Starch analysis reveals prehistoric plant translocations and shell tool use, Marquesas Islands, Polynesia

Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 2799e2812

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Starch analysis reveals prehistoric plant translocations and shell tool use, Marquesas Islands, Polynesia Melinda S. Allen a, *, Ella Ussher b a b

Department Anthropology, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand Archaeology and Natural History, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 6 October 2012 Received in revised form 13 February 2013 Accepted 14 February 2013

Starch analysis is proving particularly useful in tropical regions like the central Pacific where crop inventories are often dominated by starchy fruits and tubers and recovery of macrobotanical remains is rare. Analysis of 23 shell tools from the Marquesas Islands provides direct evidence for translocation of five traditional crop plants. Four taxa derive from the western Pacific, including Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit), Piper methysticum (kava), Colocasia esculenta (taro), and one or more species of Dioscorea (yam). The fifth taxon, the South American Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato), dates from the 14th century AD onward and constitutes the earliest record of this cultigen in the archipelago. The occurrence of sweet potato starch suggests that this crop plant may have been more important than usually is assumed, while the limited recovery of breadfruit starch, the main Marquesan food plant at western contact, requires further investigation. The starch residues also inform on tool use, demonstrating that shell tools ethnographically associated with specific crops (e.g., “breadfruit peelers”) had more generalised functions. This study is a further demonstration of the potential of starch analysis to provide important information on the history of crop introductions, on-site activities, and artefact use. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Starch analysis Shell tools Sweet potato Breadfruit Polynesian crops Marquesas Islands

1. Introduction Starch analysis is a rapidly expanding field which is providing new insights into the antiquity of plant use, crop regimes, vegetation histories and tool use related to plant processing (e.g., Barton and White, 1993; Fullagar et al., 2006; Horrocks, 2004; Horrocks et al., 2008; Horrocks and Wozniak, 2008; Lentfer et al., 2002; Therin et al., 1999; Torrence and Barton, 2006). This technology is particularly useful in the Pacific where the inventory of plant domesticates is dominated by starchy roots, tubers, and fruits, and tropical conditions are not conducive to the preservation of macrobotanical remains. We focus here on East Polynesia, the last region of the Pacific to be settled, and in particular the Marquesas Islands which is one of the most eastern archipelagos. Notably, native plants with significant edible starch organs are limited in Polynesia and all of the major food plants are considered human introductions. Scholarly questions centre on the composition of the initial crop inventory, the possibility of postsettlement introductions and losses, and potential shifts in the importance of specific crops over time in response to changing

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ64 9 373 7599x84645; fax: þ64 9 373 7441. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.S. Allen). 0305-4403/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.02.011

natural and social conditions, such as climate variability or agricultural intensification. At the time of effective western contact (i.e., the late 1700s) Marquesan agricultural systems were distinguished from others in East Polynesia by their emphasis on arboriculture, and the cultivation of Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit) in particular. Although this economic tree was distributed throughout the region, many other island economies gave greater emphasis to herbaceous root crops such as aroids (Araceae), yams (Dioscoreaceae), and the South American-derived Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato). In the Marquesas, early ethnohistoric accounts, dating from the late 1700s (e.g., Crook, 2007; Robarts, 1974) suggest A. altilis was the premier food plant. Use of the abundant and storable fruits has been seen by some as an adaptation to the challenging climate of the group, particularly the frequent occurrence of extended droughts (Allen, 2010; Ferdon, 1993; Robarts, 1974). There are questions, however, as to the timing of this adaptation, as well as the accuracy of historic reports in their assessments of Marquesan agricultural systems (see also Addison, 2006; Handy, 1923; Kellum, 1968; Suggs, 1961). Many Euro-American observations took place well after significant cultural changes, including the introduction of foreign plants, as for example pineapple, pumpkin and capsicum (see Crook, 2007: 75) and the establishment of trade with foreign ships. There also are questions about the possibilities of American plant introductions

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other than sweet potato, particularly by Spanish visitors in the 16th century AD, with Ferdon (1993: 131e138) identifying several candidates. For the current study, 23 Marquesan shell tools were analysed for starch residues. These are primarily unmodified bivalve tools, but results from four manufactured tools also are considered. The identified taxa: 1) inform on the uses of Marquesan shell tools; 2) aid assessment of the activities carried out at specific localities; and 3) allow early historic observations of Marquesan food resources to be compared with prehistoric patterns. 2. The shell tool assemblage and expectations for starch analysis Polynesians used shells in myriad ways, both functional and ornamental. Fishhooks, chisels, adzes, graters and other crucial tools were fashioned from Pinctada, Turbo, Trochus, Cassis, Conus, Terebra, Tridacna and other species (e.g., Allen, 2003; Davidson et al., 2011; Szabo, 2010). The 23 shell tools analysed here (Table 1) include specially prepared peelers, used to remove the outer skin or bark of plant materials, and graters for shredding of soft flesh, as well as small bivalve tools unmodified except by use-wear. Two specimens (Acc. 5201 and 6222) are peelers made from cowrie shells (family Cypraeidae; i‘i in Marquesan), one of the more ingenious Polynesian tools and a form that is strongly associated with breadfruit preparation in Marquesan ethnographies (e.g., Linton, 1923: 351; von den Steinen, 1928: 36; Suggs, 1961: 128). Peelers were prepared by puncturing the cowrie shell dorsum at both the anterior and posterior ends, followed by bevelling and grinding of the borders of at least one hole to a sharp edge (Fig. 4). The tool was then “.held in the hand transversely, with the base against the palm and the sharp edge towards the outer side of the hand. It is moved downward and away from the body. The peelings

