Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective

Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Pollution Bulletin journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective Jyun-Long Chen a, Hsiang-Hsi Liu b,⇑, Ching-Ta Chuang c a

Marine Fisheries Division, Fisheries Research Institute, Council of Agriculture, Taiwan Graduate Institute of International Business, National Taipei University, Taiwan c Institute of Marine Affairs and Resources Management, National Taiwan Ocean University, Taiwan b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 29 April 2015 Revised 6 July 2015 Accepted 9 July 2015 Available online xxxx Keywords: Social marketing Communication Offshore wind farm Stakeholders Taiwan

a b s t r a c t This study aims to improve the current inefficiency and ineffectiveness of communications among stakeholders when planning and constructing offshore wind farms (OWFs). An analysis using a social marketing approach with segmentation techniques is used to identify the target market based on stakeholders’ perceptions. The empirical results identify three stakeholder segments: (1) impact-attend group; (2) comprehensive group; and (3) benefit-attend group. The results suggest that communication should be implemented to alter stakeholders’ attitudes toward the construction of OWFs. Furthermore, based on the results of segmentation, target markets are identified to plan the communication strategies for reducing the conflicts among stakeholders of OWF construction. The results also indicated that in the planning phase of construction for OWFs, effective stakeholder participation and policy communication can enhance the perception of benefits to reduce conflict with local communities and ocean users. Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Social marketing is a managerial approach to improving traditional top-down and one-way communication. Because stakeholders are deemed customers of social marketing in a decision-making process for environmental policy, this study aims to conduct an analysis by using a social marketing approach with segmentation techniques to identify the target market by their perceptions. Based on the analysis, communicating strategies can be provided for reducing the conflicts over OWP development in the western coastal waters of Taiwan. Renewable energy development programs are important environmental policies for helping us to reduce carbon emissions and solve the climate crisis (IPCC, 2011). Offshore wind power (OWP) is one type of marine renewable energy that has been in development since the 1990s in European countries. In Taiwan, the government began developing wind energy in 2000. It intends to install more than 3000 MW of wind energy capacity in the coastal waters of Taiwan by 2030. Recently, OWP development was one of the major subjects focused on by the Taiwan government. OWP is only beginning to be developed in Taiwan; however, due to natural

⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.-L. Chen), [email protected] (H.-H. Liu), [email protected] (C.-T. Chuang).

conditions, western Taiwan is suitable for developing OWP, so the related developers have proposed their development projects along the western coast of Taiwan. Although offshore wind power is a renewable energy strategy for mitigating the impacts of climate change, wind farm turbine construction and operation may influence fish behavior and their habitats. Some potential impacts include noise, electromagnetic fields (EMFs), habitat change, release of contaminants, environment change (i.e., sediment transport, deposition, turbidity, currents and waves) (Nienhuis and Dunlop, 2011). Moreover, Berkenhagen et al. (2010) mentioned that the potential impacts on fishing activities also exist, such as decreasing the fishing areas and influencing the navigation of fishing vessels. Gray et al. (2005) noted that controversy over offshore wind farms highlights three core conflict issues: the adequacy of stakeholder consultation processes; the right to compensation for loss of livelihood; and a lack of adequate data showing that policy decision makers recognize stakeholders’ perceptions. They also mentioned that offshore wind farm development would be better managed if extensive stakeholder consultations were incorporated in the process. Additionally, an increasing number of utilities and users of marine spaces and resources are placing further pressure upon traditional ocean users and generating potential conflicts (Maes, 2008; Harte et al., 2010; Alexander et al., 2013; Yates et al., 2015). These potential conflicts are exacerbated by offshore wind farm construction and lead to opposition from traditional ocean users (e.g., fishers and aquaculture farmers) in the western

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025 0025-326X/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

2

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

coastal areas of Taiwan; thus, traditional ocean users are important stakeholders in this case. The Not-In-My-Backyard (NIMBY) syndrome generally occurs when renewable energy development (Devine-Wright, 2013) and public and stakeholders’ attitudes and perceptions are direct and indirect influences on the success of wind power projects (Wolsink, 2000; Devine-Wright, 2005). Some researchers have analyzed public and stakeholders’ attitudes toward marine renewable power further to identify the critical factors for marine renewable power development (Haggett, 2011; Alexander et al., 2013); thus, stakeholders’ perceptions of offshore wind farm construction are critical information for policy makers. As mentioned above, stakeholders play important roles in decisionmaking in environment and natural resource management (Grimble and Wellard, 1997; Reed, 2008). Savage et al. (1991) reported that stakeholders can be classified into four types: (1) the supportive or idea stakeholder supports organizational goals and actions; (2) the marginal stakeholder is generally not concerned about issues; (3) non-supportive stakeholders have high threat potential and offer minimal cooperation; and (4) mixed-blessing stakeholder scan potentially threaten or cooperate. Achieving consensus for policy decisionmaking is challenging when different types of stakeholders are involved in a decision process. Furthermore, environmental communication is ‘‘the planned and strategic use of communication processes to support effective policy-making and project implementation geared toward environmental sustainability’’ (OECD, 1999). Thus, communication skills and processes would influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the execution of environmental policies. Governments generally conduct a top-down and one-way communicating process; the government only announces policies to the public, not really communicating with stakeholders. To improve the traditional top-down communication approach, Altman and Petkus (1994) suggested that social marketing principles can be applied to the public policy process, facilitating the efforts of governmental policy-makers and non-governmental stakeholders to articulate their policy desires and encouraging the adoption and acceptance of particular environmental policies. Moreover, market segmentation is an essential element of marketing strategies in business and industry (Wedel, 2000). As mentioned previously, it is difficult to achieve consensus for a policy decision if different stakeholders are involved; hence, the social marketing approach with segmentation technique can be used to identify target stakeholders who should be involved in the communication or consultation process. Stakeholders are deemed customers of social marketing in a decision-making process for environmental policy, and stakeholders’ perceptions are critical information for policy makers. Thus, based on their perceptions, the cluster analysis statistical method can be applied to segment stakeholders into several groups for planning social marketing-based communication strategies. In addition to offering communication strategies for each target stakeholder group, we further provide integration strategies for reducing conflicts surrounding the implementation of OWP projects. Cluster analysis is a commonly used segmenting technique; it is based on customers’ demographic characteristics, psychographic characteristics, desired benefits from product/services, and past behaviors (Wedel and Kamakura, 2000). In Taiwan, the Taiwan government has already publicly announced an offshore wind power-intensive program, and three major developers are involved in related development projects. Potential impacts exist to the environment, people’s lives, economic activities, and ocean use rights; these have led to some conflict between wind farm advocates and other stakeholders. The government should identify solutions for ocean use conflicts, possibly even creating opportunities for OWP development and original ocean users to co-exist. In summary, this study aims to resolve

