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The Effects of Precise Constant and Cyclic Environments on Shell Quality and Other Lay Performance Factors With Leghorn Pullets
The Effects of Precise Constant and Cyclic Environments on Shell Quality and Other Lay Performance Factors With Leghorn Pullets P . C. MILLER AND M. L . SUNDE
Department of Poultry Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706 (Received for publication February 4, 1974)
POULTRY SCIENCE 54: 36-46, 1975
temperatures below zero degrees centrigrade (0° C.) but Squibb (1959) reported no difference in five distinct climate areas having temperatures ranging from zero to 45° C. with variable humidities. Bennion and Warren (1933), Warren and Schnepel (1940), Wilson (1949), Hutchinson (1953), Mueller (1961) and Carmon and Huston (1965) reported decreased egg weight due to high temperatures, but Rosenberg and Tanaka (1951) reported no difference in egg weight from birds held at either moderate or high temperatures. Bennion and Warren (1933) and Carmon and Huston (1965) found an increase in egg weight at low temperatures. Decreased feed consumption along with decreased body weight at high temperatures was reported by Wilson (1949), Huston et al. (1957), Campos et al. (1960) and Mueller (1961), but Squibb (1959) found no difference between the various temperatures on the basis of these two criteria. Warren and Schnepel (1940), Wilhelm
INTRODUCTION
T
HE influence of high temperatures on lay performance is of particular importance in the tropics, subtropics and parts of the United States. Low temperatures have also been of importance because of the desire to decrease building costs or heating needs. Controlled experiments since 1930 have indicated various effects of temperature on the bird. Using Leghorns, Bennion and Warren (1933), Wilson (1949), Mueller (1961) and others found that egg production decreased at high temperatures while Huston et al. (1957) and Campos et al. (1960) reported no change in the rate of egg production at high temperatures as compared to moderate temperatures. Willham (1931) and Wilson et al. (1957) reported decreased egg production at
Research supported by the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.
36
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ABSTRACT Two hundred seventy-two White Leghorns were maintained at temperatures of 10, 21, 32, 26-38, 10.0-21.1, 15.6-26.7, 21.1-32.2 and 26.7-37.8° C. for time periods of several weeks to several months. The temperature environments were created in the Biotron Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Both gradual and abrupt increases in temperature gave immediate declines in shell rigidity, egg weight and feed consumption, but egg production was not markedly affected over an extended period of time. Both gradual and abrupt decreases in temperature gave the opposite effects which increases had given. In neither case was bone mineralization affected, thus indicating a maintenance of hormonal balance even if at a different level. Bone depletion did not occur under the stress of high temperatures and shell formation even though egg production was maintained. Constant high temperatures (32° C.) resulted in lower shell deformation (0.018 vs. 0.023 mm.) than a cyclic hot temperature (26-38° C ) , but cyclic temperatures resulted in higher egg production. The time of oviposition was later in the day in those birds subjected to high cyclic, as compared to constant high temperatures. This may account for the increase in shell rigidity after several weeks of exposure to the cyclic hot environment. The proportion of egg component parts at the end of three months of exposure was unchanged for birds exposed to constant temperatures of 10, 21 and 32° C , and to cyclic temperatures from 26-38° C.
37
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
CD
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50
40
Cyclic Hot
30
20
10
Cyclic Cold
A. 2
3
6
DAY FIG. 1. Temperature schemes of Experiment 1 and the percent change in shell deformation as the birds were exposed to an abrupt change in temperature.