cut off by the sharp edge pass through the shell and fall out at the rear aperture” (Linton, 1923: 351). Cowrie shell peelers also are known from the Hawaiian, Society, Caroline, and Marshall Islands, but other shells were similarly used elsewhere in Polynesia, including Triton in Fiji, Tonna in Samoa and Tonga, and Purpura persica in the Marquesas (Buck, 1930; Poulsen, 1969; Rolett, 1998: 234; Suggs, 1961). Cowrie shell peelers are common in Marquesan archaeological sites and come in a wide range of sizes, from petite versions of about 15 mm length to larger specimens of around 75 mm. Skjølsvold (1972: 32e33) recovered three modified Turbo shells that were suggestive of peelers but these modifications also might have been the result of meat extraction. Suggs (1961: 128) suggests that Tonna (probably P. persica as per Rolett, 1998: 234) peelers were replaced by ones of cowrie as breadfruit became the dominant Marquesan crop. However, he also acknowledged that a change in tool raw material could have been driven by the availability of cowries, which are quite common. A third study specimen (Acc. 4138) is an elongate Pinctada margaritifera (pearl-shell or uhi in Marquesan) piece which is artificially serrated on one end, a tool type commonly referred to as a grater (Fig. 5). The study specimen has rounded serrations which may be weathered, but could indicate the piece was unfinished. Graters, hand-held or mounted on a wood or stone seat, were used for processing coconut meat throughout the Pacific. Buck (1944) notes that in Hawai‘i, and less commonly on Tongareva, shells with naturally serrated edges were put to the same purpose. Graters also were made from flaked basalt (in Samoa and Marquesas), coconut shells (Samoa), coral (Cook Islands), and Conus shells (Hawai‘i) (Buck, 1930: 110, 1944, 1964). A chipped disk (Acc.1371) fashioned from the large oyster Pycnodonta hyotis served an unknown function (Fig. 6). The species was once a food source but is now locally rare and the traditional name has been forgotten.

Table 1 Shell tool proveniences and other attributes. Acc. No.

Locality

Scrapers/cutters 657 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 1366 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 1367 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 1368 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 1369 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 1370 Anaho: Structure 16 1372 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 1373 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 1374 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 1375 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 1376 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 3189 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 3193 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 5522 Anaho: Structure 277 6072 Anaho: Structure 336 6194 Anaho: Kaniho, Structure 2 6237 Anaho: Kaniho, Structure 2 6348 Anaho: Kaniho, Structure 2 5527 Ha‘ataivea: coast Peelers 5201 Anaho: Teavau‘ua 6222 Anaho: Kaniho, Structure 2 Grater 4138 Anaho, Structure 13 Other 1371 Anaho: Teavau‘ua

Test unit

Layer

Tool taxon

Specimen condition

Pre-analysis processing

General time period AD

TP10 TP15 TP15 TP15 TP15 TP17 TP12 TP11 TP11 TP9 TP10 SP6 SP12 None none TP46

IIIb IIIb IIIb IIIb IIIb II IIIa IIIb IIIb IIIa IIIa III IV Surface surface I

Periglypta reticulata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Periglypta reticulata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata Codakia punctata

Whole Whole Whole Whole Fragment Whole Whole Whole Fragment Whole Whole Whole Whole Whole Whole Whole

Not washed Washed Washed Washed Washed Washed Washed Not washed Washed Washed Not washed Washed Washed Washed Not washed Not washed

1400e1600 1400e1600 1400e1600 1400e1600 1400e1600 Post-1600 Post-1600 1400e1600 1400e1600 Post-1600 Post-1600 1400e1600 1200e1400 Not known Not known Historic

TP46

I

Periglypta reticulata

Whole

Not washed

Historic

TP45

II

Periglypta reticulata

Whole

Not washed

Probably historic

None

Surface

Periglypta reticulata

Whole

Washed

Not known

Area B TP45

Surface surface

Cypraeidae Cypraeidae

Fragment Whole

Washed Not washed

Not known Not known

Unit C11

I

Pinctada margaritifera

Whole

Washed

Post-1600

TP16

IIIa

Pycnodonta hyotis

Whole

Washed

Post-1600

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Fig. 1. Marquesas Islands, Nuku Hiva Island and Anaho Valley (IKONOS satellite image).

The remaining 19 Marquesan specimens are simple (unmodified) bivalve tools, mostly bearing use-wear that is consistent with scraping activities but which also could have been used for cutting (Fig. 7). Two species are represented: Codakia punctata or koata (Marquesan) (n ¼ 14) of the family Lucinidae and Periglypta reticulata (Marquesan name not known) (n ¼ 5), a species of Veneridae. Specimen Acc. 657, a simple Periglypta tool, has a centrally placed hole of w1 cm diameter which may have been for suspension (see below). Unmodified shells like those examined here were important scraping and cutting tools throughout Polynesia. Ethnographic accounts describe their use in cutting hair, wood, and umbilical cords, and sometimes skin scarification. Kirch and Green (2001, Table 6.2) reconstruct kasi as the Proto-Polynesian term for bivalve scrapers. Buck (1930: 109) maintains that Samoan kitchen ‘asi were made from coconut shells and used to peel breadfruit, yams, and taro but shell ‘asi might be used to scrape paper mulberry bark (Broussonetia papyrifera) for tapa (bark-cloth) production. Whistler (2009: 79) notes that shell ‘asi are now being replaced by tin can equivalents. One late 19th century Samoan reference suggests shell scrapers also may have been used in kava preparation (Fraser and Pratt, 1891: 123). New Zealand Maori used simple shell tools for tasks as varied as peeling tubers, fruits, and rhizomes; preparing weaving materials such as flax; removing flesh from human bone; and scaling fish (Harsant, 1978, 1983; Davidson and Leach, 2000: 35). Archaeologically, simple shell tools have a wide geographic distribution and a long history in the Pacific, dating from the early Holocene in Near Oceania. In addition to the species represented in the present study, Arca, Gafarium, mussels, and Pecten also were

