Smart steel: new paradigms for the reuse of steel enabled by digital tracking and modelling

Journal of Cleaner Production 98 (2015) 292e303

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Journal of Cleaner Production journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Smart steel: new paradigms for the reuse of steel enabled by digital tracking and modelling David Ness a, *, John Swift b, Damith C. Ranasinghe c, Ke Xing d, Veronica Soebarto e a

Barbara Hardy Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia Prismatic Architectural Research, Clarence Park, SA 5034, Australia c Auto ID Lab, Faculty of Engineering, Computer and Mathematical Sciences, University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia d School of Advanced Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia e School of Architecture, Landscape Architecture and Urban Design, University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 11 February 2013 Received in revised form 9 July 2014 Accepted 18 August 2014 Available online 16 September 2014

When reconfigured into a cohesive system, a series of existing digital technologies may facilitate disassembly, take back and reuse of structural steel components, thereby improving resource efficiency and opening up new business paradigms. The paper examines whether Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology coupled with Building Information Modelling (BIM) may enable components and/or assemblies to be tracked and imported into virtual models for new buildings at the design stage. The addition of stress sensors to components, which provides the capability of quantifying the stress properties of steel over its working life, may also support best practice reuse of resources. The potential to improve resource efficiency in many areas of production and consumption, emerging from a novel combination of such technologies, is highlighted using a theoretical case study scenario. In addition, a case analysis of the demolition/deconstruction of a former industrial building is conducted to illustrate potential savings in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions (GGE) from reuse when compared with recycling. The paper outlines the reasoning behind the combination of the discussed technologies and alludes to some possible applications and new business models. For example, a company that currently manufactures and 'sells' steel, or a third party, could find new business opportunities by becoming a 'reseller' of reused steel and providing a 'steel service'. This could be facilitated by its ownership of the database that enables it to know the whereabouts of the steel and to be able to warrant its properties and appropriateness for reuse in certain applications. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Steel reuse Resource efficiency RFID BIM New paradigms

1. Introduction The construction industry accounts for more than one third of total energy use and its associated global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The corollary to this is that the construction sector has the largest potential for cutting GHG emissions (UNEP, 2012). As the steel industry is responsible for about 6.5 per cent of emissions, and 51 per cent of global steel is used for construction (Basson, 2012) hence the challenge of mitigating the effects of climate change, coupled with carbon pricing mechanisms and global financial pressures, are placing increasing pressure on the steel industry to reform its production and consumption processes (Environmental Leader, 2007). Although the amount of energy required to produce a tonne of steel has been dramatically reduced (approximately 50 per cent) since the 1980s, the industry acknowledges that ‘there is now only room for marginal improvement on the basis of existing * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ61 8 83021821/þ61 401122 651. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Ness). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.08.055 0959-6526/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

technology’ and that major ‘breakthrough’ technological changes are required (World Steel, 2012, p. 2). Globally, while steel recovery rates for recycling are estimated at 85 per cent for the construction sector, there is a relatively lowlevel of reuse of components. According to Sustainable Steel Construction (SSC), reuse of steel in construction means taking steel components from an older building and using them in a new project with minimal reprocessing; thus, ‘structural components such as beams, columns or non-structural components such as cladding panels or staircases are taken from one project and reused in another’ (SSC, 2012). As SSC has also noted, reuse is well-known to be more resource efficient because less energy is required to reconfigure or re-manufacture products. However, there are a number of barriers to reuse, including the lack of confidence of designers in the structural properties and performance of reused steel components. Anecdotally, the identification of materials to be re-used in the design phase is a significant factor in the uptake of re-use as there is no easily defined marketplace for salvaged materials. This situation is further exacerbated by the absence of

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procedures in the current design codes for determining the necessary properties for reclaimed steel. Accordingly, this paper proposes the reconfigured use of a disparate collection of existing technologies and business models into a cohesive system to improve the current low level reuse. With a focus on the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) sector, a system is envisaged that would facilitate an automated approach to the location and carbon allocation of high embodied energy components such as structural steel elements used extensively in the construction industry. Further to the concept of assigning a unique identifier and mapping the physical steel elements, a CAD based database could be employed using the same captured information to provide a virtual open market place for elements sale prior to reuse. Moreover, combined with the use of RFID enabled movement tracking technology, this process would allow an accurate accounting of indirect (transport) embodied energy costs of a given element at a given time or potentially part of that element over a different period of time. The paper is arranged as follows. Firstly, challenges facing the steel industry are outlined in Section 2, including cost pressures and the need to reduce emissions due to clean energy requirements and carbon pricing legislation, with the industry seeking to project itself as exercising responsible stewardship of resources. This leads to the research questions, with the subsequent sections structured to address these. After putting forward (Section 3) a vision and theory towards a more resource efficient steel industry, the role that could be played by steel reuse in such a transformation is discussed. In Section 4, the paper examines how enabling ‘smart’ technologies such as RFID and BIM may enable the reuse of steel, and presents a theoretical case study scenario to illustrate the connections between the various technologies and demonstrate that the approach is workable. Section 5 indicates how these technologies may create a platform for new paradigms and profit centres such as a life cycle data service, reselling service and product-service system (PSS). A case analysis is presented in Section 6, illustrating the potential energy savings that could accompany reuse in comparison to recycling. After further discussing potential benefits in terms of emissions reductions and cost savings, Section 7 examines circumstances required for successful application and factors that may motivate change, including legislative imperatives such as the green building rating system. As this is an embryonic field of endeavour and empirical research is yet to be conducted, the paper is concluded in Section 8 by discussing limitations of the research approach and putting forward a pathway towards more extensive research on reuse of steel in the AEC sector. 2. The challenges and research questions 2.1. The steel industry and its challenges Globally, over 1.3 billion tons of steel are manufactured and used every year, with close to 50 per cent of steel produced and used in mainland China, and it is predicted there will be continuing strong growth in the volume of steel produced. While steel is one of the world's most recycled products, it is claimed that ‘this continued growth prevents the demand for steel being met by means of recycling of end-of-life steel products alone, hence, making it necessary to continue converting virgin iron ore into steel’ (World Steel, 2012). However, whilst this may be the case given current approaches to steel production, consumption and building configurations, are there scenarios, configurations and technologies that may enable much increased reuse and recycling in future, involving less primary production, which may enable the necessary paradigm shift? In theory, steel is 100 per cent recyclable, which means its life cycle is potentially endless: ‘steel is an almost unique material in its

