Soil quality response to cover crops and amendments in a vineyard in Nova Scotia, Canada

Scientia Horticulturae 188 (2015) 6–14

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Soil quality response to cover crops and amendments in a vineyard in Nova Scotia, Canada Aime J. Messiga a , Mehdi Sharifi a,∗ , Andrew Hammermeister b , Kyle Gallant b , Keith Fuller c , Martin Tango d a

Canada Research Chair in Sustainable Agriculture, Environmental and Resource Studies Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada K9J 7B8 Department of Plant and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Truro, NS, Canada B2N 5E3 c Atlantic Food and Horticulture Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Kentville, NS, Canada B4N 1J5 d School of Engineering, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, Canada B4P 2R6 b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 12 December 2014 Received in revised form 26 February 2015 Accepted 27 February 2015 Keywords: Cover crops Municipal solid food waste Mussel shell Organic C Wine grape Wood ash

a b s t r a c t The effects of cover crop mixtures combined with organic and industrial wastes on selected soil properties were assessed in a vineyard in Eastern Canada. The experimental treatments were randomly arranged in a nested design with three replicates. Four alleyway cover crop mixtures [control with no cover crop (CONT), oats + pea + hairy vetch (OPV), oats underseeded with red clover (ORCl), and timothy + alsike + red clover (TM)] were applied to main plots. Five fertility treatments [fertilizer without N (NDEF), full synthetic fertilizer (FERT), wood ash (WA), municipal solid food waste (MSFW), and mussel sediment (MS)] were assigned to sub-plots. Changes in selected soil quality (0–15 cm) were assessed at the beginning of the growing season (May 9, 2011 and April 28, 2012), at bloom in early-July (July 06, 2011 and 2012), and at harvest in late-October (October 31, 2011 and October 20, 2012). At bloom, soil mineral N was 23.56 kg ha−1 for OPV and 20.68 kg ha−1 for ORCl, but only 16.38 kg ha−1 for CONT and 12.53 kg ha−1 for TM. At harvest, soil mineral N was 21.95 kg ha−1 for ORCl, but only 15.43 kg ha−1 for OPV and TM and 9.10 kg ha−1 for CONT. Soil mineral N was mainly in the form of NO3 − –N until bloom, but at harvest majority of soil mineral N was consisted of NH4 + –N. After one year of experiment, the three organic and industrial amendments maintained greater soil pH (7.34 for MSFW and 7.35 for WA) and Mehlich-3 extractable P (399 kg PM3 ha−1 for MSFW and 333 kg PM3 ha−1 for WA) compared with FERT (pH 7.17; 306 kg PM3 ha−1 ) and NDEF (pH 7.12; 288 kg PM3 ha−1 ) treatments. After two years of experiment, the combination of cover crop × amendment improved soil organic-C by 8.8% and 10.6% and -N by 8.1% and 9.8% compared with amendment alone and cover crop × FERT treatment, respectively. Potentially mineralizable N estimated by UV-absorbance of NaHCO3 extraction was greater under ORCl (0.79 abs) compared with the other cover crops (0.69 abs). The microbial biomass C was 205 kg ha−1 under MSFW and 212 kg ha−1 under WA, but only 168 kg ha−1 under NDEF, 125 kg ha−1 under FERT. The combination of cover crops and organic or industrial wastes provide comparable soil mineral N supply and available P with fertilized treatments while improving soil physical and biological properties and overall soil quality in this vineyard production system. © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction In Canada, Nova Scotia is the third most developed wine grape growing region after British Columbia and Ontario (Winery Association of Nova Scotia, 2009). Vineyard acreage is projected to increase by 40% by 2020 in Nova Scotia (Kittilsen, 2008). One major

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 705 748 1011x7954; fax: +1 705 748 1569. E-mail addresses: mehdisharifi@trentu.ca, mehdisharifi@trentagriculture.ca (M. Sharifi). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2015.02.041 0304-4238/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

constraint, however, is that vineyards of the region are mainly located in areas with steep slope characterized by light textured soils, low soil organic matter (SOM) content, low soil fertility status, low water holding capacity and often, due to high gravel content and shallow depth, a high risk of nutrient leaching. Management strategies aimed at improving the quality and fertility status of the soils under vineyards are therefore needed. Vineyard floor management strategies including cover crops have the potential to improve soil quality and fertility (Baumgartner et al., 2008). Cover crops are typically planted after minor soil preparation in the alleys between grapevines. They