used in a similar manner in many parts of Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. Residue analyses indicate that New Ireland bivalve tools dating from the early Holocene were associated with processing of starchy aroid corms, consistent with ethnographic accounts from the same area (Barton and White, 1993). Simple bivalve tools also have been identified from several West Polynesian sites (Burley, 1998: 356; Kirch, 1988: 208; Poulsen, 1969, 1987; Smith, 1991) but not analysed for residues. Microwear and residue studies of bivalve tools from Polynesian occupations on Norfolk Island indicate use in fish scaling and vegetable scraping (Schmidt et al., 2001). Suggs (1961: 123) reports Marquesan oyster “scraperknives” which sound similar to the tools described above but unfortunately they are not illustrated. He notes that scraper-knives, sometimes perforated and attached to a belt, have a wide distribution, from New Caledonia to Hawai‘i, and a range of taxa (mostly bivalves) were utilised, often in preparation of root crops, coconut, or bark-cloth. At the Marquesan site of Hanapete‘o, Skjølsvold (1972: 32e33, Fig. 21) recovered roughly worked, round to oval, shell disks which he interpreted as scrapers, including pieces of Turbo, Cypraea, and a Strombus or Cassis specimen. Ussher (2009) conducted a wear analysis on the present Marquesan assemblage of 19 simple bivalve tools. Her study suggests that these specimens were applied to materials of variable hardness. Some are exceptionally worn (e.g., Acc. 1366 and 6348), while others have very little wear (Acc. 1367). Specimens Acc. 1366, 1370, 1375, and 6194 display linear wear along their lateral edges, but most valves are worn either at the distal end or continuously along most of the margin (see examples in Fig. 7).

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Fig. 2. Anaho Valley, view to southwest.

This brief, non-comprehensive review places the three tool types analysed here (peelers, graters, and scraper-cutting tools) within their larger regional context. Moreover it allows for hypotheses as to the kinds of starch that are most likely to be recovered from each tool type. For example, the strong association of cowrie shell peelers with breadfruit processing, and graters with production of coconut cream, suggest that specific starch taxa will be recovered from these two tool types. In contrast, given ethnographic uses of simple bivalve tools, a variety of starch types might be anticipated for this tool form. Starch analysis also was seen as a way to test Suggs’ (1961) idea that the increasing abundance of cowrie peelers in Marquesan sites over time reflects the growing importance of breadfruit production. 3. Archaeological contexts of samples The shell tools come from seven archaeological proveniences on Nuku Hiva, the largest of the Marquesan Islands (Fig. 1, Table 1). Most were recovered in Anaho Valley where MSA has an on-going field program (Allen, 2004, 2009). Located on the northeast coast, Anaho is a relatively small, moderately dry valley, with arid habitats to the north and mesic ones to the south (Fig. 2). Today the valley is sparsely inhabited but remnants of the traditional arboriculture system persist, including Cocos nucifera (coconut), A. altilis (breadfruit), Inocarpus fagifer (Tahitian chestnut), and Schizostachyum glaucifolium (Polynesian bamboo). Fourteen tools derive from excavations on the coastal flat at the northern end of Anaho Valley, an area known as Teavau‘ua, where three cultural layers were identified in excavation (Fig. 3; Allen,

2004, 2009). Radiocarbon dating places the earliest (Layer IV) in the period AD 1200e1400. Activities at this time appear short-term and centred on marine resource gathering, fishhook production, and stone tool manufacture, mostly using locally available basalts (Allen, 2004; McAlister, 2011). The subsequent occupation (Layer IIIb) focused on a similar range of activities, but appears more extended in character with evidence for structures and large stoneencircled earth ovens. This stratum dates to ca. AD 1400e1600. The most recent stratum, Layer IIIa, is historic and probably dates to the late 1800s based on the associated artefacts; it may be related to establishment of the local coconut plantation, which is now quite aged. Another four tools come from a large (17  10 m) elite residential site located on the coast in the southern part of the valley (Structure 2) (Fig. 3). Dominated by a dry stone masonry platform with massive facing boulders of exotic red tuff, this site is associated with a named elite, Chiefess Kaniho, who apparently lived in the 1800s. Although earlier cultural activities are indicated below the platform, the artefacts considered here are associated with the surface structure. Four other specimens are single finds from other locations. One was recovered in excavation from Structure 16, a low stone platform (6.1  5.1 m) adjacent to the Teavau‘ua Stream outlet and a natural spring (Fig. 3). Radiocarbon dating places the platform in the post-1600 period, while the suite of artefacts recovered in excavation suggests occupation during the prehistoric period. As with the foregoing, this structure is associated with a known individual, in this case a famous warrior; the structure morphology is suggestive of a domestic residence (see Allen, 2009). A second bivalve tool came from a surface scatter of faunal remains and artifacts (Feature 277), while a third derived from the surface of Structure 336, a low pavement of uncertain function, late prehistoric in age, and located alongside the dry Teavau‘ua streambed (Fig. 3). The sole pearl-shell grater comes from an excavation unit in front of a platform (Structure 13) that is consistent with traditional house foundations in terms of size (8.2  7.2 m) and stylistic features. Two radiocarbon samples associated with this site indicate a post-1600 AD age and while the bulk of the excavated artefact assemblage was traditional, recovery of a single fragment of crockery and a few nails suggest site use into (or during) the early historic period. Finally, the last of the 19 simple bivalve tools was recovered from a surface context in Ha‘ataivea Valley, located northeast of Anaho (Fig. 1). Indications are that this very dry valley probably had little permanent occupation (see also Suggs, 1961). However, eroding sites on the coast with bone, shell, and evidence of fishhook manufacture suggest it was an important area for the gathering of marine resources and a source of tool quality stone is located on the western side of the bay (Suggs, 1961: 67). Additionally, a thick seam of red tuff, found in an exposure along the eastern side of the bay, was a source of decorative stone used to face domestic house platforms, especially those belonging to elites (Suggs, 1961: 66e7), as for example Structure 2 described above. 4. Methods The sample of tools considered here was collected over the course of multiple field seasons and prior to design of the starch study. Eight specimens had been specifically set aside for residue analysis and were not washed or otherwise processed (Table 1). The remaining samples had been cleaned prior to this analysis but were stored in individual bags. During the analysis, the samples were handled with gloves, processed with distilled water, disposable plastic pipettes, and a variety of other precautions taken to avoid external and cross-specimen contamination (see Ussher, 2009).

Fig. 3. Site locations in Anaho Valley; cross-hatching indicates the approximate extent of the subsurface occupation layers at Teavau‘ua.