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capacity to be infinitely recycled without loss of properties or performance’ (World Steel, 2012, p. 3). In Australia, about 65 per cent of steel available for recycling goes back into the making of new steel (BlueScope Steel, 2009). This involves ‘urban mining’ and melting down and ‘up-cycling’ of old inefficient cast iron by combining this with higher quality steel to produce a more efficient product suitable for certain applications. BlueScope produces steel using a blast-furnace oxygen technique (BF-BOS), which uses virgin material e including iron ore, coke and fluxes e as well as 17-20 per cent scrap steel (BlueScope Steel, 2012). However, steel making, recycling and associated processes use considerable amounts of energy leading to high level of greenhouse emissions; for example, in Australia, BlueScope Steel's total greenhouse gas emissions in the financial year ending 30 June 2007 were 12.53 million tonnes (BlueScope Steel, 2008). It is among 500 Australian companies impacted by the Australian Government's plan for a Clean Energy Future and especially its carbon price legislation (Australian Government, 2011a,b). To assist the steel industry make this transition and be competitive in this new market, the company has been granted AUD$100 million under the Government's ‘Steel Transformation Plan’ (Wilson, 2011). Also in response to the challenges, the industry is seeking to reduce emissions, improve efficiency of resource use, and project itself as a ‘responsible’ industry. The World Steel Association has introduced a ‘climate action recognition program’, recognising steel producers who fulfil their commitment to participate in a CO2 data collection program, and promotes a life cycle approach to measure greenhouse impacts from all stages of manufacture, product use and end-of-life (World Steel, 2012). In Australia, a ‘steel stewardship forum’ was initiated in 2007 to implement sustainable development over the steel life cycle (Steel Stewardship Forum, 2011). 2.2. Research questions Rynikiewicz (2008) has highlighted the dramatic shifts required in the steel industry, noting that attention has moved from ‘cleaner production’ to ‘regime transformation’ or socio-economic paradigm shift, and that the industry may be one of the first sectors to experience ‘industrial transformation’. He has proposed that changes are required not only in technologies but also ‘at the levels of systems of production, distribution and in consumption patterns’. This leads to the research questions forming the basis of this paper, namely: a) What part could reuse of steel play in such industrial transformation? (which is discussed in Section 3); b) What are the enabling technologies and alternative business approaches? (which are explored in Sections 4 and 5); c) What are the potential savings in energy and greenhouse emissions? (which are analysed through a case example in Section 6). The rest of this paper is structured to address these research questions, with the relevant sections shown in brackets above. Accordingly, a ‘Smart Steel’ paradigm for effective reuse of steel is proposed (Section 5) while the potential for implementation of the new paradigm, and its implications, are also discussed (Section 7). 3. A vision for the steel industry 3.1. A resource circulating industry As encapsulated by Schmidt-Bleek (2000) and others, the concept of resource efficiency (RE) involves delivering more services (S) or outputs, with less material input (MI). In simple terms, resource efficiency is the amount of resource used per unit of input

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- similar to the concept of material input per unit of service (MIPS). The less the material input per unit of output or service, the greater is the resource efficiency, and vice versa. Conversely, resource productivity is the economic output or value added per unit of resource use (Gross and Foxon, 2003); it is often designated as the reciprocal of MIPs i.e. S/MI (Wallbaum and Buerkin, 2003; Ritthoff €cker et al. (1998) argued that we need to et al., 2002). Von Weizsa achieve a Factor 4 improvement in resource productivity, that is, a doubling of prosperity in terms of service outputs, whilst halving resource consumption or material inputs. This has since been extended to notions of Factor 5, Factor 10 and Factor X (Reijnders, 1998). As Ayers (1999) described in his seminal paper, ‘since products are essentially carriers of service, the trick is to find ways of delivering the service without wasting the material carrier’. In other words, we need to find ways of delivering the message without discarding the messenger: ‘the messengers need to be used many times, not merely once’. Previously, Ayres (1997, p. 168) had introduced the notion of metals industry manufacturers shifting away ‘from their current orientation (selling products to consumers) to selling the services of their products, while retaining ownership and/or responsibility for those products’. In this regard, Rynikiewicz (2008) canvassed the idea of ‘moving from selling products to providing performance, managing the material content of products together with their asset value’, highlighting the ‘promises of product-service systems (PSS)’ within the steel industry (Rynikiewicz, 2008, p. 786; see also Stahel, 2013). This leads us to the notion of a ‘resource circulating society’ where materials and products are reused continuously, being reconfigured and redirected from one use to another (Morioka et al., 2006). The ‘open building’ approach, which facilitates systematisation of the built environment as a set of distinctly layered sub-systems, is conducive to a resource circulating building industry. One subsystem can be replaced by various alternatives without disturbing other sub-systems. An urban design may enable a variety of buildings to be erected and replaced without altering the basic urban patterns of space and infrastructure. The systems or levels are: ‘urban tissue, support (base building) and infill (fit-outs) (Cuperus, 2001; Yashiro, 2003). Open building organises parts according to their life span. The urban tissue is the longest life element, subject to less frequent change (say 200 year cycle), while the infill or fit-outs are subject to more rapid change (10e20 years). Brand (1994) talked of ‘shearing layers of change’ regarding the different rates of change and replaceability of building components, calling the layers ‘site’, ‘skin’, ‘structure’, ‘services’, ‘space plan’ and ‘stuff’. As Kendall (1999, p. 14) said, ‘Open building has a goal of manufacture and design for assembly, disassembly and reuse’, while Cuperus (2001) linked this to ‘lean construction’ as the key to reducing waste. Taking this thinking further, Kieran and Timberlake (2004) put forward a vision of how manufacturing methodologies are poised to transform building fabrication by means of modular, reusable components, accompanied by 4D CAD and similar information technologies. In terms of open building, steel components within buildings that are subject to more rapid change (10e20 years) may be suitable for reuse. Whilst some structures are designed to be reconfigured, there is a substantial amount of lightweight cold rolled steel framing which is used extensively in ‘infill’ partitions of commercial building fit-outs. Due to the expedient nature of these partitions they are readily demolished but not re-purposed for changes in commercial layouts. This type of partition's usable life is inextricably linked to the expansions and contractions of space required by the commercial entities leasing this space. Steel framed industrial structures may also have relatively short lives of (say) 10 years. Such assemblies and components may be disassembled,

