participation is rendered passive. Feedback-Image (Step VI). The feedback-image emerges on the basis of an interpretation of tests previously administered, observations by the counselor during the two counseling sessions and, ff available, pertinent entries in the cumulative folder or other records. The approach again will make for a more rigid structuring of the second half of the session. In fact, the student is merely invited to participate in a reflection, as it were, of past behavioral ind~ees and allowed to view the realself by way of feedback. The term feedback-image seems preferable here because it is not all-inclusive and pertains only to the situation and data at hand. Further discussion now centers around a possible disparity between the self-image and the feedback-image. Suggestions for merging, or approaching a merger, of the two images may be brought up b y either the counselor or, preferably, the eounselee himself, for purposes o f a more focused goal orientation and problem solving. At the end of the Session the counselee is asked for permission to see his parents for a brief interpretive interview. His reactions in a permissive atmosphere are usually positive. If permission is not granted, however, it should be 45
respected by the counselor in order not to disturb the relationship. The permission may possibly be sought again in the next session. Parent Interview(s) (Step VII). Between Sessions B and C, the student's parents are invited to make an appointment with the counselor. The purpose of the parent interview is twofold: (1) to secure additional information about the counselee's past behavior, and (2) to interpret the test results. No major decisions are made at this time. The counselor's choice of technique may be structured or unstructured, depending on parental attitudes and individual personalities encountered. If the interview reveals special problem areas related to the parents and the home, more than one interview may be arranged. If severe parental dissention exists, the counselor may decide to interview the parents first separately, and then jointly. This approach has been found very fruitful, and some research evidence exists that points out a new dimension and direction in counseling, namely parental counseling as an adjunct to child guidance (Sehulman et al, 1962). The parents m a y function as counselor-surrogates while student counseling is in progress and after its termination. Session C
Pinpointing the Problem Area(s) (Step VIII). The final session with the counselee carries the major emphasis of the entire process insofar as it brings the material of past counseling into sharper focus and sets the stage for a presolution phase. The problem areas are now pinpointed one by one to prepare the ground for decision-making. It is assumed that the student has gained suffieient information and insight for realizing his difficulties and crystallizing his thinking. The counselor's role remains essentially passive and nondirective, only reflecting feelings occasionally if necessary. Decision-Making (Step IX). After the problems have been summarized by the counselor, the student formulates the steps necessary for a satisfactory solution of his problems. His decisions may involve improvement of study habits, dropping certain classes, referral to a guidance clinic or enrollment in a remedial reading class. Decisions are made and possible alternate avenues are explored. Motivation and goaldirection are provided for the immediate future. Long-range planning is discussed but not spelled out in detail. This final phase is the quintessence of the student-counselor relationship and must end on a mutually satisfying note. Report to School (Step X). A written report is prepared for the school personnel, including the classroom teacher, principal, school counselor, and other pupil personnel workers in contact with the coun46
selee. The report is sent directly to the school and contains the test results and impressions gained during the counseling sessions. Specific recommendations are spelled out for the school personnel to follow or to take under advisement. Follow-up Session (Step XI). After a certain lapse of time, usually from four to six weeks, an additional appointment is made with the student. At this time the decisions previously made are assessed and evaluated in terms of realistic accomplishments. Alternate routes may need to be chosen if the original plans did not work out satisfactorily. The counselor may also obtain his first measures of evaluating improvement against criteria to be discussed below. The ultimate aim of the entire counseling approach is the student's self-sufllciency in school while achieving academically as close to his potential abili~ as possible. Discussion
The major advantages in the diagnostic-therapeutic or "compact" approach to counseling are seen in (1) flexibility of technique; (2) economy of time and effort; (3) immediacy of action; (4) built-in measurements and simultaneous therapy; (5) continuity or closure at any given point; and (6) standardization of procedure for comparative research purposes. Figure 1 Overlapping Areas in an Image-Triad Indicating Scope of Adjustment (S--Self-Image; F--Feedback-Image; P--Parental Image)
( a. Small area shows disagreement in the student's adjustment.