Fig. 4. Marquesan Cypraeidae (cowrie) shell peeler (Acc. 6222).

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Fig. 5. Pinctada margaritifera (Black-lip pearl oyster) grater (Acc. 4138).

4.1. Starch extraction Two methods were used to extract the starch residues. Initially, tool surfaces were observed at 200 magnification using a reflected light microscope. Starch locations were identified and these areas then targeted for starch extraction (after Fullagar, 2006; Loy, 1994). This involved pipetting around 40 ml of distilled water onto the tool surface, agitating and loosening the residues with the pipette tip, and then drawing the released material back into the pipette. The extracted material was then transferred to a clean slide and allowed to dry at room temperature in a protected place before sealing with a cover-slip. Following this, an ultrasonic bath was used to recover any remaining starch (following procedures in Pearsall et al., 2004). Initially the tool margins were immersed into w3 ml of distilled water within a sterilised petri dish. The dish was held on the surface of the filled and active ultrasonic bath for around 2 min, allowing the vibrations to release the residues. The material in the dish was then pipetted onto slides. Following this, each shell artefact was placed in a small zip-lock bag and covered with distilled water. The bags were then placed within a mesh pocket within the bath and agitated for 2 min or until the shells appeared clean. Samples of the distilled water solution were pipetted onto slides. 4.2. Starch identification The starch identifications are based on systematic comparisons with a reference collection of 25 plant species which included both

Polynesian introductions to the Marquesas and native species with recorded economic uses, as identified by Whistler (2009; see also Ferdon, 1993). Fifteen of the reference specimens were collected by Dr. Carol Lentfer from Indonesia and another ten by EU from Australia, French Polynesia and New Zealand (Table 2). Following collection, voucher specimens were prepared and each organ of the plant was sampled for starch (following Field, 2006). These vouchers are now lodged at the University of Queensland (Lentfer) and the University of Auckland (Ussher). Additionally, published accounts of starch granule morphology were consulted, as for example Fullagar et al. (2006), Horrocks and Wozniak (2008), Lentfer et al. (2002), Loy et al. (1992), and Torrence et al. (2004). Starch from a few non-economic species (e.g., grass and the herbaceous Ipomoea pes-caprae) also were considered during the analysis to assess the possibility of contamination from background vegetation. Although the focus of this study was on starch from traditional Polynesian economic plants (food and utilitarian species), a few post-contact economic species also were considered (see Table 2). In general a conservative approach was taken to identification and only the most confident determinations are reported here. The starch residues were identified through an iterative process that involved three approaches. Initially, an attempt was made to identify granules on the basis of length alone. This process was facilitated by the use of an Axiocam LiveÓ set-up with both brightfield and cross-polarised light using 200 and 400 magnification, a system which allowed grains to be accurately measured to 0.01 mm. For each reference specimen, length was measured to the nearest mm for 20 granules to establish the range and mean of their

Fig. 6. Chipped Pycnodonta hyotis (oyster) disc of uncertain function (Acc. 1371).

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2805

Fig. 7. Simple bivalve tools (prior to starch analysis). Periglypta tools: a) Acc. 6237, b) Acc. 6348, c) Acc. 5527; Codakia tools: d) Acc. 3189; e): Acc. 6072; f) Acc. 6194.

starch. Three size groups were apparent: small (0e5 mm), medium (6e40 mm) and large (>40 mm) (Fig. 8). Most starch fell into the medium size range, but yams (Dioscoreaceae) were distinctive in being larger on average than most other species, while the aroids (Araceae) were smaller than most other taxa (see also Fullagar et al., 2006; Loy et al., 1992). For the archaeological tools, starch granule ranges and means were established for the assemblage as a whole, following Cosgrove et al. (2007). In an attempt to further distinguish species, particularly those in the medium-size group, other attributes of potential taxonomic value were considered (Table 3), drawing on criteria outlined in Lentfer (2009), Lentfer et al. (2002), and Torrence et al. (2004). Along with maximum length, these included two-dimensional grain shape, three-dimensional grain shape, protrusions, faceting, surface texture and lamellae. Features of the hilum, the developmental origin for the granule, were observed under cross-polarised light, including birefringence patterns which produce the distinctive dark ‘Maltese cross’ (Banks and Greenwood, 1975; Loy, 1994: 89). These included hilum type, position, and fissuring. Fifty granules from each reference specimen were characterised on the basis of these attributes and reference photos taken of diagnostic granules. Given the considerable number of possible combinations that might arise from the foregoing attribute analysis, linear Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) of the SYSTAT 10.0 program was used to systematically and objectively distinguish groups with similar features (following Torrence et al., 2004). These were then further

assessed using Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM). As a first step the reference taxa were analysed using the nominal variables detailed in Table 3. The expectation was that the DFA analysis would classify the reference starch into groups equivalent to species at the rate of 100%. However, the results were more equivocal. When viewed end-on (centric view), DFA correctly classified 35e40% of the reference starch to taxa of origin. Side-on or eccentric view results were more useful, on average correctly assigning 68% of the granules to taxon of origin (e.g., Table 4; see also Ussher, 2009: 109, 114). Three taxa that were accurately reclassified by DFA with some consistency (approaching 100%) were Aleurites moluccana (candlenut), I. batatas, and I. pes-caprae (wild beach morning glory). Overall, the reclassification rate of this study was broadly comparable to that of Torrence et al. (2004: 524) who achieved a 69% reclassification rate for eccentric view granules using 18 attributes, including several metric ones. Given the foregoing results, DFA analysis of the archaeological starches was limited to characters related to eccentric views. Subsequent use of high resolution ESEM images helped to refine reference specimen descriptions, particularly threedimensional shapes, faceting features and hilum forms. They also allowed for more confident identification of “signature starch types” for each reference taxon. These results were used to crosscheck and refine taxonomic assignments of archaeological granules made on the basis of length and DFA, and eliminate granules from further consideration which had ambiguous or contradictory assignments.