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contribute to carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) inputs to soil, thus reducing soil erosion and the need for synthetic fertilizers without affecting wine grape yield and quality. In a five-year experiment under vineyard in California, soils with cover crops showed greater capacity for N mineralization and greater microbial biomass N content (Steenwerth and Belina, 2008a). In the same experiment, greater values of microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and dissolved organic C were also observed under cover crop soils compared with cultivated soils (Steenwerth and Belina, 2008b). In a threeyear vineyard experiment in Portugal, water use was higher in plots sown with combination of grasses and legumes cover crops compared with plots where soil was tilled between vine rows (Monteiro and Lopes, 2007). The addition of various bio-wastes and nutrient-rich industrial by-products to agricultural soil has been proposed as a way to improve the chemical, physical as well as biological properties of soils (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2005). Some of the materials studied as soil conditioners and potential sources of plant nutrients are municipal solid food waste (MSFW) compost (Weber et al., 2014) and wood ash (WA) (Voundi Nkana et al., 2002; Sharifi et al., 2013). The addition of MSFW in a four-year lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium Ait.) field provided equivalent amounts of plant essential nutrients compared with inorganic fertilizer (Warman et al., 2009). Wood ash can be used to increase soil pH and supply soil nutrients due to carbonates, oxides and hydroxides of Ca, K, and Mg (Perkiömäki and Fritze, 2002). Studies have also shown that WA additions to soil reduce the solubility of Al, Mn, Zn, Fe, and Cu (Perkiömäki and Fritze, 2002). In an eight-month incubation experiment, Sharifi et al. (2013) demonstrated that WA from three Atlantic sources can be considered as an effective liming agent and source of K in agricultural production systems. Little is known on the potential effects of mussel sediments (MS) in agriculture. To the best of our knowledge, it has seldom been tested as a soil conditioner or source of nutrients in agriculture. These potentially valuable bio-wastes and nutrientrich industrial by-products are relatively easy to incorporate into soils, (i.e. wine grape production systems) and may represent an environmentally, safe and economical alternative to other methods of disposal in Nova Scotia and elsewhere (Cabral et al., 2008). Few studies have explored the interaction effects of legume cover crops (Monteiro and Lopes, 2007) and bio-wastes and nutrient-rich industrial by-products (Weber et al., 2014) on soil quality in vineyard. We hypothesized that the combination of leguminous cover crops and bio-wastes and nutrient-rich industrial by-products can improve soil quality and nutrient cycling while producing yields comparable to those achieved with synthetic fertilizer. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of management practices consisting of legume cover crops and bio-wastes and nutrient-rich industrial by-products applied to vineyard on chemical, physical, and biological soil properties corresponding to overall soil quality.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Site description The study was conducted at Petite Riviere Vineyard, established in 1999 on a Bridgewater loam-drumlin phase soil [Cryorthods under the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010)] located at St. Mary’s in the LaHave River Valley area of Lunenburg County (44◦ 22 N, 64◦ 31 W). The soil is gravelly sandy clay loam developed on slate-derived till overlying a granite batholith (Webb and Marshall, 1999). It is moderately well-drained, shallow, and stony. Bulk density of the topsoil (0–15 cm) was measured in late-spring 2011 and 2012 using a procedure adapted to stony

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conditions at the vineyard (USDA, 2004). Bulk density was on average 1.22 g cm−3 . Lunenburg County is characterized by an undulating to rolling drumlinized till plain that slopes in a southeasterly direction toward the Atlantic Ocean. Elevations range from a high of about 270 m inland. During the growing season (May to October), the 30-year average daily temperature varies between 9.3 ◦ C in October and 19.5 ◦ C in July. The local climate is humid continental with an annual rainfall of 1323 mm, 641 mm of which falls during the growing season. Leon Millot was the grape variety in this study. The dormant pruning was made in March of each year and prunings were left on the ground in the vine rows. At the beginning of the growing season, the vine rows without a permanent cover crop were tilled to prepare the seedbed. Leon Millot grapes reach veraison in late August to early September. A heavy summer pruning takes place to allow the grapes to have direct sunlight and build sugar and turn dark red. The harvest occurs in mid-October. Pest and disease management was carried out consistent with local recommendations (Craig, 2013). Ignite® (glufosinate ammonium) herbicide was applied three times during the growing season in all treatments to keep a 0.50 m weed free zone under the vines to minimize competition for nutrients and water. 2.2. Experimental design Experimental design was a nested design with four cover crops randomly assigned to main plots and five fertility treatments randomly assigned to sub-plots. Experimental treatments were replicated in three blocks, with individual experimental plots measuring 5 m × 2 m and consisted of three measurable vines and two guard vines. Vine rows were 1.8 m apart with in row spacing being at 1.0 m intervals. The four cover crop treatments were: (i) control with no cover crop (CONT), (ii) mixture of oats (Avena sativa L.) + pea (Pisum sativum L.) + hairy vetch (OPV), (iii) oats underseeded with red clover (ORCl), and (iv) mixture of 70% timothy (Phleum pratense) + 15% alsike (Trifolium hybridum) + 15% red clover (commercially called triple mix; TM). The five fertility treatments were (1) synthetic fertilizer minus N (NDEF), (2) synthetic fertilizer with N (FERT), (3) WA, (4) MSFW, and (5) MS. The FERT application rate was based on soil test and provincial recommendations (Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2004). The NDEF consisted of 83 kg K ha−1 as KCl + 40 kg S ha−1 as MgSO4 (7H2 O) and elemental S (90%) + 24 kg Mg ha−1 as MgSO4 ·7H2 O + 2.4 kg B ha−1 as elemental B (15%). The FERT treatment consisted of the same composition as NDEF + 40 kg N ha−1 as NH4 NO3 . The WA originated from Brooklyn Power Ash and was applied at 6.3 Mg ha−1 on a dry weight basis. Using this application rate the estimated total supply of K was 83 kg ha−1 , with the assumption that 80% of the total WA potassium was available in the first year (Sharifi et al., 2013). Nitrogen as NH4 NO3 (34% N) and sulfur as MgSO4 (7H2 O) (90% S) were applied at rate 40 kg ha−1 in the WA treatment. The MSFW was applied at 13.4 Mg ha−1 on a dry weight basis based on the assumption that 15% of the total N is available in the application year (Sharifi et al., 2014). Nitrogen was applied at rate 30 kg ha−1 and K was applied as KCl (62% K) at rate 83 kg ha−1 to balance the nutrients in the MSFW. The MS was applied at rate 42,000 L ha−1 (105.3 Mg ha−1 on a dry weight basis) to supply 99 kg total N ha−1 based on the assumption that 40% of total N in the MS is available in the application year. Potassium was applied at rate 83 kg ha−1 due to low level of K in this amendment. The soil was tilled down to 10 cm depth with a rototiller. Amendments were manually applied in a 1.3 m wide band between vine rows and lightly incorporated into the soil in the spring of 2011 during seedbed preparation. In 2012 the amendments were top dressed on the soil with permanent cover crops and incorporated for treatments with annual cover crops. The seeding rates for the