b. Large area shows agreement in the student's adjustment. 47
Psychometric and projective testing o f t h e student and parental interviews allow for the collection of data that form the basis of three conceptual "images". This image triad consists of the self-image, the feedback-image, and the parental-image in terms of parental expectancies. All three can be assessed with more accurate instruments if required. The constellation of the three images is shown graphically in Figure 1. The larger the overlapping area, the more agreement or conformity exists with regard to the student's behavioral adjustment. Or, stated negatively, the smaller the overlapping area in the triad, the more intense ~the student's problems are at this point. The suggested development of a parental image is only in an inchoate stage and will require further experimentation. The most controversial question in counseling research undoubtedly centers around a valid criterion as a measure of improvement after counseling. Since academic achievement and school adjustment are usually the most immediate and pressing problems, they receive first rank in the brief counseling procedure. Parents and educators certainly emphasize the academic areas and consider them of primary importance. If the student's school record improves, they also regard the counseling as successful. A measure based on grades as reflecting academic achievement, therefore, must be among the criteria that should receive attention. However, grades cannot be considered the sole criterion. Others may have to be added to form multiple criteria for improvement. Among the more promising ones for brief counseling, the following are suggested worthy of consideration in validity studies: (1) Academic school records (Grade Point Average or Grade Point Index); (2) change of self-image as measured by inventories, check-lists or rating scales; (3) discrepancy scores between self-image and feedback-image; (4) selfevaluation by counselee or parents, before and after the counseling procedure; (5) teacher and/or parent rating scales; and (6) psycholinguistic measures based on spoken samples. In some instances where no progress with the student appears evident, terminating counseling with the student and continuing with the parents alone may become advisable. It is a sort of "switching tracks" while keeping the same destination or goal in mind. The parent will then function as counselor surrogate, as ,it were, assuming the counselor's role after the counseling sessions with the school psychologist have been terminated. Extensive practical use of the diagnostic-therapeutic approach, in general, has yielded encouraging results. More favorable prognoses were observed in certain clinical categories, Among the more:favorable groups were: mild to moderate anxiety states; "motivationalapathy"; 48
withdrawn personalties; gifted and academically talented students with adjustment problems; emotional reactions due to personal or family crises; compulsive personalties; and problems of vocational choice. Less favorable results were obtained with: behavior disorders (especially the overt-aggressive and acting-out types); character disorders; psychotic states; mental defectives; and severe anxiety-neuroses. It may thus become advisable to screen students before they enter short-term counseling with the school psychologist. The approach described above permits such screening because the sequence of sessions can be interrupted at any phase. Closure can be obtained even if the process is terminated at the end of the first session because a diagnostic workup for the student is available. As a screening device, the Kahn Test of Symbol Arrangement has been found very useful in this connection (Kahn, 1956 and Wagner, 1961 ). Among the theoretical and research implications of short-term counseling are: (1) Combining diagnosis and therapy in a concurrent counseling technique; (2) Providing for progressive continuity in the counseling sequence that can be terminated at any given stage without loss of closure; (3) Standardizing an approach which would make it more amenable to experimental research; (4) Employing the Image-Triad (Self-Feedback-Parental) as a measure of problem scope and intensity; (5) Using parents as counselor-surrogates during and after individual student counseling with the school psychologist. The approach lends itself to an accumulation of comparable results in a "data pool", which might encompass a cluster of school populations or an entire school system. Comparability is assured through standardization of the technique. In research designs, differences in treatments consisting of individual vs. group counseling, with one or more control groups, could be arranged. The effectiveness of such treatments in specific groups of students with various problem areas could then be tested under more rigid experimental conditions.
Summary A compact approach to short-term counseling by the school psychologist has been described which combines features of both diagnosis and therapy. Among the advantages of the approach are flexibility of technique, economy of time and effort, termination with possible closure at any given stage, and the employment of parents as counselor surrogates. Further discussion centered around clinical categories with favorable and unfavorable prognoses, theoretical implications and advantages of the approach in comparative research. During the process of counseling an image-triad emerges (self, feedback, and parental)
49
that can be used for an assessment ef the student's problem with regard to scope and intensity. Among suggested criteria for assessing improvement during counseling, academic grades were considered of primary importance due to parental expectancies. REFERENCES Goldburgh, S. and Penney, J. A note on counseling underachieving college students. ]. couns. Psychol., 1962, 9, 133-138. Goodstein, L.D. and Crites, J.O. Brief counseling with poor college risks. J. couns. Psychol., 1961, 8, 318-321. Kahn, T.C. The Kahn Test of Symbol Arrangement: Clinical Manual. Perc. and motor skills, Monogr. Suppl. !, 1957. Kirk, B. Test versus academic performance in malfunctioning students. ]. couns. Psychol., 1952, 16, 213-216. Rudikoff, L. and Kirk, B. Goals of Counseling: Mobilizing the Counselee. J. couns. Psychol., 1961, 8, 243-249. Schulman, R., Shoemaker, D., Moelis, I. Laboratory measurement of parental behavior. J. consult. Psychol., 1962, 26, 109-114. Tyler, L. Minimum change therapy. Personnel guid. 1., 1960, 38, 475-479. Wagner, R.F. An auxiliary manual for the Kahn Test of Symbol Arrangement as used with adolescents in a high school setting. Unpublished manuscript, Richmond, Va.: Author, 1961.
50