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Table 2 Inventory of the reference collection used in this analysis. Family

Genus and species

Collection localitya

Part used

Biogeographic statusb

Anacardiaceae Araceae

Spondias dulcis Alocasia macrorrhiza Colocasia esculenta Cyrtosperma chamissonis Xanthosoma sagittifolium Cocos nucifera Barringtonia asiatica Ipomoea batatas I. pes-caprae Dioscorea alata D. bulbifera D. pentaphylla Aleurites moluccana Erythrina sp. Inocarpus fagifer Hibiscus tiliaceus Thespesia populnea Artocarpus altilis Broussonetia papyrifera Musa sp. Piper methysticum Paspalum conjugatum Morinda citrifolia Curcuma longa Zingiber zerumbet

Marquesas Is. Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Marquesas Is. Indonesia Australia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Marquesas Is. Australia Indonesia Indonesia New Zealand Indonesia Marquesas Is. Australia Indonesia Marquesas Is. Society Is.

Fruit Corm Corm Corm Corm Nut Fruit Tuber Not used Tuber Tuber Tuber Seed Bark Seed Bast, flowers Bark, fruit Fruit Bast Fruit Roots Not used Fruit Rhizome Rhizome

Historic? (see Crook, 2007) Polynesian Polynesian Polynesian? Historic Indigenous & Polynesian? Indigenous Polynesian Indigenous Polynesian Polynesian Polynesian Polynesian Indigenous Polynesian Indigenous Indigenous? Polynesian Polynesian Polynesian Polynesian Historic Polynesian Polynesian Polynesian

Aracaceae Barringtoniaceae Convovulaceae Dioscoreaceae

Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Malvaceae Moraceae Musaceae Piperaceae Poaceae Rubiaceae Zingiberaceae a

Collections from Indonesia are courtesy of Dr. Carol Lentfer. Biogeographic status with respect to the Marquesas Islands follows Whistler (2009, Table 9) foremost, using Brown (1931, 1935) as a supplementary source; question marks indicate uncertainty about how or when a given plant arrived in the islands. b

5. Results Overall, 108 starch granules were extracted from 17 of the 23 shell artefacts and in 13 cases some proportion of the starch was identifiable (Table 5). Starch also was observed on, but could not be extracted from, bivalve specimen Acc. 657. Starch was somewhat more abundant on specimens that had not been cleaned prior to

the starch analysis, highlighting the value of selecting specimens for residue study early on, preferably during field work so that the associated sediments also can be sampled. In the present analysis, starch preservation varied from intact starch granules to split, torn and gelatinised specimens. Although several taxa were suggested, many could not be confidently assigned to a particular taxon using the techniques outlined here and with the reference collection

Fig. 8. Box plot showing range and mean of starch granule lengths (mm), with individual reference taxa plotted on the left and archaeologically recovered starch assemblages (all extracted starch), by tool, on the right.

See Ussher, 2009.

available at the time. Five taxa were confidently identified, all traditional crop plants, and are described below in terms of their diagnostic attributes. Dioscorea species (yam) starch has been previously described and illustrated by several authors (e.g., Fullagar et al., 2006; Horrocks and Wozniak, 2008). Typically in excess of 40 mm and up to 100 mm in length, the starch of Dioscorea pentaphylla (Fivefingered Yam) is the largest of the four species found in East Polynesia, and is characterised by mostly conical (3-D) granules with a protrusion at the hyper-eccentric hilum. Lamellae are visible on all granules (Fig. 9) (see also Horrocks and Wozniak, 2008: 137). Both Dioscorea alata (Greater Yam) and Dioscorea nummularia (Spiny Yam) have smaller starch granules, being less than 60 mm and 50 mm in length respectively. The former is typified by ovoid granules with a small vacuole (Horrocks and Wozniak, 2008: 137), while D. nummularia includes granules that are ovate in 2-D shape, and conical in 3-D shape with marked lamellae. Dioscorea bulbifera (Wild Bitter Yam) granules tend to be even smaller, generally between 20 and 30 mm in length, and are triangular (2-D) or conical (3-D) when observed in eccentric or side-on views (Fig. 9GeI). Compound granules are very rare in most Dioscorea species. The large granules recovered on these tools are most consistent with D. alata (Fig. 10CeD). Piper methysticum (kava) starch is one of the intermediate size granules, ranging in size from 8 to 26 mm. They are, however, distinctive in their morphology, being slightly ovoid or bell-shaped (3-D shape) and having both large vacuoles and stellate or simple straight fissuring at the hilum; this fissuring can result in a wrinkled surface texture. Most granules only display single flat faceting.

65 25 100 62 40 13 43 64 43 93 59 88 38 58 57 Overall average ¼ 60% 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 8 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 6 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 2 9 5 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 0 10 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 2 0 15 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 11 1 0 0 3 3 4 0 7 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 19

a

0 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5

Protrusions Present Absent Facets None Flat Concave Multi-faceted flat Multi-faceted concave

0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

Hilum fissure form None Stellate Simple Open Slot Open irregular Tri Disc

0 0 0 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6

3-D granule shape 21 shapes recognizeda

Hilum type Large vacuole Small vacuole Crystal Slot Absent

0 0 0 8 2 9 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24

2-D granule shape Subround Round Ovate Sub-ovate Bell Polygonal Triangular Irregular

Hilum position Eccentric Centric Hypercentric

0 1 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 40

Granule size in microns (mm)

Lamellae Present Absent

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 4

Granule type Simple Compound Semi-compound

Surface texture Wrinkled Smooth

A. macrorrhiza 30 A. altilis 0 B. asiatica 0 C. longa 0 D. alata 1 D. bulbifera 1 D. pentaphylla 0 Musa sp. 0 H. tiliaceus 0 I. batatas 0 P. conjugatum 4 P. methysticum 0 S. dulcis 2 T. populnea 0 Z. zerumbet 0 Number of 38 grains

Abundance Absent Rare Common Abundant Very abundant

A. macrorrhiza A. altilis B. asiatica C. longa D. alata D. bulbifera D. pentaphylla Musa sp. H. tiliaceus I. batatas P. conjugatum P. methysticum S. dulcis T. populnea Z. zerumbet % Correctly assigned

Table 3 Descriptive variables and values used in the present study (based on Lentfer, 2009).