conflicts arising from offshore wind farm siting and construction and to segment stakeholders by their perceptions to facilitate comprehensive marketing strategies to enhance consensus and resolve user conflicts. To this end, a questionnaire survey is conducted employing a market segmenting technique to plan strategies to resolve user conflicts. It is hoped that the empirical results of this study can provide useful information for government agency decisionmaking about the OWF siting and planning and for stakeholders to recognize the functions of multiple uses for ocean and coastal areas. 2. Wind power development in Taiwan 2.1. From onshore to offshore In Taiwan, over 99% of the energy supply relies on imports; to enhance energy self-sufficiency, therefore, wind power energy is an important power-generating method. Because Taiwan has an abundance of potential wind power resources, the Taiwan government announced in 2000 the ‘‘Ten Year Project for Wind Power Energy Development,’’ and the Taiwan Power Company (TPC) has been developing wind power energy since 2000. Thereafter, to accelerate the development of green energy, the ‘‘Sustainable Energy Policy Program’’ was publicly announced in 2008, and the ‘‘Renewable Energy Development Act’’ was put into force in 2009 by the Taiwan government. Additionally, a task office for promoting wind power development called ‘‘Thousand Wind Turbines Promotion (TWTP)’’ was set up by the Bureau of Energy (BOE). Two targets of the TWTP plan are that (1) onshore turbines will be increased to 450 with 1200 MW of wind energy capacity by 2020 and (2) offshore turbines will be increased to 600 turbines with 3000 MW of wind energy capacity in coastal waters by 2030 (Fig. 1). In May 2014, 314 onshore wind turbines had been installed in coastal areas of Taiwan, with 630.3 MW total wind energy capacity (BOE, 2014). In terms of offshore wind power development, the Taiwan Ministry of Economic Affairs (MOEA) publicly announced the ‘‘Incentive Program of Offshore Wind Power Demonstration System’’ in 2012; thus, Taiwanese wind power energy started to extend from onshore to offshore. The BOE announced three developers involved in the incentive program in 2013: Taiwan Generations Corporation (TGC), Formosa Wind Power Corporation Limited (FWPC) and Taiwan Power Company (TPC). Because the natural conditions in western Taiwan have the potential and are suitable for the development

4500 4000 3500 3000

3,000

2500

1,800

2000

600

1500 1000

15

500

866

0

Megawatt (MW)

2015

1,200

1,200

1,200

2020

2025

2030

Offshore wind power Onshore wind power Fig. 1. Policy goals of OWP in Taiwan.

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

of OWP (Lai et al., 2012), development projects are located in the coastal waters of western Taiwan (including the coastal areas of Hsinchu, Miaoli, Taichung, Changhua, Yunlin, and Chiayi) and the Penghu archipelago. Two ongoing projects will be implemented in 2015, in which the demonstration wind farm of TGC will be set up in Changhua; additionally, the demonstrated wind farm FWPC will be set up in Miaoli (Fig. 2). Although OWF projects are already planned along the coasts of western Taiwan, the expected impacts have been identified in some studies and conflicts have occurred near some Taiwan demonstration wind farms. For these reasons, the impacts and conflicts are reviewed in the next section to help us in constructing the research procedure and analytical methods.

3

chinensis, critically endangered and cited on the IUCN Red List). These concerns might be why environmental groups oppose wind farms being installed in the coastal areas of western Taiwan. 3. Related theories To achieve the objectives of this study, related theories are discussed for building the analytical framework. These include (1) Stakeholder typology and related strategy for management and (2) Theories of environmental conflicts and social marketing. These theories can help discuss strategic planning for reducing conflict based on our results.

2.2. Impacts and conflicts

3.1. Stakeholder typology and related strategy for management

Some conflicts have occurred because of the anticipated impacts around the wind turbines when offshore wind farms are constructed and operated. Several previous studies have shown various environmental impacts of offshore wind power development and turbine construction. Berkenhagen et al. (2010) mentioned that fishing areas could decrease, and the navigation of fishing vessels could be influenced by impacts from offshore wind turbines and hard structures. Noises are made during offshore wind turbine installation and operation, particularly noise from long-term turbine operations (20–25 years), including low frequency noise and excessive ambient noise levels. These impacts mask communication and other biologically important sounds, leading to negative impacts on marine mammals, fish and ecosystems down to a 50 m depth (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006; van Deurs et al., 2012). The disturbance of seabed sediment by offshore wind turbines might lead to benthic habitat degradation, and the turbines most likely will force migratory marine species (e.g., fish and dolphins) to change their migration paths (Nienhuis and Dunlop, 2011). Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) might be emitted and influence fish behavior and distribution because electro- and magneto-sensitive fish (e.g., eels, salmonids) can detect weak EMFs; thus, OWFs might influence their predation or mate detection, cause disorientation or delay migration (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006; van Deurs et al., 2012). As described previously, the demonstrated wind farm of TGC (Fuhai offshore wind project) will be built in Changhua, and an FWP demonstration wind farm will be set up in Miaoli; thus, some conflicts and protests are anticipated in the planning phase. The TGC will build the first OWF with 52 turbines 8–15 km from the Fangyuan Township of Changhua County in water depth ranging from 20 to 45 m. During the planning and processing of the environmental impact assessment (EIA), the TGC held briefings for fishers to illustrate the company’s efforts to mitigate impact on the marine environment and fishing activities, but the Changhua fisherman association and fishers remain concerned about fishing area and shipping route limitations that may influence their fishing activities and operations. The FWPC will build 71 turbines in water depths ranging from 5 to 20 m, located 2 km from the coast of Chunan Township of Moali County. Again, the fishers worry about fishing area and shipping route limitations and the impacts on marine environment. In addition, the fishers and fisherman associations in Moali and Changhua both care about direct economic compensation and income losses from fisheries; therefore, the amount of compensation may affect the success of OWF projects directly or indirectly. Moreover, although the two projects have already-approved environmental impact assessments, environmental protection groups remain concerned about the impacts of offshore wind farms on seabird migration, coastal ecosystem degradation, and the habitats and migration of the Indo-Pacific Humpbacked Dolphin (Sousa

Environmental management and policy necessitates obtaining strategies for conflict management to resolve multiple uses of an environmental resource. Stakeholders should be identified in an environmental management process, but a key question is mentioned by Pomeroy and Douvere (2008): How does one determine which stakeholders are entitled to be involved? Additionally, Ramirez (1999) stated that stakeholder analysis is also a central theme in conflict management. For these reasons, stakeholder analyses are used to identify stakeholders in environmental policy decision-making and are usually conducted through a participatory research approach to identify the key stakeholders that should be involved in the process (Pomeroy and Douvere, 2008). Stakeholder analysis is an approach and procedure for gaining understanding of a system by means of identifying the key actors and stakeholders in the system and assessing their respective interests in that system (Grimble and Chan, 1995). Moreover, Savage et al. (1991) presented a typology of stakeholders and strategies for managing each type; details are described as follows and in Fig. 3. (a) The supportive stakeholder: An idea stakeholder who supports organizational goals and actions. The strategy to manage supportive stakeholders is to involve them to maximize their cooperative potential. (b) The marginal stakeholder: This type of stakeholder is neither highly threatening nor cooperative. These stakeholders are generally not concerned about issues (although they may have ‘‘hot button’’ issues). The strategy to manage marginal stakeholders is to monitor these individuals and recognize their interests are specific. This strategy can also activate these stakeholders when issues are salient to them. (c) The non-supportive stakeholder: These stakeholders have high threat potential and offer minimal cooperation. These individuals are most threatening to an organization. The strategy to manage non-supportive stakeholders is to defend against them by reducing the factors that are the bases for the stakeholders’ interest in the organization or issue. (d) The mixed-blessing stakeholder: These stakeholders are individuals who can potentially threaten or cooperate. The strategy to manage mixed-blessing stakeholders is to employ a collaboration approach that seeks to maximize stakeholder cooperation (making potentially threatening stakeholders less likely to oppose the organization). Stakeholders are affected directly or indirectly by artificial facility construction in offshore and coastal areas, such as OWFs construction; thus, they should be involved in the public participation process for environmental decision making. In summary, stakeholder analysis should be considered in decisions regarding marine environmental policies.