38
P . C. MILLER AND M . L . SUNDE
TABLE 1.—Lay rations used in Experiment 1 and 2 Percent of total ration Experiment Experiment Ingredients
1
2
71.8
72.2
0.0
12.0
11.0
0.0
2.5
3.0
2.5 2.5 2.5 0.5 0.5 5.5 0.0 0.5' 100.0
3.0 2.5 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.0 5.5 0.5 2 100.0
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experiment 1. T h e experiment was carried out in the Biotron facilities of the University ! Premix supplied per kilogram of diet: 4,0001.U. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin using 44 vit. A, 2,000 I.U. vit. D 3 , 10 mg. B 2 , 10 mg. Single C o m b White Leghorn pullets in double panthothenic acid, 10 mg. niacin, 0.01 mg. B 1 2 , tiered cages. From 29 to 42 weeks of age, and 150 mg. manganese oxide. 2 Same as premix 1 plus 1 g. D, L-methionine the pullets were subjected to the following temperature schemes: 1) Cyclic Cold (Cy C), per kg. of diet. 10.0-21.1 ± 0.5° C ; 2) Cyclic Intermediate Cold (Cy I C), 15.6-26.7 ± 0.5° C ; 3) Cyclic Chemical composition Experiment Experiment (calculated) 1 2 Intermediate H o t (Cy I H ) , 21.1-32.2 ± Protein (%) 14J 15^3 0.5° C ; and 4) Cyclic H o t (Cy H ) , 26.7-37.8 Metabolizable energy ± 0.5° C. The maximum temperatures were (kcal./kg.) 2750 2890 from 3 to 6 p . m . and the minimum temperaCalcium (%) 2.7 2.8 tures were from 3 t o 6 a.m. Constant increment changes in temperature were made when going from one plateau to another (Figure 1). (1940), Heywang (1946), Wilson (1949), Hutchinson (1953), Mueller (1959, 1961) and The diet given in Table 1 was fed ad libitum Harrison and Biellier (1969) reported a defrom 40 to 43 weeks of age. Prior to 40 weeks crease in shell quality at high temperatures of age, most of these birds were fed a and Campos et al. (1960), Harrison and Bielcommercial lay ration containing 15.2% prolier (1969), Mueller (1966) and Warren and tein, 2,750 Calories (kcal.) of metabolizable Schnepel (1940) reported improved shell energy (M.E.) per kilogram (kg.), 3.8% calciquality at low temperatures. um and 0.7% phosphorus. Lorenz and Almquist (1936), Smith et al. Incandescent lighting provided 14 hours of (1954), Gee et al. (1964) and Carmon and light from 4 a.m. to 6 p.m. each day at the Huston (1965) reported that there was no rate of 54 lux. at the top of the upper tier. change in the proportion of shell, yolk and Tap water containing approximately 100 parts albumen to the total egg weight as temperaper million calcium was given ad libitum with tures were elevated, but Cotterill et al. (1962) dew drop waterers and its temperature was found that the ratio of yolk to albumen approximately 20° C . prior t o entering the
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Corn, yellow ground Soybean meal (44% protein) Soybean meal (49% protein) Alfalfa meal (17% protein) Meat and bone meal (50% protein) Fish meal (60% protein) Cellulose (Solka Floe) Dicalcium phosphate Salt, iodized Limestone flour Oyster shell, coarse Premix
changed as egg size decreased d u e to increased temperature. Bennion and Warren (1933) also reported an observable decrease in the amount of yolk, shell and albumen, but that the decrease in yolk was not as great as the other two components. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of temperature on bone mineralization and on other lay performance criteria, especially shell rigidity over a short period of time, and to theorize the possible cause(s) of shell deterioration at high temperatures observed in previous studies.
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
Experiment 2. This experiment was also carried out in the same facilities, but over a period of 90 days. From day three through day 90, the 228 Single Comb White Leghorn pullets were subjected to the following temperature schemes: 1) Constant Cold (Co C), 10 ± 0.5° C ; 2) Constant Intermediate (Co I), 21 ± 0.5° C ; 3) Constant Hot (Co H), 32 ± 0.5° C ; 4) Cyclic Hot (Cy H), 26-38 1. Marius, N. V. Fabriek en Magazijn Van Wetenschappelijke Instrumenten, Utrecht, Hollantl.