Table 4 Example of a Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) classification matrix. Taxonomic assignments, based on side-on (eccentric) view attributes, are shown for a test sample of reference collection starch; note that only 15 of the 25 reference taxa are included in this particular test.

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Table 5 Starch results by technique (specimens arranged by number of extracted granules). Acc. No.

Identifications by technique

Summary determinations

No. extracted granules

No. observed morphotypesa

24

6

17

3

11

4

10 9

4 3

None None None None Piper methysticum None None None None None None None None None

Dioscorea cf. alata Ipomoea batatas Dioscorea cf. alata Ipomoea batatas Ipomoea batatas Piper methysticum Piper methysticum Artocarpus altilis Colocasia esculenta Dioscorea cf. alata Ipomoea batatas Ipomoea batatas Dioscorea cf. alata None Piper methysticum Piper methysticum Artocarpus altilis None None None None None None None

6 5 5 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

3 3 3 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Piper methysticum None

None None

Piper methysticum Colocasia esculenta

4 3

2 2

None

None

None

None

0

0

None

None

None

None

0

0

Granule length

DFA

ESEM

Scrapers/cutters 6237 Dioscorea sp.

Ipomoea batatas

None

6194

Dioscorea sp.

Ipomoea batatas

Dioscorea cf. alata

1367

None

Ipomoea batatas

Piper methysticum

6072 1375

None None

Piper methysticum Artocarpus altilis

None Dioscorea cf. alata Colocasia esculenta

3193 1372 1373 5527 6348 1376 1368 5522 1366 1369 1370 657 1374 3189 Peelers 5201 6222 Grater 4138 Other 1371

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

Ipomoea batatas Ipomoea batatas Dioscorea cf. alata None None Piper methysticum Artocarpus altilis None None None None None None None

None Colocasia esculenta

a

As observed in extracted materials.

Compound clusters of three granules are sometimes found and lamellae are often visible (Fig. 9DeF). Colocasia esculenta (taro) starch was identified primarily on the basis of the very small size of the granules, which are mostly under 5 mm in length, and their flat multi-faceted morphology which is a result of their formation as clusters of compound granules that separate to become simple granules. The shape of these grains is most often polygonal in 2-D view, and polyhedral in 3-D view, while lamellae are lacking (see also Horrocks and Wozniak, 2008; Lentfer, 2009: 89). A. altilis (breadfruit) granules are slightly larger than taro at 4e 12 mm, and can be further distinguished by their multiple curved or faceted edges and open vacuoles that give the granules an overall wrinkled appearance. The most common shapes are bell or polygonal (2-D), and polyhedral, bell or hemispherical (3-D). The granules lack visible lamellae. Although technically compound granules (Loos et al., 1981), the archaeological examples were almost always fractured into smaller segments. I. batatas (sweet potato) starch is typically 8e30 mm in length. These granules are further characterised by their overall spherical, bell-shaped or triangular-ovoid morphology, the presence of two or more pressure facets and small vacuoles at the hilum. Lamellae are usually not observed on these simple granules (Fig. 9AeC and Fig. 10AeB) (see also Horrocks et al., 2004, Fig. 2; Horrocks and Wozniak, 2008; Loy et al., 1992).

2009; Lentfer, 2009; Lentfer et al., 2002; Torrence et al., 2004). We trialled use of both multiple variables and linear DFA in an effort to objectively and systematically assign archaeological starches to taxa, and achieved moderate success. We also found that high resolution ESEM imagery was useful in initial characterisation of reference starch, prior to statistical analyses, and as a cross-check of assignments made by DFA. In the future, inclusion of metric variables other than length, as suggested by Torrence et al. (2004), might aid assignment of intermediate size morphotypes, such as those observed but not assigned to taxon in the present study. Future work also might be aided by the use of automated image analysis software, an approach that allows for detailed and objective consideration of morphological variation both within and between species (Saul et al., 2012; Tromp, 2012; Wilson et al., 2010). However, as Wilson et al. (2010) emphasise, use of both image analysis software and multivariate statistics is essentially a process of elimination that involves comparing an unknown assemblage of starch granules to a finite set of reference species, essentially ‘best fit’ methods of classification. This underscores the importance of developing comprehensive reference collections which include both economic plants and native taxa (e.g., Lentfer, 2009) and efforts are underway (by EU) to expand on the reference collection used here. Future research might further consider starches from European-introduced crops and their occurrence on traditional shell tools or their historic material replacements.

6. Discussion

6.2. Starch residues and tool function

6.1. Starch identification

The recovered starch residues provide novel insights into Marquesan tool use in relation to plant processing. The Polynesian historic and ethnographic literature describes a number of plants which were processed by scraping (removal of the outer skin or

Recent studies demonstrate the benefits of diverse multivariate morphometric approaches to starch identification (e.g., Field et al.,

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Fig. 9. Examples of reference collection starch (C, F, I and L are ESEM images, all others are light microscopy photos, with and without polarizing filters). AeC: Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato); DeF: Piper methysticum (kava); GeI: Dioscorea bulbifera (wild bitter yam); JeL: Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit).

bark) or grating (shredding of soft flesh). It is therefore not surprising that the starch of some of these same taxa was recovered from the present tool assemblage. For example, breadfruit was typically peeled before being further processed for long-term storage and dryland taro might be peeled, grated and mixed with coconut cream prior to baking in earth ovens (Ferdon, 1993: 59). Similarly, the recovery of P. methysticum starch is consistent with Fraser and Pratt’s (1891: 123) account of shell tools being used in kava preparation (see above). In other cases, starch occurrences across the three tool types (peelers, graters, and scraper-cutting tools) were not as predicted. No starch was recovered from the pearl-shell grater (Acc. 4138), which ethnographic sources suggest would have been used in coconut processing. However, this tool may have been unfinished and coconut meat has less starch than many tubers or corms. Starch also was not recovered from three Codakia tools (Acc. 1370, 1374, and 3189) despite wear patterns suggesting use, although not necessarily on plants. These negative results need to be interpreted with caution, however, as the above four specimens had been washed prior to the starch analysis. Unidentified starch was observed on Specimen 657 in cross-polarised light, but attempts at extraction were unsuccessful (hence the lack of starch indicated in Table 5) for reasons which are not clear.