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

4

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Fig. 2. Map of study sites.

Fig. 3. Typology of stakeholders.

3.2. Theories of environmental conflicts and social marketing Environmental conflicts are common problems for multiple ocean uses; thus, communication among stakeholders (users) is necessary to reduce conflict. To reduce conflict, communication among stakeholders is an important task to enhance consensus on reducing environmental conflicts and allocating resources effectively. Traditionally, public policies were communicated using a top-down, one-way approach (government set the policies and promoted them to the public). This approach does not involve the needs and desires of stakeholders and leads to conflicts occurring in policy program implementations. Therefore, stakeholders should be involved in the communication process, including agenda setting, policy formation, policy adoption, policy implementation and policy evaluation (Dunn, 2004). The

communication of public policies is an interactive communication process based on the public’s opinions. In a communication process, diversity and appropriate tools should be used (e.g., advertising and hearings) by the public sector to help the public understand the content, expected benefits, and reasons for the implementation of public policies. To improve the traditional top-down communication approach, Altman and Petkus (1994) suggested that social marketing principles can be applied to the public policy process and that doing so would facilitate the efforts of governmental policy-makers and non-governmental stakeholders to articulate their policy desires, encouraging the adoption and acceptance of particular environmental policies. In terms of definitions, social marketing can be defined by Kotler and Zaltman (1971) as ‘‘the design, implementation and control of programs calculated to influence the acceptability of social ideas and involving considerations of product planning, pricing, communication, distribution, and marketing research’’. Maibach (1993) defined social marketing as ‘‘an approach to the promotion of social programs or products (e.g., programs or products that benefit society), which applies generic marketing and marketing research strategies, in addition to enhancing environmental awareness and behavior change’’. Rangun and Karim (1991) argued that (a) social marketing involves changing attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of individuals or organizations for a social benefit, and (b) social change is the primary (rather than secondary) purpose of the campaign. Additionally, Brown (1986) considers social marketing a natural outgrowth of several developments in and out of marketing that include (a) Increased needs of non-business organizations for marketing services; (b)

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Attacks on marketing’s negative impact on society; (c) The emergence of exchange theory; (d) The coalescence of social marketing-oriented theory; and (e) The decline of consensus-oriented perceptions of social reality. Based on the definitions of social marketing presented above, Andreasen (1994) mentioned that social marketing is the adaptation of commercial marketing technologies to programs designed to influence the voluntary behavior of target audiences to improve their personal welfare and that of the society of which they are a part. In practice, the concepts of generic marketing and marketing research strategies have been applied in the decision process for developing renewable energy projects in some studies. For instance, a study of European countries examined the potential of social marketing for renewable energy sources and generated a marketing mix for the state, organizations, businesses and consumers (Menegaki’s, 2012). Wiser’s (1998) research described green power marketing activities and explored some of the implications of this literature for green marketing to increase demand for renewable energy. Therefore, social marketing can be used to improve current the inefficiency and ineffectiveness of communications between government agencies and stakeholders for marine resource exploitation. 4. Methodology 4.1. Basic description of sites There are ongoing offshore wind projects which set up in the waters of six cities/counties along western Taiwan, including Hsinchu, Miaoli, Taichung, Changhua, Yunlin, and Chiayi. These counties are densely populated and industry developed, but capture fisheries and aquaculture of traditional fishing villages can still keep in the coastal areas. Taiwan Strait is located in western Taiwan; the branch of the Kuroshio currents (warm water) and the Oyashio current (cold water) mix in this area to form a frontal zone. The rich fishery resources and high biodiversity in this area support great traditional fishing grounds and aquaculture farms. Therefore, these areas are traditionally used for aquaculture farms and artisanal fishing by small-scale fishing vessels. According to official statistics (Fishery Agency, 2013), 3919 households depend on sea-surface aquaculture (1126 in Changhua, 1230 in Yunlin, and 1562 in Chiayi), and 8317 households depend on capture fisheries (362 in Hsinchu, 2838 in Miaoli, 1386 in Taichung, 1220 in Changhua, 1333 in Yunlin, and 1178 in Chiayi) (Fig. 4). The statistics reveal that aquaculture support major economic activities in Changhua, Yunlin, and Chiayi; several types of livelihoods depend on aquaculture beyond capture fisheries. Additionally, fishing production of the offshore fishery (fishing within 200 nautical miles) was 3076 tons, and the coastal fishery (fishing within 12 nautical miles) was 2531 tons, together amounting to NT$850.6 million (US$28.4 million).Sea-surface aquaculture production was 22,423 tons and amounted to NT$3.1 billion (US$103.6 million). To summarize, based on official statistics of the study sites, fishermen and aquaculture farmers are major stakeholders in this case.

5

fishermen and aquaculture farmers in Yunlin and Changhua and the staffs of the Yunlin and Changhua fishermen’s association. The formal in-person survey was conducted at fishing villages, fishing harbors, and fishermen’s associations in Hsinchu, Miaoli, Taichung, Changhua, Yunlin, and Chiayiin August to October 2013. There were 238 survey participants. Twenty-six provided answers that were not appropriate or useful and 212 provided effective responses; the effective rate was 89.1%. In the questionnaire, we designed several questions in three sections; their descriptions are as follows: Section 1 is attitude and knowledge on the OWP. We asked four questions in this section: (1) Do you know what OWF is? (2) Have you ever participated in a related meeting or conference (Ex. public hearing, briefing)? (3) Have you ever heard about successful cases of OWF in other countries? (4) Do you support OWP development in Taiwan? The questions are designed in Section II using a 5-point Likert scale, which ranged from 1 to 5 (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree). There are 22 questions in this section. Personal background information of the respondents was also collected in Section 3, including gender, age, experience with fishery/aquaculture (years), education level (years), location (fishing harbor), and operation type (marine capture or aquaculture). 4.3. Statistical methods Many studies focus on market segmentation using cluster analysis, and combing factor analysis and clustering analysis are commonly used for data pre-processing in studies of market segmentation (e.g., Dolnicar, 2003; Yang and Chen, 2012). Thus, statistical methods were used to help us achieve the research purposes. The statistical methods are shown below: (1) Descriptive statistics analysis: This technique was applied to estimate statistical mean and standard deviation for each question of the perception factors. (2) Exploratory factor analysis with principal component method: An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to summarize and reduce the large number of variables into a smaller and more manageable set of perception factors. The principal component method with varimax rotation technique was employed to identify key perception factors. (3) Cluster analysis: This technique is used to classify the stakeholders into several stakeholder groups. Hierarchical clustering is used to choose number of clusters, and K-means clustering was adopted to distinguish different perception types of stakeholders. (4) Discriminant analysis: This technique is used to verify the results of cluster analysis. (5) Analysis of variance (ANOVA): Finally, we used ANOVA to analyze whether the personal backgrounds of the respondents had significantly different perception levels regarding impacts. If significant differences were identified, we adopted Scheffe’s method (post hoc tests) to analyze these differences further. (6) Chi-square test: Cross-analysis by Chi-square test was used to test and identify segments based on their perceptions.