reused, reconfigured and re-fabricated where necessary, so that they carry more services throughout their extended life, in keeping with the notions of a resource circulating society and resource efficiency, towards achieving a Factor X change in resource productivity (Ness et al., 2005b). While further research is required to estimate the proportion of structures and volume of steel that may be suitable for reuse in building, it is notable that around 33 per cent of straight rail track in the US rail industry is derived from used rail that is disassembled at redevelopment sites (World Steel, 2009).

3.2. Reuse of steel While product stewardship tends to focus on resource recovery and recycling, reuse of steel offers the most potential among the ‘3Rs’ (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) for resource efficiency, as recognised by Stahel (1982). This concept is illustrated in Fig. 1. Loop 3 represents resource recovery as commonly practised, whereby waste materials are intercepted before they become landfill and the materials are recycled back into themselves. Loop 2 represents the repair and remanufacturing process which, although reducing the demand for new raw materials, may still require a lot of energy. On the other hand, the inner loop 1 represents the reuse of goods e the ‘cradle to cradle’ idea e whereby the goods themselves circulate continually. When carried to its ultimate potential, they never go to waste and little energyconsuming remanufacturing is required. As BlueScope Steel (2012) has acknowledged, ‘reuse is the ultimate in recycling, no reprocessing energy is required; the component is simply moved from one location to another’. Although steel products have long life spans, eventually most buildings and infrastructure will be decommissioned. Reusing and recycling components is inherent to sustainability at this phase of the lifecycle. BlueScope Steel (2012) has also recognised that ‘one of the emerging strategies to increase sustainability is to design for disassembly. High-grade, durable materials e such as steel e work best in designs for disassembly, where components, or entire structures, are removed and reused’. Gorgolewski (2008) has reported on Canadian initiatives to disassemble and reuse steel structures, noting the challenges for designers whilst highlighting the environmental and cost benefits. The 2000 Sydney Olympics Aquatic Centre spectators' stand was disassembled and relocated to the WIN Stadium at Wollongong, where it was refabricated and reassembled. The reuse of more than 80 per cent of the steel structure resulted in an improved environmental outcome through the reduction of resources and energy use, whilst minimising waste and emissions in the life cycle of the product and saving on cost (Australian Government, 2006, p. 41; OneSteel, 2013). Fujita and Iwata (2008) proposed a reuse system involving steel building structures to reduce the environmental burden, accompanied by a data base and business management model. However, such previous examples and research have not examined the potential of ‘smart’ technologies such as RFID, stress sensors and BIM, while alternative business models have been mentioned only briefly.

4. Enabling technologies and alternative business models 4.1. A smart industry Among others, Greis (2010) has envisaged the future of green products and industry, where ‘green’ is synonymous with ‘smart’:

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Fig. 1. The reuse, remanufacturing and recycling loops. Adapted from Stahel (1982).

This future is populated by smart products linked by smart processes to intelligent, closed loop networks (c.f. manufacturing and logistics) that produce, maintain (and enhance) the utility of the product until its ultimate disposal or reuse. This paper now examines how such thinking could be applied to the building industry, in particular the steel sector, examining the potential for interlinked RFID and BIM to inform such smart processes. While there is a wealth of information on RFIDs and BIM, very little has been written about the overlap of these technologies. The literature that does address elements of RFIDs and point their connection to BIM, for example, does so with a focus on new materials being taken from fabrication to site (see Xie et al., 2011). The work of Cheng and Chang (2011) has also addressed some aspects of linking RFIDs to BIMs. However, it does not consider the implications for energy saving that would result from such a scheme and, while this work addresses life cycle issues, it does not address changes in ownership or BIM assisted auction/sale of the building elements. The proposition is put forward that connecting these technologies and approaches may substantially improve reuse and resource efficiency, especially when applied to demountable steel structures and interior steel components that are subject to more rapid change, in ‘open building’ terms. 4.2. Digital tags (RFID) Gershenfeld (1999) points to a future in which the digital world merges with the physical world in his book When Things Start to Think. In this regard, Saar and Thomas (2002) ask: ‘what is the relation between the environment and digital futures? Surely IT could make product recycling and life-cycle management easier and cheaper?’ Similar to Greis (2010), they explore the proposition that bar codes and RFID tags could greatly increase the effectiveness of product recycling, reuse and end-of-life management. RFID is a wireless technology capable of unique and automatic identification of objects (or even people). In contrast to traditional identification technologies such as bar codes, RFID is a contactless technology that operates without line-of-sight restrictions. All modern RFID systems infrastructure consist of RFID tags (the miniature computing devices forming an interface to the physical world), RFID Readers and antennas, and backend system (Ranasinghe et al., 2010, 2011). Each RFID label may have added features such as sensors for monitoring physical parameters: temperature, pressure, or harmful agents: toxic chemicals, bacterial agents. The system networks objects seamlessly by communicating with these labels at suitably