± 0.5° C. The maximum temperature was attained at 1 p.m. and then immediately began to decline to the minimum temperature at 3 a.m. Each of the four temperature chambers contained 54 individually caged birds. There were six additional pullets in each of the extreme constant temperature chambers for interchanging between compartments. All birds at day zero (34 weeks of age) were in an environment of 21° C. A phasing program of two days (Figure 2) was used to create the experimental temperature schemes. A commercial lay ration, containing 16.7% protein, 2,830 M.E. kcal. per kg., 3.7% calcium and 0.7% phosphorus was given from day zero to day six and then the ration in Table 1 or its modification was fed ad libitum to day 90. The modifications produced nine rations. There were three protein levels (13.3, 15.2 and 17.3%), three energy levels (2420, 2860, and 3300 M.E. kcal./kg.) and three calcium levels (2.4, 2.8 and 3.1%). The calcium levels increased as the energy level increased. Each of the several ration modifications was equally represented in all chambers and all birds that were evaluated for bone mineralization received the ration in Table 1. Relative humidity was held constant at 40 ± 5%. Egg weight and shell deformation data were taken twice weekly on the principle 36 birds which were later scanned. Water temperature was controlled at 20 ± 1° C. and ventilation, egg gathering and lighting were the same as in Experiment 1. All eggs from 54 birds per chamber on days 0,1,2, 3,6, 34, and 62 which included before, during and after the temperature phasing program, were measured for shell deformation as in Experiment 1. This measurement of shell rigidity was converted to a percent of the shell rigidity measurement obtained on day zero and contrasted with the temperature schemes. Bone mass scans were taken of birds in
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chamber. Outside air was supplied at the rate of five cubic meters per minute per chamber (2.6 by 3.7 by 2.4 meters) and inside air was recirculated at the rate of 53 cubic meters per minute per chamber. The relative humidity was 55 ± 5% for the first three treatments and 45 ± 5% for the Cy H treatment. Eggs were gathered twice daily from the individually caged birds. Individual feed consumption measurements were made. All eggs were weighed to the nearest tenth gram (g.) and nondestructive shell deformation on the large end of all eggs was made to the nearest thousandth millimeter (mm.) using the Marius' apparatus under a 500 g. load. Bone mass scans using a modified Cameron-Sorenson scanning apparatus (Meyer et al., 1968) were taken of all 44 birds at 280, 284, 291 and 298 days of age between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. Due to the death of four birds caused by heat prostration because of the sudden change from Cy C to Cy H or Cy I C to Cy H, only the data from 40 birds could be used. When the birds were 281 days of age, the following groups of birds were moved from one chamber to another: 1) six birds from the Cy I C to the Cy C; 2) six birds from the Cy I C to the Cy H; 3) six birds from the Cy I H to the Cy H; 4) six birds from the Cy I H to the Cy C and nine days later a total of eight birds were interchanged between the Cy H and Cy C chambers.
39
40
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Experiment I. Within several hours after the eight birds were interchanged between the Cyclic Hot (27-38° C.) and Cyclic Cold (10-21° C.) chambers (Figure 1) there was an effect upon shell formation as indicated by an abrupt change in shell rigidity the following day. The abrupt movement from the cold environment to the hot environment caused mortality (two out of four) and the production of shell-less eggs for several dsys indicating a major physiological disturbance, but there was rapid adaptation to the change indicated by a cessation of mortality and the renewed production of sound eggs. This abrupt adverse effect of high temperature change was also observed by Warren and Schnepel (1940) and Harrison and Biellier (1969) and can be partially explained by the development of respiratory alkalosis and subsequent com-
pensatory renal excretion of calcium bases (Mongin, 1968). Figure 1 also shows that an abrupt change from the Cy H to the Cy C environment promoted an increase in shell rigidity of 30% the following day (day one) which cannot be accounted for by the increase in feed consumption (Table 2) of only 9% unless calcium retention was increased significantly. Minor day-to-day fluctuations in shell rigidity of the control groups on Cy H and Cy C temperatures is due to individual bird variations. Comparing seven days of data before the interchange of birds to the mean of an equal number of days after the interchange showed a decrease in shell rigidity of 77% from the birds moved to the hot chamber (Table 2). This could be attributed to a decrease in calcium intake of 53% but according to Mueller (1959) the decreased calcium intake is offset by increased calcium utilization. After interchanging the birds between chambers, there were also marked differences in egg weight, body weight and feed consumption. The decline in egg weight of 11% after the shift from the Cy C to the Cy H chamber could possibly be due to the decreased feed consumption (53%) but Bennion and Warren (1933) reported that reduced feed consumption of up to 50% did not decrease the egg size. Wilson (1949) also reported sharp declines in egg weight by hens exposed to the high temperatures and noted that 24 hours of exposure was sufficient to cause reduced egg weight. Both control groups maintained relatively constant values on the basis of the above criteria over a period of 14 days with differences between the two treatments consistent with previous reports by Mueller (1961) and Howes et al. (1961). The data in Table 3 indicates that no significant change (0.05 level) in bone mineralization occurred after the birds were moved from one environment to another. There is also no indication from the data
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all chambers between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. as in Experiment 1 on designated days. There were 36 birds scanned on day zero. Five of these 36 were again scanned on days one, two and three which included the period of time when the temperatures were being increased. On days 6 and 34, 17 birds were scanned. On day 34, after four weeks on the diet given in Table 1, six birds from each of the Co C and Co H chambers were interchanged and on the following day these 12 birds plus five control birds were again scanned. On day 90, the original 36 birds were scanned. Data was adjusted to a hen standard value of 38.0 if the deviation of the standard on the scanning day was greater than 5% (Meyer et al., 1968). All eggs produced on the 90th day of the experiment from 54 birds per chamber were broken out in an attempt to determine the cause of decreased egg weight in the hot chambers. Egg weight, shell weight (air-dried with membrane) and yolk weight with chalazae were obtained by weighing; albumen weight was calculated by subtraction.