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Table 1 The average (n = 3) chemical characteristics of wood ash (WA), source separated municipal solid food waste compost (MSFW), and mussel sediment (MS) used in this study. Characteristics

Unit

WA

MSFW

MS

Ph DM C N Ca P Mg K S Cu Fe Mn Zn B EC

– g kg−1 g kg−1 g kg−1 g kg−1 g kg−1 g kg−1 g kg−1 g kg−1 mg kg−1 mg kg−1 mg kg−1 mg kg−1 mg kg−1 dS m−1

12.95 (0.04) 89.12 (1.63) 1.97 (0.10) 0.06 (0.00) 6.33 (0.04) 0.34 (0.01) 0.69 (0.00) 1.64 (0.01) 0.36 (0.00) 105 (1.70) 12100 (155) 5582 (46.34) 541 (4.90) 91.57 (1.77) –

7.84 (0.00)a 63.25 (0.81) 25.72 (0.65) 2.51 (0.01) 4.56 (0.07) 0.79 (0.01) 0.30 (0.00) 0.38 (0.01) 0.56 (0.01) 56.08 (1.67) 5122 (106) 349 (3.67) 183 (2.66) 26.82 (0.27) –

7.35 (0.11) 26.43 (0.42) 7.81 (0.02) 0.94 (0.01) 9.45 (0.06) 0.11 (0.00) 0.49 (0.00) 0.18 (0.00) 0.45 (0.01) 5.84 (0.11) 8620 (6.76) 362 (5.59) 37.61 (0.55) 32.43 (0.07) 18.32 (0.14)

a

Values in parenthesis represent standard deviations of the means.

cover crops were 80 kg ha−1 for oats, 30 kg ha−1 for hairy vetch, 100 kg ha−1 for pea, 6 kg ha−1 for RCl, and 15 kg ha−1 for TM. Oats and hairy vetch were broadcast, and then incorporated into the soil. The other cover crop seeds were broadcast applied on the top of the soil. After all cover crops were seeded, the alleyways were packed with a roller. The cover crops were mowed once in mid-June, twice in early and late July, and once in mid-August. 2.3. Soil sampling Six soil cores per experimental plot were randomly sampled from 0 to 15 cm depth on the edge between cover crop strip and the weed free zone on both side of vine row (three from each side) using a 2.5-cm diameter auger. Each year, soils were collected at three sampling dates, the beginning of the growing season (May 9, 2011 and April 28, 2012) before amendments application, at bloom in early-July (July 06, 2011 and 2012), and at harvest in late-October (October 31, 2011 and October 20, 2012). Soil cores were composited on-site per experimental plot, sieved (<2 mm), and then divided into two sub-samples. A fresh subsample was kept in the cooler for less than a week at 4 ◦ C until analysis and another subsample was air-dried and stored. 2.4. Soil chemical analysis The soil mineral N (NO3 − –N and NH4 + –N) was analyzed using KCl extraction of all moist soil samples. A 25 g subsample of moist soil was extracted with 2 M KCl using a 1:5 (w:v) soil:extractant ratio and analyzed colorimetrically on a Technicon Auto Analyzer II (Technicon Industrial Systems Corp., Tarrytown, New York) as described by Maynard et al. (2007). Soil pH was measured each year before amendments application on soil samples collected at the beginning of the growing season (May 9, 2011 and April 28, 2012) in distilled water using a 1:1 soil to solution ratio. Mehlich-3 extractable P and cations were determined at the same sampling dates as soil pH measurements using an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) emission spectrometer after extraction with Mehlich-3 solution (Ziadi and Tran, 2008). Total soil C and N were measured each year on early-July soil samples by dry combustion using an Elementar Vario MAX CNS analyzer (LECO Corporation, St. Joseph, MI, USA). Particulate organic matter (POM) was determined each year on early-July soil samples by dispersing and washing a 25 g moist soil samples through a 53 ␮m sieve (Gregorich and Beare, 2007). Retained sand and macro organic matter were oven-dried at 55 ◦ C and weighed and analyzed for C and N concentrations by dry combustion using an Elementar Vario MAX CNS analyzer (LECO Corporation, St. Joseph, MI, USA). The masses of C and N per gram of air-dried soil were calculated as POM-C and POM-N.

2.5. Soil biological analysis Microbial biomass carbon was determined each year on earlyJuly soil samples collected from plots under CONT and OPV using the chloroform fumigation extraction method (Voroney et al., 2007). Briefly, fumigated and non-fumigated samples were extracted by 0.5 M potassium sulphate (K2 SO4 ) (1:3, soil:solution ratio). An aliquot of the K2 SO4 extract was analyzed for dissolved organic C by automated persulfate digestion and subsequent colorimetric detection of CO2 using Technicon AutoAnalyzer III (Technicon Instruments Corporation, Tarrytown, NY). The MBC was calculated as the difference in soluble C between fumigated and unfumigated samples with KEC factor 0.35 (Voroney et al., 2007). The MBC/SOC ratio (qMBC) was calculated as an indicator of the quality of MBC. The ultraviolet absorbance of the 0.01 M NaHCO3 extract at 205 and 260 nm (NaHCO3 -205 and NaHCO3 -260) was determined each year on early-July soil samples as an indicator of potentially mineralizable N as described by Sharifi et al. (2007). 2.6. Statistical analysis All data were tested for normality using the SAS univariate procedure. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) was performed using Proc Mixed of SAS, version 9.3 (SAS Institute, 2010). For soil mineral N, NH4 + –N, and NO3 − –N data were analyzed each year with replicates considered as random effect, sampling period as repeated effect, and cover crop, amendment and the 2 and 3-way interactions involving sampling period as fixed effect. For soil pH, PM3 and cations measured at the beginning of the growing season in 2012, replicates were considered as random effect, cover crop and amendment and the 2-way interaction as fixed effects. For SOC, SON, POM-C, POM-N, POM-C/SOC, POM-N/SON, C/N, NaHCO3 -205, NaHCO3 -206, MBC, and qMBC, replicates were considered as random effect, year as repeated effect, and cover crop, amendment and the 2- and 3-way interactions involving year as fixed effects. Differences among least square means (LSMEANS) for all treatment pairs were tested at a significance level of P = 0.05. Where appropriate, means were compared with a combination of orthogonal and polynomial contrasts: CONT vs. OPV, ORCl, TM; OPV vs. ORCl; OPV, ORCl vs. TM; NDEF vs. other; FERT, NDEF vs. MS, WA, MSFW; WA vs. MSFW; MS vs. MSFW. 3. Results 3.1. Characteristics of amendments The WA had a pH of 12.95 and a greater dry matter content (89.12 g kg−1 ) compared with MSFW (pH, 7.84; DM, 63.25 g kg−1 )