placed locations: portals, mobile locations, through handheld devices and, potentially, for some tags, continuously throughout the environment. A network of RFID Readers is then used to collect data from tagged objects. The RFID labeled objects communicate an EPC (Electronic Product Code) to identify themselves as unique entities. In essence, the EPC is a pointer to a database record describing the tagged object and the functionalities provided by the tag. RFID tags, when coupled to a Reader network, form the link between physical objects and the virtual world in the EPC Network. RFID tags have a small radio antenna that transmits information over a short range to an RFID tag Reader. RFID technology may use both powered and non-powered means to activate the electronic tags. Powered or active devices use batteries to actively transmit data from the tags to more distant Readers. Passive RFID devices literally harvest energy from the electromagnetic field of an active Reader to both power the tag and transmit the data. In the most cost effective and popular technology, the tags are passive and in consequence the ranges of operation are limited (a few metres) (Finkenzeller, 1999). Passive systems are well suited for use in the EPC Network due to their low cost. The concept of RFID tagging has already been applied to the construction process to promote lean construction (Taylor et al., 2009; Taylor, 2010), and Xie et al. (2011) developed a model combining RFID, BIM and Virtual Reality (VR) simulation focused on steel fabrication and site steel erection. Jun et al. (2009) have shown how RFID can aid decisions over the lifecycle of products, including €rk their end of life phase involving disposal, recycling or reuse. Bjo et al. (2011) showed how tagging could enable tracking or ‘traceability’ of forestry products, and hence monitoring of environmental performance. Sørensen et al. (2008, 2010) have also reviewed existing ontologies for creating a digital link between virtual models and physical components. Thus, applying existing technologies and research, a unique ID can be assigned via an RFID tag to a structural steel element, associated with the manufacturer's branding. An RFID tag could hold data which would identify characteristics such as expected life span in situ, embodied energy, warranty limitations as well as more perfunctory information such as date and place of manufacturer in addition to legal details such as dates, identities and contact details of owners. Other more sophisticated data could include life cycle embodied energy and carbon content. In addition, as Lynch and Loh (2006) have described, stress sensors can be combined with RFID tags to monitor the structural performance of structures e.g. bridges; this may open up opportunities for steel suppliers to warrant the integrity of steel for reuse in particular circumstances. The cost of an RFID tag can cover a wide spectrum, especially active tags compared with passive. Hence, a substantial factor in the success of a workable and cost effective system as outlined in this paper would rely on choosing the correct tag and reading

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equipment for the appropriate element. In theory, more expensive active tags could be more appropriate and cost-effective for large steel structural members, while passive tags could be used for cold formed steel purlins and the like. However, the issue of what is the appropriate tag to use in a particular situation is a technical one, outside the main scope of this paper. 4.3. Building Information Modelling (BIM) At its simplest a BIM, if constructed properly, can be simultaneously a tool for structural integrity, artistic impression, quantity surveying, construction programming and ‘clash detection’ (Editor, 2012), among others. In addition to those usages, RFID informed BIM could be employed as a resource locator/qualifier for the reuse of high embodied energy elements. Traditionally, the application of technologies for 3D CAD have been to enhance visual representations such as bitmaps and colour maps generically for the purpose of what could be termed sales or marketing purposes, and relatively less effort has been put into information specifically for the reuse of materials. Despite this, it is possible to create intelligent connections between RFID tags and CAD-based databases and the virtual world of BIMs (see Taylor et al., 2009). The unique ID assigned via an RFID tag to a structural steel element may be linked to a parallel BIM to account for where a tagged element may be found. A BIM database can also be employed to align the identification technologies with an international standard to yield a reliable embodied energy account. Unique RFID identifiers can be recorded as an open format e.g. Industry Foundation Class (IFC) attributes in a CAD model, and the coherent and completed CAD model can be posted on an IFC server. Within Building Information Modelling, the virtual building model is a database of information that tracks all the elements that make up the actual building. A CAD/BIM virtual model is the electronic equivalent of the physical building, providing comprehensive and consistent building information to support activities in life cycle modelling. A CAD object represents a real world entity by encapsulating its characteristics, both data and function. Data describes the state of the object while function describes its behaviour under certain conditions (Garba and Hassanain, 2004; Gu and London, 2010.). The life span, ownership, carbon content and other details, once recorded on an RFID tag, could then be mirrored as attributes of that unique element into a BIM. This record could be housed as part of the BIM on a secure server. From this point any changes to the structural elements could, via the unique identification capability of RFID technologies, dynamically update the BIM. Connecting RFID tags with BIM enables components to be tracked, located, and imported by designers into models for new buildings, thus adding new capabilities to a given BIM. Rather than specifying virgin steel, a designer may search and locate, via the Internet, components and assemblies in the vicinity of the new site and import those into a new design. Fujita and Iwata (2008) previously suggested use of the Internet to provide database access to an unlimited range of designers and other users, but not for importing components into BIM designs. Accessing data from stress sensors, as mentioned earlier, will also enable the designer to have confidence in the structural properties of the existing steelwork for use in its new circumstances. 4.4. A scenario for RFID supported BIM A scenario is now presented that builds upon the currently increasing uptake of BIM in architecture, proposing an additional functionality that would allow for the reuse of steel elements, with the confidence that there is a real understanding of the savings