4.2. Questionnaire survey

5. Results

The primary data were collected by a questionnaire survey in this study. The survey target populations are stakeholders in the study area, including fishers and aquaculture farmers as mentioned previously. A pre-survey was conducted before the formal survey in February 2013, with the participation of 75 interviewees to debug and revise the questionnaire for enhanced validity and reliability of this study. The pre-test interviewees included

5.1. Results of factor analysis The principal component method with varimax rotation technique was employed to identify key perception factors. The Kaise r–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value was 0.833, and the Bartlett’s test was significant at the 0.01 level (X2 = 2773.311, P < 0.01), which showed the factorability of the data matrices (Hair et al., 1998).

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

6

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Fig. 4. Number of households that depend on sea-surface aquaculture and capture fisheries.

The number of factors was determined by an eigenvalue greater than unity, and 0.5 was used as the criterion for the significance of factor loading. In addition, because the Cronbach’s alpha of the factors is greater than 0.8, the internal reliability of the factors is excellent. Based on the respondents’ answers, five factors were subsequently found to underlie the perception dimensions (Tables 1 and 2). The factors are as follows:(1) the impacts of OWF on traditional economic activities (eigenvalue = 7.027, proportion = 26.908, Cronbach’s a = 0.883); (2) the impacts of OWF on the environment and marine ecosystem (eigenvalue = 6.077, proportion = 23.273, Cronbach’s a = 0.826); (3) the benefits of OWF to economic activities (eigenvalue = 1.975, proportion = 7.565, Cronbach’s a = 0.808); (4) the benefits of OWF to energy provision and related policies (eigenvalue = 1.661, proportion = 6.361, Cronbach’s a = 0.855); and (5) the benefit of OWF to social and community development (eigenvalue = 1.279, proportion = 4.989, Cronbach’s a = 0.818).

Table 2 Results of the PCA for the perception variables. Item description Factor 1:

Factor 2:

Factor 3:

5.2. Results of clustering and discriminant analysis To cluster the stakeholders by their perceptions, we used the perception factors found by factor analysis to execute a cluster analysis. According to Punj and Stewart’s (1983) suggestion, two-stage cluster analysis was adopted, the hierarchical clustering was used to decide the number of clusters, and K-means clustering was adopted to distinguish different perception types of stakeholders. Based on the results of hierarchical clustering, all stakeholders can be classified into three clusters. The K-means clustering was conducted and shows 76, 82 and 54 respondents in Clusters I, II, and III, respectively (Table 3).

Factor 4:

Factor 5: Table 1 Results of the principle component analysis. Factor

Eigenvalue

Proportion

Cumulative

1 2 3 4 5

7.027 6.077 1.975 1.661 1.279

26.908 23.273 7.565 6.361 4.899

26.908 50.181 57.746 64.107 69.006

Impacts of OWFs on traditional economic activities Impact on the fishing areas Impact on fishing boat shipping and operation Fishing revenue and profit reduction Impact on sea-surface aquaculture in coastal areas Impacts of OWFs on the environment and marine ecosystem Heath concern of electromagnetism Low-frequency noise of turbine operation Contaminants released during construction Impact on marine habitats Impact on migrating of marine species (e.g., dolphins and migratory fish) Benefits of OWFs to economic activities Fish aggregation for fish stock restoration Transitioning from traditional fishing to leisure fishing (using anglers in the water surrounding the turbines via fishing boat) Developing mariculture in the water surrounding the turbines Benefits of OWFs to energy provision and related policies Mitigating climate change Addressing the domestic electric energy supply Following the international trend of clean energy development and enhancing the national image Benefits of OWFs to social and community development Enhancing landscape aesthetics for recreational benefits Providing career opportunities for local people Helping fishery-based communities convert to green communities Developing multiple marine recreational activities such as scuba diving and sport angling

Factor loading

Cronbach’s

a 0.883

0.851 0.892 0.848 0.573 0.826 0.767 0.699 0.682 0.721 0.736 0.808 0.642 0.838

0.788 0.855 0.833 0.828 0.702

0.818 0.705 0.561 0.693 0.705

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx Table 3 Results of clustering analysis. Cluster

Number

Percentage (%)

I II III

76 82 54

35.8% 38.7% 25.5%

Total

212

100

Additionally, discriminant analysis was used to verify the results of cluster analysis; the results of discriminant analysis show that 96.7% of the original observations are classified correctly (Table 4), which means the clustering results are acceptable. 5.3. Results of typology of stakeholder

(3) Cluster III (Benefits-attended group): There are 54 respondents (25.5%) in this cluster, and the means of three perception factors related to benefits (Factor 3, Factor 4 and Factor 5) are greater than 3 (3.49, 3.85, and 3.50) and are also greater than the other two factors. Thus, this cluster can be named the ‘‘Benefits-attended group’’. In summary, the empirical results identify three clusters of stakeholders. The comprehensive group has the most respondents; the number of respondents in the impacts-attended group is slightly greater than the number in the benefits-attended group. In the following sub-sections, we identify the target market based on social marketing concepts and discuss the strategic meaning behind segmentation to resolve stakeholders’ conflicts in connection with wind farm planning and construction. 5.4. Cross-analysis

In this study, to identify the type of stakeholder for OWFs construction, ANOVA and Scheffe’s test are applied to determine the difference between the clusters types and name them, i.e., by segmenting different perceptions of stakeholders of wind farms construction. Based on Table 5 and Fig. 5, the results of ANOVA and Scheffe’s test signified that Factor 1 (the impacts of OWFs on traditional economic activities), Factor 2 (the impacts of OWFs on the environment and marine ecosystem) and Factor 3 (the benefits of OWFs on economic activities) are statistically significant differences between all of the clusters. Factor 4 (the benefits of OWFs on energy provision and related policies) and Factor 5 (the benefit of OWFs on social and community development) are not statistically significantly different between Clusters II and III. The results also show that even Cluster II and Cluster III are statistically significant difference for the impacts of OWFs on traditional economic activities, the impacts of OWFs on environment and marine ecosystem, and the benefits of OWFs on economic activities, but Cluster II and Cluster III have similar perception level for the benefits of OWFs on energy provision and related policies, and the benefits of OWFs on social and community development. In detail, the clusters can be named to assist us identifying target markets for planning strategies: (1) Cluster I (Impacts-attended group): There are 76 respondents (35.8%) in this cluster, and the means of two perception factors related to impacts (Factor 1 and Factor 2) are greater than 3 (3.88 and 3.52), and also greater than other three factors related to benefits obviously. Thus, this cluster can be named as ‘‘Impacts-attended group’’. (2) Cluster II (Comprehensive group): There are 82 respondents (38.7%) in this cluster, and the means of all the factors are greater than 3; thus, the perception levels are relatively high for all factors. Thus, this cluster can be named the ‘‘Comprehensive group’’.