A.J. Messiga et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 188 (2015) 6–14 Table 2 Least square means and analysis of variance for ammonium (NH4 + –N), nitrate (NO3 − –N), and total soil mineral nitrogen (NH4 + –N + NO3 − –N) in the vineyard after one year cover crop and amendment application at Petite Riviere Vineyards, LaHave River Valley, Nova Scotia, Canada. NH4 + –N

NO3 − –N kg ha−1 Least square means

Soil min N

Cover crops (CC) Control (CONT) Oat/Pea/Vetch (OPV) Oat/Red clover (ORCl) Timothy/alsike/Red clover (TM) SE

2.18 2.10 2.09 2.14 0.132

17.58 14.86 17.50 17.18 1.245

19.76 16.96 19.59 19.32 1.288

Amendments (Amend) Synthetic fertilizer minus N (NDEF) Full synthetic fertilizer (FERT) Wood ash (WA) Municipal solid food waste (MSFW) Mussel sediment (MS) SE

2.38 2.03 2.18 1.99 2.07 0.148

14.86 18.21 17.00 16.87 16.97 1.392

17.24 20.23 19.18 18.56 19.14 1.440

Sampling periods (SP) Late-April Early-July Late-October SE

1.09 1.02 1.38 0.122

4.58 36.06 9.71 1.044

6.59 37.08 11.09 1.085

Sources of variations CC Amend CC × Amend SP CC × SP Amend × SP CC × Amend × SP

0.964 0.345 0.485 0.281 0.237 0.101 0.686

P values 0.331 0.514 0.336 <0.001 0.272 0.253 0.289

0.626 0.795 0.269 <0.001 0.336 0.291 0.391

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a

b

SE, standard error for comparison of least square means.

and MS (pH, 7.35; DM, 26.43 g kg−1 ) (Table 1). The WA had lower C (1.97 g kg−1 ) and N (0.06 g kg−1 ) contents, but a greater C/N ratio (32.8) compared with MSFW (25.75 g C kg−1 , 2.51 g N kg−1 , C/N 10.3) and MS (7.81 g C kg−1 , 0.94 g N kg−1 , C/N 8.3). The P content of the three amendments was 0.34 g kg−1 for WA, 0.79 g kg−1 for MSFW, and 0.11 g kg−1 for MS. The C/P ratio was 5.79 for WA, 32.5 for MSFW and 71 for MS. In addition, the WA had higher Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, and B concentrations compared with MSFW and MS.

c

3.2. Soil chemical properties 3.2.1. Soil mineral nitrogen During the first year of the study, there were temporal changes in soil mineral N, but the extent was not affected by the cover crop and amendment treatments (Table 2). Soil mineral N was 6.59 kg N ha−1 at the beginning of the growing season, 37.08 kg N ha−1 at bloom, and 11.09 kg N ha−1 at harvest. Soil mineral N was mainly in the form of NO3 − –N which represented 80% at the beginning of the growing season, 98% at bloom, and 90% at harvest. In contrast, there was little variation in soil NH4 + –N across the growing season. During the second year of the study, soil mineral N increased as the growing season progress, but the extent was affected by the cover crops. At the beginning of the growing season, soil mineral N increased by 30% under OPV, 24% under ORCl, but decreased by 51% under TM, relative to CONT (Fig. 1). At bloom, soil mineral N increased by 44% under OPV, 26% under ORCl, but decreased by 24% under TM, relative to CONT. At harvest, soil mineral N increased under all cover crop treatments relative to CONT and the rate of increase represented 141% under ORCl and on average 70% under OPV and TM. From the beginning of the growing season until bloom,

Fig. 1. Effects of cover crops on (a) soil ammonium [NH4 + –N (2012)], (b) soil nitrate [NO3 − –N (2012)] and (c) soil mineral nitrogen [NH4 + –N + NO3 − –N (2012)] in a vineyard field at Petite Riviere Vineyard, LaHave River Valley, Nova Scotia, Canada. Error bars represent standard error (SE) of the means for comparison of all values (n = 180; 80 df).

soil mineral N was mainly in the form of soil NO3 − –N, but at harvest soil NH4 + –N made up most of the soil mineral N in the vineyard. 3.2.2. Soil pH, Mehlich-3 extractable phosphorus and major cations The soil pH at the beginning of the second growing season was only influenced by the amendments applied in 2011. Soil pH was on average 7.3 across the three amendments, but only 6.9 across NDEF and FERT treatments (Fig. 2). The three amendments maintained their soil pH into the second year compared with the inorganic