made from both financial and environmental aspects of a project. It demonstrates the connections between the various technologies and how they could be combined to provide a more ethical and sophisticated use of steel. This is premised on the assumption that the data that records the type, location and other accumulated information can be recorded, stored, sorted and retrieved without undue complication or proprietary reservation. Whilst the scenario is computed within itself, it does not account for all the possible permutations of interactions between the parties and various stages. Hence, the scenario envisaged is not extensive nor are the various interactions mutually exclusive. Furthermore, the responsible party can act as a broker if that better suits the party's business practices. A construction or engineering company is approached for design and construction services with the proviso that they must minimise the carbon footprint of the development. The company in question, once it has completed a functional analysis of the brief, formulates the most effective way to ascertain which elements to specify in line with the client's brief; using some rudimentary sizes, they can conduct an Internet based search for suitable steel. The parameters that could be considered in the search, apart from the obvious fitness for structural purpose, may include variables such as distance from existing site to future site, mode of transport between locations, time frame of disassembly and the historical stress levels to which the elements have been subjected. Further to this initial enquiry, it may be that several in situ elements could be considered. The engineering required to size a structural element is traditionally undertaken in conjunction with many other elements. For example, a post and beam construction or portal frame could be considered as a single engineered unit comprising columns, lintels and connecting plates/bolts/pins. From this assertion, it follows that the potential buyer may need a similar post and beam arrangement and may amend their plans to allow for the reuse of a collection of existing structural elements. If we extend this idea further, we can see the potential for a possible buyer, using the existing BIM data of the in situ steel work, to simulate and test against their design criteria. In short, sections from a ‘for sale’ structure can be copied from an existing BIM and imported into a partially complete BIM to determine how or whether that steelwork would be adequate for a given intended use. Once the virtual sale has been completed, taking account of criteria such as travel distance, energy/carbon emissions and cost, the BIM could be updated to some future use. Then, as the physical elements are relocated from use to reuse without recycling (more likely in the case of modular, readily demountable structures) or the interim storage usually required, a Reader would record the transit and the new location. In the most energy intensive transactions a parallel can be drawn with the movement of currency between banks and ATMs. That is, a deficiency or need is identified and a resource, in this case currency, is moved from where there is an excess to where there is a deficit. Whilst this example illustrates an accepted way of moving resources, the movement of high embodied energy elements could be seen in the same light, but with the obvious differences in time scale and universality of resources. 5. New paradigms The above technologies open up opportunities for new services and profit centres for steel companies. In addition to their core business focussed on steel product manufacturing, they could enter the business of steel product recovery (reuse/recycle) and provide innovative information management services including life-cycle data (see Fig. 2). The customer domain is extended beyond those associated with the initial building design and construction to

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Fig. 2. Integrated business models.

those involved in the use of steel products, such as facility managers, and the reuse, redesign and reconstruction. The three business models are inherently interconnected and interdependent to ensure an overall value-adding business outcome. Alternatively, if the steel companies do not see it as their responsibility to install RFID tags or manage RFID enabled BIM, or provision of information management services and steel product recovery, then such services could be the core business of third party companies. 5.1. Information management services As Ranasinghe et al. (2011) have shown, developments in the area of RFID and sensor network technologies have created new possibilities for product life-cycle management (PLM): ‘a significant aspect in the through-life management of products is the gathering and management of data related to the product during the various phases of its lifecycle. Both RFID and wireless sensor technologies have created novel levels of product status visibility and automatic identification with granularity to the level of individual components’ (Ranasinghe et al., 2011, p. 1015; Jun et al., 2009). While it is important to incorporate life-cycle characteristics of steel products (such as embodied energy and carbon emissions, evolution of physical conditions during the use phase, reliability, reusability, etc.) into building design and construction decisionmaking models, often the biggest challenge is the availability, accuracy, and comprehensiveness of real-life data to facilitate

modelling and evaluation. So far, most of the life-cycle data of building products, including steel components, are either literature-based, compiled from past records, or collected from limited industrial sources, which fail to cover varieties of products and the processes/technologies that are used to make them. In addition, a lot of such data is experience-based and possessed inhouse by a few consultants or consulting firms, making it very difficult for independent architects, small-medium building constructors, as well as building operators to access and use that information in their own projects. Such limitations and needs present another new business opportunity for steel manufacturers, particularly the major players, which not only produce materials but also products and components, to provide information management services to their clients related to the life-cycle inventory (LC inv) and life-cycle management (LCM) of steel products. With the support of digital tagging and information technologies, a steel company or third party can better monitor and record the physical and functional states of its products from production to construction, use, and recovery. As indicated in Fig. 2, the company can develop life-cycle inventory databases and life-cycle management applications for steel products, and offer them as additional BIM Applications (BIM Apps) e such as ‘Information-as-a-Service’ and ‘Application/Software-asa-Service’ - to architects, engineers and other clients. Increasingly, manufacturers of building elements are providing their products with a virtual version, allowing a designer to download and import content from a third party into a 3D CAD model thus ensuring the

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integrity of the third party components from fabricator to CAD model. The information service envisaged is an extension of such existing services, with the RFID information being kept as part of BIM, and the resources to maintain additional data are considered negligible. The information management service could be accompanied by ‘virtual auctions’, thereby facilitating transfer of data among various owners of the steel over its life-cycle, the redirection of dismantled components to other locations, and thus the continual reuse of the physical steel components. Thus, although the core business of a steel company is still manufacturing and providing steel products, becoming a lifecycle information service provider for its clients can create new business portfolios and profit centres, increasing the business competitiveness. 5.2. Steel recovery and reuse services As Allwood et al. (2011, p. 377) have noted, new business opportunities related to resource efficiency may occur through new revenue streams, “such as primary metals producers developing a ‘second-hand’ supply chain (for instance reconditioning, recertifying and re-selling used I-beams) exactly as car makers aim to control their re-sale chains”. As Roos (2012) pointed out, manufacturing is a major employer especially if this can be combined with related services and solutions. Thus, a steel company that currently manufactures and sells steel could take up recovery and resale of decommissioned steel products, becoming a ‘reseller’ of reused steel. This could be facilitated by its ownership of the above database, which enables the company to know the whereabouts of its products, to be able to understand, license and warrant their properties and appropriateness for reuse in certain applications, as an alternative to scrapping, and to either take them back or redirect them to other locations.