Table 4 Results of discriminant analyses. Prediction Cluster

7

Total

I

II

III

I

Number Percentage (%)

74 97.4

1 1.3

1 1.3

76 100.0

II

Number Percentage (%)

1 1.2

81 98.8

0 0.0

82 100.0

III

Number Percentage (%)

3 5.6

1 1.9

50 92.6

54 100.0

Note: 96.7% of the original observations are classified correctly.

The cross-analysis was conducted by using a Chi-square test to determine the differences of demographic characteristics and knowledge among clusters. The results of cross-analysis for socio-economic characteristic are shown in Tables 6 and 7. Comparing the age among clusters, the statistically significant difference are existed in our analysis (v2 = 13.221, P = 0.040). Most respondents are in the age range of 50–64 (47.4%) and the age range of 35–49 are 30.3% of the respondents in the Cluster I; over 60% are in the age range of 50 and above in the Cluster II; 40.7% are in the age range of 35–45, and 65% are 49 and under in the Cluster III. In terms of the experience of fishing/aquaculture, the results indicate that statistically significant differences are identified between stakeholder clusters (v2 = 23.698, P = 0.040). The experience of fishing/aquaculture, most are in the years range of 30 and above (32.9%) in the Cluster I; also, most are in the years range of 30 and above (36.6%) in the Cluster II; over 70% are in the range of under 20 years (under 10 is 42.6%, 10–19 is 27.8%) in the Cluster III. For location analysis, there are statistically significant differences between stakeholder clusters (v2 = 55.867, P = 0.000). There are 32.9% and 22.4% respondents at Chanhua and Maoli in Cluster I; 31.7% and 20.7% respondents are at Maoli and Yunlin in Cluster II; there are 33.3% respondents at Chiayi, 18.5% respondents at Yunlin and Hsinchu. Also, statistically significant differences are verified for educational level (v2 = 34.172, P = 0.001), in Cluster I, the education level of most respondents is 6 years and under (38.1%), 22.8% have 9 years, which indicates more than 60% of respondents have relatively low educational level; most respondents of Cluster II is 6 years and under (47.6%), and 19.5% have 9 years; Over 70% respondents are in the educational years range of 12 and above in Cluster III. We also examined the differences between respondents’ personal knowledge and attitudes toward OWF construction. By using the Chi-square test, the question, ‘‘Do you know what OWFs are?’’ and ‘‘Do you know of successful cases of OWFs in other countries?’’ were found not statistically significant different at the 5% confidence level among the three stakeholder clusters. The question, ‘‘Have you ever participated in related meetings or conferences? (e.g., public hearing, briefing)’’ is statistically significant different at the 5% confidence level among three clusters, with 32.9%, 23.2%, and 12.7% respondents having participated in a related meeting or conference in Cluster I, Cluster II, and Cluster III, respectively. The question, ‘‘Do you approve of OWP development along the west coast of Taiwan?’’ has statistically significant differences at the 1% confidence level among the three stakeholder clusters. The results indicate that in Cluster I, 6.6% of respondents approve of OWP construction, 60.5% of respondents do not approve of OWP construction, and 32.9% are not sure. In Cluster II, 29.3% of

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

8

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 5 Results of ANOVA and Scheffe multiple range tests.

Factor 1: Impacts of OWFs on traditional economic activities Factor 2: Impacts of OWFs on the environment and marine ecosystem Factor 3: Benefits of OWFs to economic activities Factor 4: Benefits of OWFs to energy provision and related policies Factor 5: Benefit of OWFs to social and community development * **

Cluster I: Impactattended group

Cluster II: Comprehensive group

Cluster III: Benefitsattended group

(n = 76)

(n = 82)

(n = 54)

I–II

I–III

II–III

3.88

4.48

2.81

88.55**

0.00**

0.00**

0.00**

3.52

4.14

2.95

51.36**

0.00**

0.00**

0.00**

2.14 2.71

3.83 3.77

3.48 3.85

126.76** 61.68**

0.00** 0.00**

0.00** 0.00**

0.02* 0.83

2.49

3.36

3.50

46.90**

0.00**

0.00**

0.50

F-value

Scheffe multiple range tests (P-value)

Significant at 5% confidence level. Significant at 1% confidence level.

The impacts of OWFs on traditional economic activities

The benefit of OWFs on social and community development

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

The benefits of OWFs on energy provision and related policies

The impacts of OWFs on the environment and marine ecosystem

The benefits of OWFs on economic activities

Impact -attended Group Comprehensive Group Benefit-attended Gruop Fig. 5. Radar chart for comparing perceptions among stakeholder groups.

respondents approve of OWP construction, 40.2% of respondents do not approve of OWP construction, and 32.9% of respondents are not sure. In Cluster III, 46.3% of respondents approve of OWP construction, only 5.6% of respondents do not approve of OWP construction, and 48.1% of respondents are not sure. The main findings for cluster analysis can be briefly summarized as follows. According to our analysis, socio-economic characteristics are significantly different among clusters, including age, experience, location, education level, and operating type. The respondents of Cluster III, who are intense in their approval of OWFs and attendant benefits of OWFs, have relatively lower age, lower experience, and higher educational level. The socio-economic characteristics of respondents in Cluster III and Cluster II are similar; these have relatively lower age, high experience, and lower educational level. Comparing the location of the three clusters, most respondents in Cluster I live in Chuanghua and Taichung, whereas most respondents in Cluster II live in Yunlin and Miaoli, and most respondents in Cluster III live in Chiayi. Moreover, Cluster I has a relatively greater proportion

(32.9) who participated in related meetings or conferences, Cluster II has 23.2% of respondents who participated in related meetings or conferences, and fewer respondents participated in related meetings or conferences in Cluster III, showing that the related meetings or conferences did not achieve the expected impacts of communication and promotion. The characteristics of the Clusters are shown in Table 8. The strategic implications of the findings will be discussed in next section.

6. Discussion and policy implications Social marketing approaches have been adopted for use in the promotion and communication of renewable energy (Menegaki’s, 2012; Wiser, 1998).We conducted a survey based on the concept of social marketing for communicating with the public to reduce conflicts and promote offshore wind energy. The segmentation technique is an essential tool for marketing and provides information for decision-makers in policy promotion.