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applied during the previous growing season. The highest residual effect of amendments on PM3 was obtained under MSFW (584 kg PM3 ha−1 ) followed by WA (461 kg PM3 ha−1 ) (Fig. 3a). In comparison with 2011, PM3 was increased by 99% with NDEF, 115% with FERT, 100% with MS, 200% with MSFW, and 134% with WA. The highest residual effect of amendments on CaM3 was obtained under the three amended soils (Fig. 3b). In comparison with 2011, CaM3 was increased by 24% with NDEF, 8% with FERT, 70% with MS, 67% with MSFW, and 76% with WA. The highest residual effect of amendments on KM3 was measured under WA (Fig. 3c). In comparison with 2011, KM3 was increased by 62% with NDEF, 72% with FERT, 63% with MS, 81% with MSFW, and 117% with WA. The highest residual effect of amendments on MgM3 was measured with applications of synthetic fertilizers (Fig. 3d). In comparison with 2011, MgM3 was increased by 54% with NDEF, 37% with FERT, 31% with MSFW, and 26% with WA.

Fig. 2. Effects of one year application of amendments (NDEF, synthetic fertilizer minus N; FERT, synthetic fertilizer; WA, wood ash; MSFW, municipal solid food waste; MS, mussel sediment) on soil pH in a vineyard at Petite Riviere Vineyard, LaHave River Valley, Nova Scotia, Canada. Data of 2011 were obtained on soil samples collected before amendment application. Data of 2012 represent the residual effects of amendments applied in 2011. Error bars represent standard error (SE) of the means for comparing values of 2012 (n = 60; df = 20).

fertilizer treatments (FERT and NDEF) which showed a decline in soil pH of 5% (Fig. 2). In 2011 before amendment application, average values of Mehlich-3 extractable P and major cations across the vineyard were 194 kg PM3 ha−1 , 2357 kg CaM3 ha−1 , 119 kg KM3 ha−1 , and 252 kg MgM3 ha−1 (Fig. 3). In 2012 before amendment application, PM3 , CaM3 , KM3 , and MgM3 were all affected by the amendments

3.2.3. Soil organic carbon and nitrogen The SOC and SON were affected by cover crops, but the extent varied with amendments (Table 3). Under NDEF, the SOC varied between 28.5 Mg C ha−1 for CONT and OPV to 31.5 Mg C ha−1 for ORCl and TM; while SON varied between 2.3 Mg N ha−1 for CONT to an average value of 2.6 Mg N ha−1 for OPV, ORCl, and TM. Under the FERT treatment, SOC and SON varied from 21 Mg C ha−1 and 2.1 Mg N ha−1 for CONT and OPV to 31.6 Mg C ha−1 and 2.8 Mg N ha−1 for ORCl (Fig. 4). The combination of TM and MSFW resulted in the highest SOC and SON with 36.3 Mg C ha−1 and 3.2 Mg N ha−1 followed by the combination of ORCl and MS with 34.3 Mg C ha−1 and 2.9 Mg N ha−1 , respectively. The CONT × NDEF and CONT × FERT combinations resulted in lower SOC (28.4 Mg C ha−1 and 21.9 Mg C ha−1 , respectively) and SON

Fig. 3. Effects of one year application of amendments (NDEF, synthetic fertilizer minus N; FERT, synthetic fertilizer; WA, wood ash; MSFW, municipal solid food waste; MS, mussel sediment) on Mehlich-3 extractable (a) phosphorus, (b) calcium, (c) potassium, and (d) magnesium in a vineyard field at Petite Riviere Vineyard, LaHave River Valley, Nova Scotia, Canada. Data of 2011 were obtained on soil samples collected before amendment application. Data of 2012 represent the residual effects of amendments applied in 2011. Error bars represent standard error (SE) of the means for comparing values of 2012 (n = 60; df = 20).

A.J. Messiga et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 188 (2015) 6–14

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Table 3 Least square means and analysis of variance of selected soil chemical and biological properties in early-July in a vineyard field following two years cover crop and amendment application at Petite Riviere Vineyard, LaHave River Valley, Nova Scotia, Canada. Chemical POM-C

Biological POM-N

−1

Mg ha

POM-c/SOC

POM-N/SON

%

C/N –

NaHCO3 -205

NaHCO3 -260

MBC

qMBC −1

Abs

kg ha

%

Least square means Cover crops CONT OPV ORCl TM SE

3.76 4.61 5.04 5.18 0.350

0.22 0.32 0.30 0.32 0.035

16.01 19.47 17.05 18.94 1.191

9.59 14.29 11.73 11.99 1.374

11.23 10.52 11.36 10.66 0.197

0.694 0.767 0.792 0.738 0.019

0.098 0.120 0.124 0.131 0.010

164.52 169.95 – – 29.58

0.711 0.655 – – 0.152

Amendments (Amend) NDEF FERT Municipal solid food waste (MSFW) Wood ash (WA) Mussel sediment (MS) SE