Such innovative models require new forms of business relationships between producers and customers e a shift from roles as manufacturers and consumers and one-off transactions to a continuing, longer-term partnership. From a producer's perspective, this creates the opportunity to provide an increased suite of services to a customer, with increased profit pools (Gadiesch and Gilbert, 1998). On the other hand, the customer may benefit from an improved service e.g. the provider is responsible for the maintenance and performance of the component or assembly over the term of the contract. These schemes promise improved resource efficiency, whereby producers retain stewardship of a product over its lifetime, taking back and remanufacturing or reconfiguring the product for another use. As Ness et al. (2005a) indicated, such mechanisms are likely to reduce energy, emissions and waste, and provide financial benefits for both producer and customer. 6. Potential energy savings: local example The benefits of enabling extended use of metals through reusing, remanufacturing, recycling, or avoiding dematerialising are quite clear. According to Ayres (1997), over 16 tons of nonrenewable material inputs (including coal, iron ore, and other resources) as well as considerable amount of air and water pollutants can be reduced by recycling just one ton of used iron products. Reuse of steel components will also make use of the energy already ‘embodied’ in existing steel products, thus reducing the need for new energy. In this section, a local example of demolition of a former vehicle manufacturing plant is analysed to show potential energy savings that could be achieved from facilitating reuse of structural steel products. 6.1. Case context and scenarios

5.3. Product-service systems (PSS) Taking these approaches to another level of sophistication, the ‘reselling’ strategy outlined above could create a platform for the company to provide a ‘steel service’, retaining ownership of the steel over its lifetime, licensing its use by customers in appropriate locations and circumstances, and providing it as part of a PSS, with some similarities to leasing and renting. As Allwood et al. (2011, p. 377) noted, leasehold could be a new business model, ‘to retain materials on the balance sheet and hence nurture their value’. Akin to Ayers (1999) concept of ‘products as service carriers’, a PSS is an innovation strategy that shifts the focus of a business from developing and selling physical products to developing and selling a system of products and services capable of fulfilling specific demands of clients (Manzini and Vezzoli, 2003). In PSS, physical, or tangible, product entities are responsible for carrying out the functions of PSS, while nonphysical, or intangible, service entities are to ensure the smooth delivery of the functions (Maussang et al., 2009). PSS has been mainly applied to consumer products, with InterfaceFlor being among pioneers in offering modular carpet tiles to customers as part of a service while retaining ownership (see Ness et al., 2005a). Detachable and loose fit’ components of buildings have previously been provided as part of a service, such as air €cker et al., conditioning services and even lift services (Von Weizsa 1998). Furthermore, Yashiro and Nishimoto (2002) and Yashiro (2003) explored how building infill units could be provided using new business models such as leasing and PSS. In theory, because of their strength and durability, steel components for short-life and demountable buildings could also be provided to customers as part of a leasing or service contract, thereby facilitating take-back and reuse.

The South Australian Government is transforming Tonsley, a 61 ha site in southern Adelaide, into a collaborative and high-value industry, education and residential precinct. The former vehicle manufacturing plant comprises extensive steel trusses and columns, part of which is shown in Fig. 3. While deconstruction work in the northern part of the Main Assembly Building is in progress, large parts of the steel structure are being demolished, with the trusses being machine cut, compressed, trucked to a nearby port, from where they will be transported by sea to China and melted down to become new steel. However, it is also identified that some of the special trusses can actually be reused in the redevelopment of buildings on site, and are therefore being removed manually.

Fig. 3. Part of Tonsley steel structure.

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Given such context, for the purposes of the case study the following two simplified scenarios are examined for comparison and assessment of embodied energy savings.  Scenario 1efull recycling: it is assumed that all the truss members removed from the demolished Main Assembly Building will be transported by truck to a steelworks located 400 km (approx.) north to Adelaide, instead of being shipped overseas, for recycling and for making new structural members. The same quantity of new steel members will then be delivered to a construction site that is 30 km south to Adelaide for trusses in new buildings.  Scenario 2 e full reuse: as an alternative scenario, for theoretical comparative analysis it is assumed that all the trusses and components can be disassembled for reuse on another construction site located 30 km to the south of the original site. Although not included in this case analysis, passive electronic tags could be attached to truss components, as indicated in Fig. 4, with an RFID reader being located at the site exit to record the movement of the trusses.