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

9

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx Table 6 Personal characteristics of tree-type stakeholders. Socio-economic characteristic

*

Overall

%

n

%

n

%

7 24 39 12

8.5 29.3 47.6 14.6

13 22 15 4

24.1 40.7 27.8 7.4

28 69 90 25

13.2 32.5 42.5 11.8

9 22 21 30

11.0 26.8 25.6 36.6

23 15 5 11

42.6 27.8 9.3 20.4

45 59 42 66

21.2 27.8 19.8 31.2

9 17 7 10 26 13

11.0 20.7 8.5 12.2 31.7 15.9

10 5 7 4 10 18

18.5 9.3 13.0 7.4 18.5 33.3

30 39 30 39 37 37

14.2 18.4 14.2 18.4 17.5 17.5

39 16 13 5 9

47.6 19.5 15.9 6.1 10.9

7 9 15 11 12

13.0 16.7 27.8 20.4 22.2

75 42 40 18 37

35.4 19.7 18.9 8.5 17.5

65 17

79.3 20.7

37 17

68.5 31.5

172 40

81.1 18.9

Cluster II: Comprehensive group

n

n

%

Age Under 35 35–49 50–64 65 and above

v2 = 13.221*, P = 0.040

Experience (years) Under 10 10–19 20–29 30 and above

v2 = 23.698**, P = 0.001

Location Hsinchu Miaoli Taichung Changhua Yunlin Chiayi

v2 = 55.867**, P = 0.000

Educational level (years) 6 and under 9 12 14 16

v2 = 34.172**, P = 0.001

8 23 36 9 13 22 16 25 11 17 16 25 1 6 29 17 12 2 16

10.5 30.3 47.4 11.8 17.1 28.9 21.1 32.9 14.5 22.4 21.1 32.9 1.3 7.9 38.1 22.4 15.8 2.6 21.1

v2 = 11.777**, P = 0.003

Type Marine capture Aquaculture

**

Cluster III: Benefitsattended group

Cluster I: Impactattended group

70 6

92.1 7.9

Significant at 5% confidence level. Significant at 1% confidence level.

Table 7 Personal knowledge of tree-type stakeholders. Question

Cluster I: Impactattended group

Cluster II: Comprehensive group

Cluster III: Benefitsattended group

Overall

n

%

n

%

n

%

36 46

43.9 56.1

27 27

50.0 50.0

110 102

51.9 48.1

Have you ever participated in related meetings or conferences? (e.g., public hearing or briefing) v2 = 8.325*, P = 0.016 Yes 25 32.9 19 23.2 No 51 58.1 63 76.8

6 48

12.7 88.9

50 162

23.6 76.4

Do you know of successful cases of OWFs in other countries? v2 = 4.477, P = 0.107 Yes 19 25.0 No 57 75.0

23.2 76.8

21 33

38.9 61.1

59 153

27.8 72.2

29.3 40.2 30.5

25 3 26

46.3 5.6 48.1

54 82 76

25.5 38.7 35.8

n

%

Do you know what OWFs are? v2 = 5.188, P = 0.075 Yes 47 61.8 No 29 38.2

19 63

Do you approve of OWP development along the west coast of Taiwan? v2 = 48.177**, P = 0.000 Yes 5 6.6 24 No 46 60.5 33 Neutral 25 32.9 25 * **

Significant at 5% confidence level. Significant at 1% confidence level.

Additionally, OWP is a rapidly growing marine renewable energy capable of providing cleaner energy with low carbon emission. Thus, a numbers of countries have been developing marine renewable energy for many years, particularly in Europe. Several studies focused on conflicts that occurred due to the transformation of ocean uses, and conducted surveys on stakeholders’ attitudes or perceptions to identify potential solutions. For example, in North Wales, a study focused on the politics, planning, and

public perceptions associated with offshore wind farms. It drew together research and evidence relating to onshore and offshore wind developments, exploring this with the emerging research on public perceptions of OWFs and initial empirical evidence from a proposed wind farm off the coast of North Wales (Haggett, 2008). Another case study carried out an initial survey that served as a scoping analysis of fishermen’s support for, and concerns about, offshore wind energy projects in Rhode Island. The result of the

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

10

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 8 Clusters and their characteristics. Cluster

I: Impact-attended Group

II: Comprehensive Group

III: Benefitsattended Group

Age Experience Location

Older Higher experience Taichung, Changhua Lower educational level Oppose

Older Higher experience Yunlin, Miaoli

Younger Lower experience Chiayi, Yunlin, Hsinchu Higher educational level Approve

Education Attitude

Lower educational level Neutral

scoping survey showed that 81.3% of respondents were in favor of the installation of wind turbines in Rhode Island waters (Hagos, 2007). A Scottish study conducted a survey to investigate fishers’ attitudes toward offshore energy extraction and any influential factors; it found that the most important factor influencing fishers’ opinions was whether they knew of a nearby offshore development, followed by location (Alexander et al., 2013). Overall, these studies noted that fishers and stakeholders’ attitudes and consultation provide critical references for developing OWP to achieve co-existing situations with traditional ocean users and wind farms. Therefore, based on our results from segmentation by stakeholders’ perceptions, some critical information can be proposed for related policies.

6.1. Strategic implications of social marketing approach 6.1.1. Target markets Kotler and Lee (2006) indicated twelve principles for successful social marketing. One of the principles is to identify target markets most ready for action; thus, we used a segmentation technique to help us identify target markets for planning conflict resolution strategies. According to our segmentation results, there are statistically significant differences in all perception factors and personal characteristics (e.g., age, experience, location, educational level, and operating type) among the three clusters. Comparing acceptance percentages of OWF among the clusters, 6.6%, 29.3%, and 46.3% of respondents approve of OWP development in Cluster I, Cluster II, and Cluster III, respectively, indicating that Cluster III respondents have relatively high acceptance for OWP. Conversely, 60.5%, 40.2%, and 5.6% of respondents oppose OWP development in Cluster I, Cluster II, and Cluster III, respectively; thus, Cluster I respondents have intense objections to OWP development. In this case, the three clusters represent three different types of stakeholders, each of which can be a target market for planning strategies for conflict resolution. Additionally, according to a theory proposed by Savage et al. (1991), Cluster I (impact-attend group) comprises the non-supportive stakeholders; the strategy to manage non-supportive stakeholders is to defend against them. Cluster II (comprehensive group) comprises the mixed-blessing stakeholders; the strategy to manage the mixed-blessing stakeholder is managed with collaboration that seeks to maximize stakeholder cooperation (making potentially threatening stakeholders less likely to oppose). Cluster III (benefit-attend group) comprises the supportive stakeholders; the strategy to manage supportive stakeholders is involving them to maximize their cooperative potential. Comparing the perceptions among Cluster I and Cluster II, significant differences do not exist in the two perceptions factors related to benefits (Factor 4 and Factor 5), but there are statistically significant differences in two perception factors related to impacts (Factor 1 and Factor 2). Additionally, according to our findings, Cluster III stakeholders (with lower perception related to negative impacts and higher perception related to benefits) are intense in