4.58 4.30 4.59 5.44 4.33 0.391

0.28 0.24 0.28 0.35 0.29 0.039

17.52 18.15 17.54 19.39 16.75 1.332

11.39 10.41 11.63 14.02 12.05 1.536

11.28 10.81 10.94 10.99 10.69 0.221

0.693 0.750 0.763 0.785 0.749 0.022

0.115 0.118 0.118 0.126 0.115 0.012

167.99 124.67 211.81 204.99 12.70 46.77

0.679 0.654 0.850 0.727 0.506 0.240

263.79 70.68 27.72

1.133 0.233 0.143

Year (Y) 2011 2012 SE

5.365 3.926 0.221

0.37 0.21 0.023

22.40 13.34 0.816

16.57 7.23 0.949

11.16 10.73 0.117

1.12 0.38 0.012

0.092 0.145 0.007

Sources of variations CC Amend CC × Amend Y CC × Y Amend × Y CC × Amend × Y

0.028 0.249 0.215 <0.001 0.513 0.263 0.088

0.136 0.424 0.417 <0.001 0.810 0.790 0.256

0.156 0.703 0.539 <0.001 0.273 0.439 0.179

0.134 0.566 0.466 <0.001 0.529 0.841 0.226

P values 0.009 0.408 0.252 0.002 0.768 0.086 0.919

0.007 0.066 0.656 <0.001 0.002 0.752 0.262

0.038 0.964 0.961 <0.001 0.032 0.707 0.993

0.898 0.548 0.980 <0.001 0.224 0.435 0.258

0.796 0.895 0.952 <0.001 0.344 0.722 0.417

0.005 0.318 0.928 0.512 0.169 0.860 0.081

0.069 0.220 0.361 0.608 0.142 0.552 0.302

0.241 0.513 0.063 0.913 0.740 0.610 0.188

0.455 0.114 0.109 0.714 0.206 0.607 0.341

0.336 0.973 0.001 0.228 0.585 0.139 0.948

0.077 0.003 0.729 0.673 0.869 0.079 0.017

0.035 0.444 0.623 0.981 0.832 0.986 0.468

– – – 0.160 0.858 0.975 0.334

– – – 0.465 0.687 0.844 0.582

Selected contrasts CONT vs. OPV, ORCl, TM OPV, ORCl vs. TM OPV vs. ORCl NDEF vs. other FERT, NDEF vs. MS, WA, MSFW WA vs. MSFW MS vs. MSFW

POM-C, particulate organic matter associated carbon; POM-N, particulate organic matter associated nitrogen; C/N, carbon to nitrogen ratio; MBC, microbial biomass carbon; qMBC, microbial biomass carbon to soil organic carbon ratio; SE, standard error for comparing the least square means.

(2.3 Mg N ha−1 and 2.2 Mg N ha−1 , respectively) compared with most other combinations including cover crops. The C/N ratio and POM-C were only affected by cover crops. Lower C/N ratios were obtained with OPV (10.52) and TM (10.66) compared with CONT (11.23) and ORCl (11.36). The POM-C was greater under ORCl (5.04 Mg ha−1 ) and TM (5.18 Mg ha−1 ) compared with CONT (3.76 Mg ha−1 ) and OPV (3.76 Mg ha−1 ). The high POM-C with ORCl and TM was consistent with values of SOC and SON (Table 3). In contrast, the POM-N, POM-C/SOC, and POMN/SON were not affected by the cover crop systems, although a trend of high values could be observed in cover cropped plots compared with CONT.

3.3.2. Microbial biomass carbon There was a trend of high MBC and qMBC under OPV compared with CONT. A difference of 5.43 kg MBC ha−1 between OPV and CONT that corresponds to an increase of 3.2% after two years was observed between the two treatments. In addition, the amendment did not affect the MBC and qMBC. Among the soil fertility treatments, there was a tendency of high MBC and qMBC under MSFW and WA compared with the other treatments. The MBC was 205 kg ha−1 under MSFW and 212 kg ha−1 under WA, but only 168 kg ha−1 under NDEF, 125 kg ha−1 under FERT, and 12.70 kg ha−1 under MS. 4. Discussion

3.3. Soil biological properties 4.1. Characteristics of amendments 3.3.1. Potentially mineralizable nitrogen The potentially mineralizable N estimated using the NaHCO3 205 and NaHCO3 -260 was affected by the cover crops and the extent differed with year. The potentially mineralizable N at wavelength 205 nm varied between 0.694 abs under CONT and 0.792 abs under ORCl. The potentially mineralizable N at wavelength 260 nm varied between 0.098 abs under CONT and 0.131 abs under TM. The low potentially mineralizable N under CONT also corroborates to values of SON and particularly the low trends of POM-N and POM-N/SON values under CONT.

The chemical composition of WA, MSFW and MS used in this study differed greatly, but were typical averages reported in North America and other regions (Edwards and Someshwar, 2000; Sharifi et al., 2013). In general, C and N are present in WA in negligible quantities due to their transformation into gaseous constituents during combustion. The persistence of C and N in WA is due to incomplete combustion. The macro-element content of WA was similar to those reported by Someshwar (1996) and Sharifi et al. (2013). The P content of the three amendments, even though low,

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The large spike of soil NH4 + –N at harvest, particularly for ORCl, could be attributed to N derived from the mineralization of cover crop residues mowed in late-July and mid-August. The first step for N mineralization is the conversion of organic N in organic matter to NH4 + –N through ammonification. The produced NH4 + –N is then converted into NO3 − –N following nitrification. Thus, soil NH4 + –N accumulation at harvest suggests a limited nitrification process probably due to cooler temperature and the short period between residue left on the soil surface and harvest. In 2011, average temperature during the growing season at LaHave River Valley was below normal (Environment Canada, 2014). The high concentrations of soil NH4 + –N measured at harvest indicate that N derived from residue decomposition of ORCl and to some extent TM and OPV treatments could contribute to N uptake during the postharvest period and subsequently the N stored in the woody tissues of grapevines. Substantial N uptake occurs during the postharvest period in grapevines and in some cases, this N uptake can provide up to 60% of the stored N for the next season (Conradie, 1992). The large spike of soil NH4 + –N at harvest can also be explained by the low yield observed in 2011 compared with 2012 (data not shown). No difference in mean soil mineral N throughout the growing season was observed among the amendment treatments, even though the NDEF treatment had received no N amendment (Table 2). This implies that the balance of N supply and uptake or loss was comparable among the treatments. The efficiency of MSFW derived N uptake by plants may be underestimated due to the large portion of organic N in the compost, which is only be mineralized over a longer time period (Weber et al., 2014). The authors suggested that the N uptake efficiency of soils enriched with MSFW could be increased to 66% if the mineral form of N is considered in the estimation of N availability. Fig. 4. Effects of cover crops (OPV, Oats/Pea/Vetch mixture; ORCl, oats underseeded with red clover; TM, triple mix (timothy/alsike/red clover); CONT, no cover crop) and amendments (NDEF, synthetic fertilizer minus N; FERT, synthetic fertilizer; WA, wood ash MSFW, municipal solid food waste; MS, mussel sediment) on (a) soil organic C and (b) soil organic N in the vineyard at Petite Riviere Vineyard, LaHave River Valley, Nova Scotia, Canada. Error bars represent standard error (SE) of the means for comparison of all values (n = 120; df = 40).