Neither of the two cowrie shell peelers produced breadfruit starch as ethnographic accounts imply should have been the case. Large amounts of starch (two morphotypes) were observed on the whole specimen (Acc. 6222) and the very small size suggests that the starch is C. esculenta. The other cowrie peeler fragment (Acc. 5201) produced starch that was too large to be A. altilis, and at least one of the two morphotypes on this tool was consistent with P. methysticum. These results indicate that tools identified as functionally specific by ethnographic accounts, as for example the cowrie shell “breadfruit peelers”, were at least occasionally used to process other plants and the possibility that use of these tools changed over time cannot be discounted. As the foregoing suggests, a variety of starches was associated with the simple bivalve tools. Codakia specimens (n ¼ 14) were more common than those of Periglypta (n ¼ 5). The two bivalves are similar in overall shape but Periglypta have a more strongly ribbed dorsal surface, while Codakia valves are ribbed but less rugose. Ussher (2009: 121) points out that morphological differences between the two taxa require different grips and “angles of tilt”, features that may have figured in the selection of one shell species over the other. The wear on two of the three Periglypta tools (Acc. 6348 and 1372; see Fig. 7) is suggestive of use on hard surfaces, for example, wood. The starches are not particularly supportive of this

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Periglypta tools. The recovery of all five of the identified starch taxa from this tool assemblage is consistent with other excavated evidence, including two large ovens, shellfish, and bones of fish, turtle, and other vertebrates, which identify this as a food preparation and cooking area (Allen, 2004). Four crop starches were represented at the elite Kaniho residence; surprisingly the missing taxon was A. altilis. As at Teavau‘ua the abundance of faunal material from the same contexts suggests that food preparation was important here. One expectation was that kava starch might be limited to elite sites. This taxon was identified from a Periglypta specimen (Acc. 6348) at the Kaniho site, but it also appeared on tools from the post-1600 AD stratum (Layer IIIa) at Teavau‘ua, and on a simple bivalve tool derived from the surface of Structure 336, a small, low pavement near Teavau‘ua Stream. Although no definitive conclusions can be derived from the small sample of tools examined here, the results indicate that kava preparation, if not consumption, took place at multiple locations, and was not restricted to elite contexts. 6.4. Translocated plants and the evolving Marquesan agroeconomy

Fig. 10. Archaeological starch extracted from shell tools. Light microscopy images were taken without (A and C) and with polarising filters (B and D). AeB: Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato); CeD: Dioscorea cf. alata (greater yam).

interpretation, with bivalve tool Acc. 6348 producing Piper starch and Acc. 1372 evidencing Ipomoea starch; however, the recovered starches may relate only to the last episode of use. A larger sample of tools is needed to more fully assess relationships between starch types and shell morphology. The starch residues also indicate variability in terms of the numbers of plants to which any given tool was applied. Some tools were associated with only one or two plant taxa. Others were multi-functional, as for example Acc. 6237 from the elite Kaniho complex which produced multiple starch morphotypes (see Table 5). 6.3. Spatial patterning in plant processing The majority of the tools derive from one of two localities: the buried occupation layers of Teavau‘ua and the late prehistoric complex of Chiefess Kaniho (Structure 2). Eleven of the 14 Teavaua‘a specimens were Codakia valves, compared with two

These finds provide empirical evidence for the introduction of four crop plants to the Marquesas Islands during the prehistoric period, with a fifth dated to the post-1600 AD period (Table 6). Four of these are known from historical sources as traditional Marquesan staple carbohydrates (Crook, 2007; Ferdon, 1993; Robarts, 1974): I. batatas (sweet potato), A. altilis (breadfruit), Dioscorea cf. alata (yam) and C. esculenta (taro). The roots of the fifth, P. methysticum or kava, were used to make a sedative drink, which was important in ritual, ceremonial and social contexts. Apparently Piper was sufficiently important in the Marquesas that it was sometimes grown in plantations, at least some of which were reserved for chiefly use (Handy, 1923: 182). The ubiquity or occurrence of starch taxa across the tool assemblage (Table 6) also is of interest. I. batatas (sweet potato) was one of the most common starches, being found on five implements. This was an unexpected result as is it not generally considered a particularly important Marquesan food. P. methysticum also was found on five implements. Again this was unanticipated, as we predicted that processing of this intoxicating beverage plant would be limited to elite contexts. Dioscorea starch was recovered from four tools, while A. altilis and C. esculenta were each found on two tools. Perhaps the most remarkable finding is the limited recovery of A. altilis whose importance is so strongly attested by early historic sources (e.g., Crook, 2007: 73; Ferdon, 1993; Handy, 1923). At the same time, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first archaeological record of breadfruit starch in Polynesia. The limited

Table 6 Summary of starch types by time period. Acc. No.

Ipomoea batatas

Piper methysticum

3193 1367 1373 1368 1372 1376 1375 6194 6237 6348 5201 6072 6222 Ubiquity (out of 13)

: :

:

Dioscorea sp(p)

Artocarpus altilis

Colocasia esculenta

General time period AD 1200e1400 1400e1600 1400e1600 1400e1600 Post-1600 Post-1600 Post-1600 Historic Historic Probably historic Not known Not known Not known

: : : : : :

: : :

:

:

.30

.15

: .15

: : : .38

.38

M.S. Allen, E. Ussher / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 2799e2812

identification of breadfruit, both in our study and elsewhere, raises the possibility that taphonomic factors (e.g., poor preservation) might adversely affect breadfruit starch. Although the occurrence of these crop starches does not necessarily indicate cultivation in Anaho Valley, this is the most parsimonious explanation for their presence and all would have been accommodated by local edaphic and climatic conditions. I. batatas and Dioscorea would have been ideal crops for the valley’s drier northern slopes where terracing is common, and P. methysticum would have been at home on the margins of small intermittent streams, especially in the moister southern areas of the valley. Dry C. esculenta could have been cultivated in a series of low stone-faced terraces which parallel Teavau‘ua Stream, while wet taro was in all likelihood favoured in the southern valley areas where small terrace sets occur in narrow sub-valleys along stream courses which frequently flow following heavy rains. With respect to A. altilis or breadfruit, Anaho Valley may have been a less than ideal environment for this species; however, trees persist in the valley today despite few permanent residents and its charcoal has been identified from local archaeological features (J. Huebert, pers. comm., 2011). The documentation of sweet potato starch from the 14th century and possibly as early as 13th century based on the 2s age range of multiple dates (details in Allen and McAlister, 2010, Table 3) is significant. This is consistent with evidence from elsewhere in the region which indicates that sweet potato was in place prior to Spanish intrusions in the late 16th century AD. Hather and Kirch (1991) argued some time ago that it arrived in the Cook Islands in the 11th century AD, although this early age assignment has yet to be confirmed with dates on short-lived materials (see Allen and Wallace, 2007). In the present study, sweet potato starch also was confidently identified on tools from the 16th and post-17th century occupation layers of the Teavau‘ua site, and at the historic chiefly complex of Kaniho. Ferdon (1993: 87) previously suggested that sweet potato production increased in importance in the postcontact period, in response to Euro-American demands for ship provisions. While this possibility cannot be resolved with the current results, our findings hint that I. batatas may have been more important generally than is typically recognised. Three other taxa date from at least the 16th century AD, but could be as early as the 15th century based on the associated radiocarbon dates. These include P. methysticum, Dioscorea cf. alata, and A. altilis. None of these records are unexpected but they do provide empirical evidence for the antiquity of these translocated crop plants. Moreover, the suite of 16th century starch finds, as a whole, point to a mixed cultivation system which included both root crops and arboreal elements, annuals and perennials. 7. Conclusions Our success in identifying and extracting starch residues from 17 out of 23 specimens points to the potential of shell tools to provide novel information on Polynesian tool use, site activities, and the history of crop plants. Five cultivated species were identified with some confidence, through a combination of metric and qualitative attributes, with Discriminant Function Analysis and Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy being especially useful in making final determinations. The recovered residues reveal that the peeling, grating and scraping tools analysed here were commonly applied to plants but not necessarily those predicted from ethnographic accounts. This finding suggests that using these kinds of tools as a basis for reconstructing past agronomic activities, such as the rise of breadfruit cultivation, may be problematic. The tools acquired from stratigraphic contexts are also useful in providing terminus ante quem dates for the introduction of specific crops to the Marquesas Islands. Five significant crop plants

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previously known mainly from post-contact observations have been archaeologically documented, four for the first time in this archipelago: I. batatas, P. methysticum, C. esculenta, and one or more species of yam (Dioscorea cf. alata). Although this is the first archaeological report of Marquesan breadfruit starch, wood charcoal from this species has been recovered from several prehistoric contexts (J. Huebert, pers. comm., 2011; Millerstrom and Coil, 2008). The recovery of I. batatas starch is of particular note. Dating from the 14th century AD, it is consistent with regional evidence which points to East Polynesians acquiring sweet potato from South America relatively early in the regional settlement sequence and before colonisation of New Zealand in the late 13th century AD. The relative frequency of sweet potato starch at Anaho, on five tools from varied chronological and functional contexts, raises the possibility that this crop was more important than some historic accounts suggest, particularly in dry to mesic areas. This study extends other recent work in the Polynesian region which has focused mainly on starch extraction from sediments in contexts related to agricultural activities (e.g., Horrocks et al., 2011; Horrocks and Rechtman, 2009; Horrocks and Wozniak, 2008). The analysis of starch residues on tools not only complements these agriculturally oriented studies by providing additional information on crop introductions and agronomic histories, but informs on plant processing practices, activity areas, site functions, and patterns of tool use. Larger tool assemblages derived from a cross-section of environmental and functional contexts would be a particularly interesting avenue for future research. Microbotanical studies are making considerable contributions to global prehistories, particularly in regions where other archaeobotanical remains may be limited. Acknowledgements The assemblages used in this analysis were collected over several field seasons by MSA and the residues extracted and identified by EU; some of the original identifications of Ussher (2009) have been revised based on additional reference collections and new observations. Carol Lentfer is thanked for her considerable assistance to EU, which included training in starch analysis, access to her comparative collections, and development of starch descriptors. Bruce Floyd’s assistance to EU with the Discriminant Function Analysis is much appreciated. We both thank Robin Torrence for starch analysis advice. The Marquesan field studies and radiocarbon dates were supported by grants to MSA from National Geographic Society, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Australian Institute of Nuclear Sciences and Engineering, Ltd. (Award 06/002), Green Foundation for Polynesian Research, University of Auckland Research Committee, and Research Centre for Surface and Materials Science. Patricia Frogier, Belona Mou and Tamara Maric are thanked for assistance with permits and collections, and Mayor Yvonne Katupa (Hatiheu) and our Marquesan friends and hosts for their support. The graphic assistance of Tim Mackrell, Briar Sefton, Andrew McAlister, and Mara Mulrooney is much appreciated. Thanks also to Robin Torrence, Thegn Ladefoged and an anonymous reviewer for their comments on an earlier draft. References Addison, D., 2006. Feast or Famine? Predictability, Drought, Density, and Irrigation: the Archaeology of Agriculture in Marquesas Islands Valleys. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawai‘i, Honolulu. Allen, M.S., 2003. Style and function in East Polynesian fishhooks. In: O’Brien, M., Lyman, L. (Eds.), Style, Function, Transmission: Evolutionary Archaeological Perspectives. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, pp. 119e138. Allen, M.S., 2004. Revisiting and revising Marquesan culture history: new archaeological investigations at Anaho Bay, Nuku Hiva Island. Journal of the Polynesian Society 113, 143e196. Errata, including Table 6, published in 113, 224e225.

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