their approval of OWFs. Thus, we reiterate that the benefits of OWP and the government’s measures for mitigating OWP impacts are the main products and need to be promoted to the public to enhance a consensus to support OWP development. For these reasons, a critical issue is how to mitigate the potential impacts from OWP and let stakeholders recognize the benefits of OWP construction. These are also the key tasks that should be implemented by government agencies and OWF developers. Based on above results, the main target market is Cluster I; we should try to move them into ‘‘Cluster III’’ for the success of the OWP projects. The government and OWF project implementers should arrange strategies to change stakeholders’ attitude toward OWFs from ‘‘disagree’’ to ‘‘agree’’, particularly for Cluster I and Cluster II. Additionally, a large proportion of respondents (32.9%, 30.5%, and 48.1% in Clusters I, II, and III, respectively) are not sure about approving OWP development along the west coast of Taiwan. Thus, the government and OWF project implementers should be taking measures to promote OWFs to move their attitude from ‘‘neutral’’ to ‘‘agree’’. 6.1.2. Strategic planning based on the 4Ps Social marketing is the adaptation of commercial marketing technologies to programs designed to influence the voluntary behavior of target audiences to improve their personal welfare and that of the society of which they are a part (Andreasen, 1994). According to the 4Ps (price, product, promotion, and place) marketing mix theory (McCarthy, 1968), OWP can be a ‘‘product’’ in a social marketing program and determine the communication activities that will best reach the public to execute the ‘‘promotion’’ for the benefits of OWP (e.g., climate change mitigation, sustainable energy provisioning, and fish-aggregating). If the public is aware of the benefits of OWP, a driving force will pull them from ‘‘Cluster I’’ to ‘‘Cluster II and Cluster III’’, enhancing stakeholders’ acceptance of OWFs construction through the channel (place), such as public advocacy or propaganda. In addition, government measures (e.g., compensation, environment monitoring, and multiple uses of OWFs) for mitigating OWP impacts are also considered ‘‘products’’ and should be promoted to pull stakeholders from ‘‘Cluster I and Cluster II’’ to ‘‘Cluster III’’. This also can increase the value (price for benefit) of government’s measures for carrying out or fulfilling OWF construction. The 4Ps considered in this study include (1) products: the benefits of OWP and government’s measures for mitigating OWP impacts; (2) promotion: determining the communication activities that will best reach the public to execute the ‘‘promotion’’ for the benefits of OWP; (3) place: enhancing stakeholders’ acceptance of OWF construction through the channel (e.g., meeting, hearing, and advertising); and (4) price: the value of the government’s measures for carrying out or fulfilling OWF construction. According to the 4Ps, in this case, strategies include (1) enhancing the benefits and mitigating the impacts of OWP as priority strategies (product); (2) improving the communication activities to promote the benefits of OWP (e.g., meeting, hearing, and advertising) as a second strategy (promotion); (3) public participation can be used instead of traditional communication channels (place); and (4) enhancing consensus to achieve the value of government’s measures for carrying out or fulfilling OWF construction (price). 6.2. Conflict reduction Conflicts are engendered by OWFs because of the multiple uses for the ocean and coastal areas of western Taiwan; thus, low acceptance of stakeholders currently is a critical element for developing OWP projects. Inefficient and ineffective communication and information asymmetry continuously leads conflicts to occur among government agencies, the OWF project implementers (TGC, TPC,

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

and FWPC), and the stakeholders (fishers and aquaculture farmers). Based on the strategic implications of the social marketing approach, the following strategies can be offered. (1) To help stakeholders understand that the potential conflicts of OWP can be mitigated and controlled, stakeholders should be involved in the OWF planning phase to improve one-way and top-down policy promotion. Thus, drafting the Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines of OWP can be adopted for improving the public participation or stakeholder involvement. Also, communication with stakeholders should be conducted continuously until consensus is achieved, announcing the government’s actions and the necessity of OWP to stakeholders, particularly to the stakeholders in the impacts-attend group. (2) Government agencies can try to minimize stakeholders’ negative perceptions by actually taking measures to mitigate impacts, such as creating new industry and job opportunities, occupational training and employment, environmental protection measures and pollution controls. (3) To enhance stakeholders’ recognition of the benefits of OWP, the government and OWF project implementers should consider promoting the functions of multiple uses for ocean and coastal areas, such as how OWFs can provide economic activities, energy provision, and social and community development. For this purpose, promoting the environmental education and strengthening the public knowledge related to renewable energy need to be considered. (4) Potential benefits of OWFs can be created for traditional ocean users and local communities. Several cases in other countries indicate that multiple functions of ocean and coastal utilization are available on and around the OWFs. For instance, mariculture has developed in Germany (Michler-Cieluch et al., 2009) and the United Kingdom (Mee, 2006), the effects of fish aggregating around wind farms have been observed in Leonhard et al. (2011) and Sweden (Wilhelmsson et al., 2006), and recreational activities have progressed in the United Kingdom, including scuba diving, boat angling, and surfing (The Royal Yachting Association and the Cruising Association, 2004; Surfers Against Sewage, 2009). To achieve co-existed of above functions around and on OWFs, the government would conduct marine special panning for arranging ocean multiple uses to obtain maximum benefits from the ocean. 7. Concluding remarks This study aimed to conduct an analysis by employing a social marketing approach with segmentation techniques, leading to identify the target market by their perceptions. The empirical results indicated that three segments of stakeholders are identified. (1) The respondents of Cluster I (Impact-attended group, n = 76; 35.8%) have negative perceptions of OWF construction. (2) The respondents of Cluster II (Comprehensive group, n = 82; 38.7%) have neutral perceptions of OWF construction. (3) The respondents of Cluster III (Benefits-attended group, n = 54; 25.5%) have positive perceptions of OWF construction. In Clusters I, II, and III, 6.6%, 29.3%, and 46.3% of respondents, respectively, approve of OWP development, indicating that Cluster III respondents have a relatively high acceptance of OWP. Conversely, 60.5%, 40.2%, and 5.6% of respondents oppose OWP development in Clusters I, II, and III, respectively; thus, Cluster I respondents intensely object to OWP development. Strategies include (1) enhancing the benefits and mitigating the impacts of OWP as priority strategies (product); (2) improving communication activities to promote the benefits of OWP (e.g., meetings, hearings, and advertising) as a second