indicates the possibility of using them as a supplemental source of P in wine grape production systems. The C/P ratios of the three amendments were lower than 200 indicating that a net mineralization of organic P would occur during the early stage of material decomposition after its addition to the soil (Havlin et al., 2014). The pH and proportion of Ca, particularly in WA and MS, indicates that these materials could be used as a Ca amendment. 4.2. Changes in soil mineral nitrogen during the growing season Large spike of soil NO3 − –N at bloom during the two growing seasons could be attributed to the combination of early season N mineralization and low plant N uptake by cover crops and the vines. In early spring, between bud burst and bloom, the rapid growth of vines relies heavily on N stored through the dormant season in woody tissues (Conradie, 1992). Large amount of soil NO3 − –N at bloom in early-July can increase the risk of NO3 − –N leaching. High N leaching risk may occur in coarse textured soil where NO3 − is present during high precipitation. In contrast, low soil NO3 − –N measured at harvest could be associated with large N uptake by vines during the veraison (beginning of fruit ripening) because in this phase vines depend mostly on N uptake by roots. Hanson and Howell (1995) found that 60% N uptake by established ‘Concord’ grapevines occurred between bloom and veraison. In a recent study conducted in an own-rooted ‘Concord’ single-curtain vineyard in Washington St, 90% to 95% N uptake occurred between bloom and harvest (Pradubsuk and Davenport, 2010).

4.3. Soil pH and major nutrients The decrease in soil pH following FERT and NDEF treatments observed in this study is not expected to affect the grape yield because of high initial soil pH. The small change in magnitude of soil pH is probably the result of the relative short period of inorganic fertilizer applications. Inputs of N fertilizer, particularly ammonium based N-fertilizers, lead to soil acidification via the oxidation of NH4 + to NO3 − , which generates H+ and lowers soil pH (Prasad and Power, 1997). The decrease of soil pH under NDEF treatment could be explained by the presence of elemental sulfur [MgSO4 ·7H2 O (28%) + S (90%)] used to meet plant sulfur requirements. Increases in pH following WA applications to Italian agricultural soils have also been observed (Perucci et al., 2008). Wood ash application to three strongly acid soils (Kandiudult) in the forest zone of Central Cameroon induced increases in soil pH partly due to ligand exchange between WA SO4 − and OH− ions (Voundi Nkana et al., 2002; Sharifi et al., 2013). The increase in major nutrients following amendments application could be explained by the element content of the different amendments. For example, the highest PM3 was measured with application of MSFW (584 kg ha−1 ) followed by WA (461 kg ha−1 ); the highest KM3 was measured with applications of WA which also had the highest K content among all amendments; supplementing Mg as (MgSO4 ·7H2 O) in the FERT and NDEF treatments resulted in high MgM3 content in the soil compared with amendments. Weber et al. (2007) found that 3-year applications of MSFW composts to a sandy soil in Poland, caused a large increase of plant-available P and K, which was observed during the entire period of the experiment. In their study in the forest zone of Central Cameroon, Voundi Nkana et al. (2002) also observed increases in soil Ca and Mg following addition of WA. The ability of the amendments used in this study to maintain soil pH constant as well as their ability to provide

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nutrients to vines is important for the sustainable use of recycled biowaste in vineyard production systems. 4.4. Soil organic carbon and nitrogen Positive effects of cover crops on SOC were also observed in other grapevine production systems (Steenwerth and Belina, 2008b). In Central Italy, Mazzoncini et al. (2011) observed increases in SOC and SON in a long-term experiment on loam soil with non-legume and legume cover crops which were correlated to C inputs to the soils. At Kanto, Japan, Higashi et al. (2014) in a nine year experiment on Andosol found that SOC was increased by 13.4 Mg C ha−1 with rye, 8.6 Mg C ha−1 with hairy vetch, and only 5.4 Mg C ha−1 with the CONT treatment. Cover crop residues constitute a source of organic matter to the grapevine, which also decrease the soil temperature and therefore the turnover of SOC (Maréchal et al., 2008). The higher SOC and SON following application of MSFW compared with the other amendments could be partly explained by the C and N contents of these materials (Table 1). Similar results have been found in a 3-yr triticale (×Triticosecale) monoculture in Poland (Weber et al., 2007) and a 6-yr sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) and durum wheat (Triticum turgidum) rotation (Crecchio et al., 2004). In contrast, the low SOC and SON observed under CONT × NDEF and CONT × FERT combinations could be explained by the limited organic residue input (Mulvaney et al., 2009). Our results are consistent with other studies showing negative effects of inorganic fertilizer, FERT and NDEF treatments, on SOC and SON. Khan et al. (2007) noted that long-term (40–50 yr) inorganic N fertilization had limited or even negative effects on SOC in cultivated soils despite large increases in residue C incorporation induced by N fertilization. 4.5. Soil biological properties The NaHCO3 -205 value reflects NO3 − –N and soluble organic N, whereas the NaHCO3 -260 value only reflects soluble organic forms of N in the extract (Serna and Pomares, 1992). The higher potentially mineralizable N with cover crop systems compared with CONT was probably due to the input of N from legumes (Lynch et al., 2012). This result is consistent with the lower soil NH4 + –N measured under CONT compared with the cover crops (Fig. 1). The low potentially mineralizable N under CONT also corroborates to values of SON and particularly the low trends of POM-N and POM-N/SON values under CONT. The trend of high MBC under OPV compared with CONT is supported by chemical properties and values of potentially mineralizable N indicating that both the quality and quantity of the active SOM pool were the main drivers of the microbial activity observed under OPV. The MBC is a labile and dynamic fraction of SOM. The range of MBC following amendment applications was similar to that reported by Nair and Ngouajio (2012) in a 3-year organic vegetable production system with cover crops and compost at Michigan State University. The qMBC followed a similar trend as MBC among the fertility treatments which is consistent with findings of Sharifi et al. (2014). The high MBC and qMBC following addition of MSFW was consistent with other studies (Crecchio et al., 2004; Sharifi et al., 2014). In contrast, the high MBC and qMBC following application of WA was unexpected based on the low TOC and high C/N ratio (Table 1). In addition, our results did not corroborate reported negative effects of WA on MBC associated with either pore occlusion leading to lack of oxygen and a reduction in aerobic microorganisms or to the great release of ions into solution (Perucci et al., 2008). Another surprising result was the low MBC and qMBC observed with addition of MS taking into account the pH, TOC, and C/N ratio of the material (Table 1). The high soluble salt content of MS might explain the low MBC and qMBC.