From surveying the structure of the Main Assembly Building, it is identified that in total 677 units of trusses need to be removed during the demolition process. To estimate the amount of steel in those trusses in this case study, all steel size and mass measures are based on Carrick (2005) and AS/NZS 3679.1-300 Steel. Accordingly, a typical in-situ truss unit which is close to the smallest truss on site weighs approximately 710.5 kg. For the purpose of simplifying the calculation and analysis, this does not include allowance for purlins, columns, and roof sheeting. Therefore, the overall mass of 677 trusses is around 480 tons. Based on the two scenarios presented above, under ‘full recycling’ the 480-ton dismantled steel members will undergo the processes of demolition, delivery to the steel works, recycling, refabrication, transportation to the new site, and on-site installation for a new building. The process flows are illustrated in Fig. 5. Meanwhile, for ‘full reuse’ the 480-ton steel members will undergo deconstruction, transportation to the new site, and then reassembly, as shown in Fig. 6. In this reuse scenario, RFID tags could be attached to truss members prior to disassembly. To compare the embodied energy of the trusses and components, the energy consumption related to the processes of the respective scenarios in this case study can be calculated as follows (Eq. (1)):

h   EEtotal ¼EEos þ ms aðEEdc þ EEt þ EEc Þ þ 1  a i   EEdm þ EEt 0 þ EErf þ EEc

EEtotal: total embodied energy EEos: embodied energy of original steel members

EEdc: embodied energy of disassembly/deconstruction EEt, EEt 0 : embodied energy of transportation EEc: embodied energy of installation EEdm: embodied energy of dismantling EErf: embodied energy of recycling and re-fabrication of structure steel ms: total mass of steel members (in kg) In the equation above, a is the ratio of steel members suitable for reuse (a2[0,1]). Therefore, a is 0 for Scenario 1 and a is set as 1 for Scenario 2. Meanwhile, EEdc and EEdm are affected by how the deconstruction is carried out as well as whether and how powered tools are used in the respective process. Due to lack of detailed data and information related to the on-site operations for the Main Assembly Building deconstruction, in this particular case analysis it is assumed that the energy consumptions for demolishing the trusses and for disassembling the truss members are the same. Also, the energy consumption for in-situ truss assembly/installation is considered to be the same under both scenarios. Therefore, the difference in the embodied energy between the two scenarios, DEE, is measured as shown in Eq. (2):

h i  DEE ¼ ms EEt  EEt 0 þ EErf

6.2. Case analysis: embodied energy

(1)

299

(2)

While the embodied energy (primary production) of low carbon or mild steel, commonly used for steel sections in construction, sheet roofing and concrete reinforcement, is 25e28 MJ/kg (Ashby, 2013, p. 462e3), structure steel made from recycled sources (secondary production) is on average between 8.9 MJ/kg (Alcorn, 2003, p. 19) and 10 MJ/kg (Hammond and Jones, 2008, p. 51). In the meantime, impacts of transportation of steel are shown in Table 1. Using the figures in Table 1 and the processes depicted in Figs. 5e6, the DEE between Scenario 1 and Scenario 2 can be computed with the data in Table 2, which indicates a difference of total 4,790,400 MJ in embodied energy. 6.3. Comment on findings As demonstrated in the case analysis, the full reuse of 480-ton steel truss members (Scenario 2) from a demolished industry building can lead to approximately 9980 MJ/ton, or 9.98 MJ/kg, potential energy saving in comparison with the full recycling option (Scenario 1). The associated Greenhouse Gas Emission (GGE) as well as cost savings can be estimated in the similar way. Although the majority of the energy savings can be obtained from avoiding extra processing of recycling and re-fabrication, transportation also contributes to about 12.6 per cent of total embodied energy of recycled steel due to distances between cities in Australia are in excess compared to many more populated countries and regions. While the two scenarios examined in this case study represent simplified and idealised situations, in reality there is always a mix of reuse and recycling for end-of-life structural steel products from building demolition. The recent development of the demolition project at the Tonsley site indicates that around 26 trusses (18,473 kg of steel) from the dismantled Assembly Building structure will be salvaged to use as replacement units, which can result in a sizeable saving of 184,361.54 MJ embodied energy. 7. Further discussion 7.1. Environmental and other benefits

Fig. 4. Truss with RFID tags.

From the case analysis, it is clear that reuse of steel, with components being redirected from one location to another, has the potential to save embodied and transportation energy, especially

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Fig. 5. Processes of Scenario 1.

where the new location is in the vicinity of the dismantled structure. This can be achieved by increasing the ratio of reuse through implementing smart technology and smart design. Allwood et al. (2011, p. 372) have also highlighted environmental benefits of component reuse, which they claim is ‘an effective emissions abatement strategy. However, Allwood et al. (2013, p.7) note that ‘maintaining an energy-using product in use over a longer life may delay the opportunity to adopt technology improvements which lead to reduced energy requirements in use’. For example, the development and use of lighter steels could result in improved energy outcomes, in the long run, via replacement versus reuse, so some tradeoffs may be required. In addition to environmental benefits, the approach offers the possibility of cost savings for producers and customers (e.g. due to reduced cost of raw materials and processing). As Allwood et al. (2011, p.372) also point out, ‘economically, reuse appears attractive’, and ‘the additional cost of deconstruction appears to be offset by the increased revenue from sale of reclaimed components, combined with avoidance of disposal changes’. As discussed earlier,

reuse may also open up opportunities for new profit centres, businesses and employment in the services sector. 7.2. Circumstances required for successful application The approach will require, as Ayres (1997, p. 168) noted, that steel companies ‘think of their products as assets to be conserved: this would automatically result in greater emphasis on reuse, repair and remanufacturing as means of saving energy and conserving value-added embodied in products’. Arguably, though, it is not just steel companies that need to change mindsets and approaches, but also their supply chain, designers, constructors and, ultimately, their customers. Taking this wider system and network view, life cycle assessment and industrial ecology have important roles to play (see Chubbs and Steiner, 1998; Sagar and Frosch, 1997). Taxing materials and energies will promote low-carbon and low-resource solutions, as Stahel (2013) has noted, with carbon pricing likely to improve resource efficiency in the steel and other industries (Allwood et al., 2013. In addition, incorporation of

Fig. 6. Processes in Scenario 2.