11

strategy (promotion); (3) public participation can be used instead of traditional communication channels (place); and (4) enhancing consensus to achieve the value of the government’s measures for carrying out or fulfilling OWF construction (price). Thus, based on our findings, we offer the following recommendations for policies to reduce conflicts: (1) to make stakeholders understand that the potential conflicts of OWP can be mitigated and controlled; (2) the government agencies can try to minimize stakeholders’ negative perceptions by actually taking measures to mitigate negative effects; (3) to enhance stakeholder’ recognition of the benefits of OWP, the government and OWF project implementers should consider promoting the functions of multiple uses for ocean and coastal areas; and (4) potential benefits of OWFs can be realized for traditional ocean users and local communities conducted by marine spatial planning. Acknowledgments We would like to express our appreciation to the people who provided comments during this study. This study was partially financed by a grant from the Bureau of Energy, Taiwan (102-D0105). References Altman, J.A., Petkus, E., 1994. Toward a stakeholder-based policy process: an application of the social marketing perspective to environmental policy development. Policy Sci. 27 (1), 37–51. Andreasen, A.R., 1994. Social marketing: definition and domain. J. Public Policy Mark. 13 (1), 108–114. Alexander, K.A., Wilding, T.A., Heymans, J.J., 2013. Attitudes of Scottish fishers towards marine renewable energy. Mar. Pol. 37, 239–244. Berkenhagen, J., Döring, R., Fock, H.O., Kloppmann, M.H., Pedersen, S.A., Schulze, T., 2010. Decision bias in marine spatial planning of offshore wind farms: problems of singular versus cumulative assessments of economic impacts on fisheries. Mar. Pol. 34 (3), 733–736. Brown, B., 1986. Social Marketing and the Construction of a New Policy Domain: An Understanding of the Convergence Which Made Social Marketing Possible. Doctoral thesis, Virginia Commonwealth University. Bureau of Energy, 2012. White Paper of Energy Industry Technology. URL: (in Chinese). Devine-Wright, P., 2005. Beyond NIMBYism: towards an integrated framework for understanding public perceptions of wind energy. Wind Energy 8 (2), 125–139. Devine-Wright, P., 2013. Renewable Energy and the Public: From NIMBY to Participation. Routledge, London. Dolnicar, S., 2003. Using cluster analysis for market segmentation-typical misconceptions, established methodological weaknesses and some recommendations for improvement. Aus. J. Mark. Res. 11 (2), 5–12. Dunn, W.N., 2004. Public Policy Analysis: An Introduction. Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Fishery Agency, 2013. Fisheries Statistical Yearbook Taiwan, Kinmen and Matsu Area. Taiwan: Fisheries Agency, Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan, Taiwan. Gray, T., Haggett, C., Bell, D., 2005. Offshore wind farms and commercial fisheries in the UK: a study in stakeholder consultation. Ethics Place Environ. 8 (2), 127– 140. Grimble, R., Chan, M.K., 1995. Stakeholder analysis for resource management in developing countries. Nat. Resour. Forum 19 (2), 113–124. Grimble, R., Wellard, K., 1997. Stakeholder methodologies in natural resource management: a review of principles, contexts, experiences and opportunities. Agric. Syst. 55 (2), 173–193. Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L., Black, W.C., 1998. Multivariate Data Analysis. Prentice Hall International, Englewood Cliffs, New Jerssey. Haggett, C., 2011. Understanding public responses to offshore wind power. Energ. Pol. 39 (2), 503–510. Haggett, C., 2008. Over the sea and far away? a consideration of the planning, politics and public perception of offshore wind farms. J. Environ. Pol. Plan. 10 (3), 289–306. Hagos, K.W., 2007. Impact of Offshore Wind Energy on Marine Fisheries in Rhode Island, Coastal Institute IGERT Project. White Paper in Integrated Coastal Science. . Harte, M.J., Campbell, H.V., Webster, J., 2010. Looking for safe harbor in a crowded sea: coastal space use conflict and marine renewable energy development. In: The Coastal Society’s 22nd International Conference Titled Shifting Shorelines: Adapting to the Future, Wilmington, North Carolina. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 2011. IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. .

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025

12

J.-L. Chen et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Kotler, P., Zaltman, G., 1971. Social marketing: an approach to planned social change. J. Mark. 35 (3), 3–12. Kotler, P., Lee, N.R., 2006. Marketing in the Public Sector: A Roadmap for Improved Performance. Wharton School Publishing, New Jersey. Lai, C.M., Chang, P.C. Winoto, P., Yue, C.D., Yang, R.Y., 2012. The analysis on potential of offshore wind energy in the western Taiwan. In: Proceedings of the 34th Ocean Engineering Conference in Taiwan, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, pp. 803–808 (in Chineses). Leonhard, S.B., Stenberg, C., Støttrup, J., 2011. Effect of the Horns Rev 1 Offshore Wind Farm on Fish Communities – Follow-up Seven Years After Construction. DTU Aqua Report, Denmark. Maes, F., 2008. The international legal framework for marine spatial planning. Mar. Pol. 32 (5), 797–810. Maibach, E., 1993. Social marketing for the environment: using information campaigns to promote environmental awareness and behavior change. Health Promot. Int. 8, 209–224. McCarthy, J.E., 1968. Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach. Richard D. Irwin, Homewood, IL. Menegaki, A.N., 2012. A social marketing mix for renewable energy in Europe based on consumer stated preference surveys. Renew. Energ. 39 (1), 30–39. Mee, L., 2006. Complementary Benefits of Alternative Energy: Suitability of Offshore Wind Farms as Aquaculture Sites. Inshore Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology Innovation and Development, SEAFISH – Project Ref: 10517. . Michler-Cieluch, T., Krause, G., Buck, B.H., 2009. Reflections on integrating operation and maintenance activities of offshore wind farms and mariculture. Ocean Coast. Manag. 52, 57–68. Nienhuis, S., Dunlop, E., 2011. The Potential Effects of Offshore Wind Power Projects to Fish and Fish Habitat in the Great Lakes. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Ontario, Canada. . OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 1999. Environmental Communication: Applying Communication Tools Towards Sustainable Development. Working Paper of the Working Party on Development Cooperation and Environment. . Pomeroy, R., Douvere, F., 2008. The engagement of stakeholders in the marine spatial planning process. Mar. Pol. 32, 816–822.

Punj, G., Stewart, D.W., 1983. Cluster analysis in marketing research: review and suggestions for application. J. Marketing Res., 134–148. Ramirez, R., 1999. Stakeholder analysis and conflict management. In: Buckles, D. (Ed.), Cultivating Peace: Conflict and Collaboration in Natural Resource Management. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa. Rangun, V.K., Karim, S., 1991. Teaching Note: Focusing the Concept of Social Marketing. Harvard Business School, Cambridge. Reed, M.S., 2008. Stakeholder participation for environmental management: a literature review. Biol. Conservat. 141 (10), 2417–2431. RYA & CA (The Royal Yachting Association and the Cruising Association), 2004. Recreational Boating in the Offshore Wind Farm Strategic Areas. The Royal Yachting Association and the Cruising Association, United Kingdom. . SAS (Surfers Against Sewage), 2009. Guidance on Environmental Impact Assessment of Offshore Renewable Energy Development on Surfing Resources and Recreation. Surfers Against Sewage. United Kingdom. . Savage, G.T., Nix, T.W., Whitehead, C.J., Blair, J.D., 1991. Strategy for assessing and managing organizational stakeholders. Acad. Manage. Exec. 5 (2), 61–75. Van Deurs, M.V., Grome, T.M., Kaspersen, M., Jensen, H., Stenberg, C.T., Sørensen, K., Støttrup, J., Warnar, T., Mosegaard, H., 2012. Short- and long-term effects of an offshore wind farm on three species of sandeel and their sand habitat. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 458, 169–180. Wedel, M., 2000. Market Segmentation: Conceptual and Methodological Foundations. Springer, New York. Wedel, M., Kamakura, W.A., 2000. Market Segmentation: Conceptual and Methodological Foundations. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA. Wiser, R.H., 1998. Green power marketing: increasing customer demand for renewable energy. Util. Policy 7 (2), 107–119. Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T., Öhman, M.C., 2006. The influence of offshore wind power on demersal fish. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 63, 775–784. Wolsink, M., 2000. Wind power and the NIMBY-myth: institutional capacity and the limited significance of public support. Renew. Energy 21 (1), 49–64. Yang, C.C., Chen, C.F., 2012. Market segmentation of website services in travel agencies. Asia Pac. Manag. Rev. 17 (3), 233–246. Yates, K.L., Schoeman, D.S., Klein, C.J., 2015. Ocean zoning for conservation, fisheries and marine renewable energy: assessing trade-offs and co-location opportunities. J. Environ. Manag. 152, 201–209.

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, J.-L., et al. Strategic planning to reduce conflicts for offshore wind development in Taiwan: A social marketing perspective. Mar. Pollut. Bull. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.025