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5. Conclusions This study compared conventional, weed-free alleyways with synthetic fertilizers, with sustainable, cover cropped alleyways and/or soil amendments, vineyard nutrient managements in terms of N dynamics during the growing season and soil quality indicators. The legume-based cover crops including OPV and ORCl mixtures maintained higher soil mineral N concentrations throughout the growing season (on average 27% at bud burst, 35% at bloom, and 105% at harvest). The ORCl and TM mixtures resulted in the greatest SOC (11% greater than average of OPV and CONT) and cover crops resulted in 13% greater SON compared with CONT. These cover crop mixtures could improve the soil N status and chemical soil properties of the light-textured vineyard soils. The MSFW and WA improved the concentrations of PM3 and primary macronutrients including Ca, K, and Mg compared with NDEF and FERT treatments. Combinations of TM × MSFW and ORCl × MS had the highest influence on SOC (36.3 Mg C ha−1 and 34.3 Mg C ha−1 ) and SON (3.2 Mg N ha−1 and 2.9 Mg N ha−1 ), respectively, compared with combinations including cover crop mixtures and FERT treatments (average 26.5 Mg C ha−1 and 2.4 Mg N ha−1 ). The combination of legume-based cover crops and soil amendments provided comparable soil mineral N supply and available P to fertilized treatments while improved soil chemical and biological properties and overall soil quality under soil and climate conditions of this vineyard. Acknowledgments Funding for this research is provided by Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture and Fishery (DEV30-019), Technology Development 2000 program. Supports by industry partner, Petite Riviere Vineyards, are greatly appreciated. Amendments supplied by LP Consulting (wood ash) and Northridge Farms Ltd (municipal solid food waste compost) and Prince Edward Aqua Farms Ltd. (MS). Special thanks to Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture and Fishery, and Dalhousie University, Faculty of Agriculture (former name: Nova Scotia Agricultural College) for supporting the Nutrient Management Research Chair position previously hold by Dr. Mehdi Sharifi at Environmental Sciences Department. References Baumgartner, K., Steenwerth, K.L., Veilleux, L., 2008. Cover-crop systems affect weed communities in a California vineyard. Weed Sci. 56, 596–605. Cabral, F., Ribeiro, H.M., Hilário, L., Machado, L., Vasconcelos, E., 2008. Use of pulp mill inorganic wastes as alternative liming materials. Bioresour. Technol. 99, 8294–8298. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2005. Guidelines for Compost Quality, PN 1340. CCME, Winnipeg, MB, http://www.ccme.ca/assets/pdf/ compostgdlns 1340 e.pdf (accessed 12 Aug 2014). Conradie, W.J., 1992. Partitioning of nitrogen by the grapevine during autumn and the utilization of nitrogen reserves during the following growing season. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 13, 45–51. Craig, B. 2013. Nova Scotia guide to pest management in grape. Grape insect and disease management schedule. Revised and edited by Cheverie, R. and Wood, S. 21p. Crecchio, C., Curci, M., Pizzigallo, M.D.R., Ricciuti, P., Ruggiero, P., 2004. Effects of municipal solid waste compost amendments on soil enzyme activities and bacterial genetic diversity. Soil Biol. Biochem. 36, 1595–1605. Edwards, J.H., Someshwar, A.V., 2000. Chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of agricultural and forest byproducts for land application. In: Dick, W.A. (Ed.), Land Application of Agricultural, Industrial, and Municipal Byproducts. SSSA Book Series No. SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 1–62. Environment Canada, 2014. Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 Station Data. Environment Canada [Online] Available: http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate normals/results 1981 2010 e.html?stnID=6375&lang=e&StationName= kentville&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=5& dispBack=1 (last accesses, Jan 22, 2015). Gregorich, E.G., Beare, M.H., 2007. Physically uncomplexed organic matter. In: Carter, M.R., Gregorich, E.G. (Eds.), Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis. , second ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 607–616. Hanson, E.J., Howell, G.S., 1995. Nitrogen accumulation and fertilizer use efficiency by grapevines in short-season growing areas. HortScience 30, 504–507.

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