D. Ness et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 98 (2015) 292e303 Table 1 Impacts of transportation of steel in Australia (source: Strezov and Herbertson, 2006, p. 11). Mode of transport

Ship Rail Truck

Impacts of transport per tonne per 100 km

Average steel freight within Australia

Energy MJ

GGE kg CO2 eq

Tonnage Mt

Distance km

2.5 57.5 134.6

0.18 4.0 10.0

6 2 1

665 965 250

requirements for interlinked BIM and RFID in government procurement of projects could not only stimulate markets for resource efficiency of steel and other products, but also benefit facilities management (Allwood et al., 2013). Except in the case of temporary structures (such as exhibition pavilions) construction with substantial use of reclaimed components remains challenging, especially because the supply chain is not well developed (Allwood et al., 2011, p. 372). To achieve its full benefits, the approach should be accompanied by modularisation of steel components and building design, such as is already widespread in the industrial buildings sector e.g. warehouses, temporary structures. Innovative engineering and construction companies are already delivering an extensive range of modular solutions, including smart wall and building systems, using automated processes to manufacture construction components in a controlled offsite environment. Towards a vision of a zero-carbon future, Laing O'Rourke (2013) is applying Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) to projects ranging from schools to hospitals, hotels and mining infrastructure. Such approaches could accompany the application of adaptable, ‘open building’ and ‘design for disassembly’ principles, being especially applicable to the more frequently inter-changeable and replaceable components of buildings and temporary structures. Within the context of open building, Yashiro (2009) posited the idea of an ‘information-embedded building’, involving ‘life cycle traceability of building components and equipment using RFID’. Such approaches may be integral to a transition to a ‘resource circulating society’ (Morioka et al., 2006) and the ‘remanufacturing architecture’ future envisaged by Kieran and Timberlake (2004). Remanufacturing and standardisation is already widely practised in the automobile industry by BMW and others, with up to 60 per cent of parts able to be reutilised at the end of their specified lifetime. In addition, every exchangeable part is subject to exactly the same quality specifications as an original BMW part and even carries the same 24-month warranty. According to BMW, ‘Ninety-five per cent of all parts that cannot be directly refurbished are recycled. And these figures make sense not only for the environment but for your pocket as well e BMW remanufactured parts cost up to 50 per cent less than the new component’ (BMW, 2012). Fuji Xerox also adopts this approach by designing its copiers in modular, demountable form, recovering parts for remanufacturing (Ken and Ryan, 2001). 7.3. Legislative imperatives The legislative push and market drive for ‘green’ buildings lead to growing interest from building designers and constructors in the carbon footprint, recyclability and reuse of building structural

301

components, many of which are made of steel. In Australia, the voluntary ‘Green Star Office’ tool validates the environmental initiatives of the design phase of new office construction or base building refurbishment (GBCA, 2011). Material is weighted the third of all categories in Green Star, following energy and indoor air environment. A design will earn points for reusing an existing building and using recycled steel, with the aim ‘to encourage and recognise the reduction in embodied energy and resource depletion associated with reduced use of virgin steel’. Two points out of 25 points are awarded where 90 per cent of all steel, by mass, in the project either has a post consumer recycled content greater than 50 per cent, or is reused. Material (e.g. using recycled steel) is also important in other worldwide schemes such as the US LEED and the UK BREEAM, a similar environmental rating tool as Green Star. 8. Conclusions Whilst the AEC sector is responsible for the production of a significant amount of high embedded energy components, their reuse in this industry sector is not commensurate or comparable with other less resource intensive industries. The sector is traditionally conservative in the adoption of innovations compared to other comparative industries. However, the approach outlined, which uses a novel combination of familiar and proven technologies, may be expected to enjoy a higher level of acceptance e especially as steel components lend themselves to reuse due to their robustness and durability. Architects and engineers are well placed to drive change through new RFID enabled BIM. RFID has been used in the automobile industry (Schmitt et al., 2007) and has been used to achieve efficiencies in the on-site construction process (Xie et al., 2011). However, the notion of RFID enabled BIM and associated processes, including the use of the Internet to conduct on line auctions, could be a novel addition to architectural and industry practices that may facilitate reuse of components. Such techniques may not only open the way to a more resource efficient and low carbon steel industry, but also to new business models and profit centres. Recognising that this is an embryonic field of endeavour and empirical work is yet to be conducted, the authors have put forward a plan for more extensive research. It is first proposed to undertake a ‘desk-top’ proof of concept exercise, with data e including details of owner, manufacturer, date and place of manufacture, physical characteristics and the like e to be added to a series of tags on a notional building plan, to examine their traceability when relocated, and to synchronise data between RFID tags and BIM. While the Tonsley case example has illustrated the potential for achieving energy saving from reuse, a more detailed analysis and refinement of the model for embodied energy assessment, with comparison under more realistic scenarios, will be conducted by using the next phase of the Tonsley deconstruction. This will involve testing the synchronisation of RFID and BIM on an actual steel building about to be dismantled, tracking the components after they leave the site, and conducting further more detailed analysis and modelling based on energy, GGE, cost and other factors. The authors then plan to work with interested parties to examine the viability of alternative business models to facilitate an increase in reuse over recycle. Thus,

Table 2 Embodied energy comparison between two case scenarios. Scenario

Mass of steel member (ton)

Road transport (km)

EEt (truck) (MJ/ton/km)

EErf of Refab. Steel member (MJ/ton)

DEE (S1eS2) (MJ)

S1 e Full Recycling (a ¼ 0) S2 e Full Reuse (a ¼ 1)

480 480

830 30

537,840 19,440

4,272,000a 0

4,790,400

a

Based on 8.9 MJ/kg, data from New Zealand (Alcorn, 2003), for the production in Australia and assumed fully from recycled steel.

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