41
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
TABLE 2.—Effect
of a change in temperature on the lay performance in Experiment 1 i
Prod Temperature scheme Cy Cy Cy Cy
C C H H
(10-21° C.) to Cy H to Cy C (27-38° C.)
No. birds 6 4 4 6
B3
(%
67 79 57 57
Deformation
Egg wt.
A4
(0.001 mm.) B A
B
69 57 57 46
18.3 16.9 28.3 25.0
58 56 48 50
17.2 29.9 18.2 24.0
(g.)
Body wt.
Feed C.
(kg.)
(g./h.-d.) 2 B A
A
B
A
58 50 50 50
1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3
1.5 1.3 1.4 1.2
75 76 66 54
86 36 72 56
1 2
TABLE 3.—Effect
of a change in temperature on bone mineralization in Experiment 1 Age (days)
Temperature scheme
No. birds
280'
284
291
294
Bone mass units
CyC
6
15.5
15.1
14.6
14.6
Cy C to Cy H 2
2
13.8
13.5
13.0
13.4
Cy I C to Cy C Cy I C to Cy H 4
6
15.1 14.6
15.2 14.6
15.2 15.6
14.8
4
Cy I H to Cy H 4
6
15.1
15.1
15.4
16.0
Cy I H to Cy C 4
6
15.0
14.9
14.6
15.2
Cy H to Cy C 2
4
14.4
14.0
14.0
15.3
CyH
6
14.9
15.2
15.4
14.7
3
15.3
'After a period of 11 weeks on the temperature scheme. 2 Moved birds from first chamber to the second at 290 days of age. 'Blocked area is data gathered after shifting birds from one chamber to another. 4 Moved birds from first chamber to the second at 281 days of age.
gathered at 280 days of age that the birds kept under 11 weeks of different temperature schemes showed a significant difference (0.05) in bone mineralization. The weightedmeans at 280 days were 15.1, 14.9, 15.1 and 14.7 bone mass units (BMU) for the four respective treatments. The absence of a change in bone mineralization indicates either 1) bone is in a static condition or 2) bone structure changed but off-setting hormonal changes caused a net stability. This would be in agreement with Mueller (1959) who found using the calcium balance method essentially no change in the calcium stored in or removed from bones of birds held at 13° C , 29° C. or in a fluctuating environment. It is also possible that the treatment period of 91
days (11 weeks plus 14 days) was not long enough for the effects to show. Experiment 2. The data (Figure 2) again indicate that shell rigidity is quickly affected by temperature changes. During the two-day phasing period there were no differences in the changes in shell rigidity but the day after the experimental environments were attained there were marked changes in the shell. The cooler environments gave less changes in shell rigidity than the warmer environments, and there was a distinct difference between the two hot environments. Greater shell rigidity should be expected from those eggs produced in the Cyclic Hot environment as compared to those from the Constant Hot
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Egg production on a hen-day basis. Grams per hen-day. 'Period of seven days before (B) the interchange of birds. "Period of seven days after (A) the interchange of birds.
42
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
CD
lbU
140
Cy H (26-38° C)
130
110
Co H ( 3 2 ° C)
100
Co I ( 2 1 ° C)
90 Co C ( 1 0 ° C)
80
50
r-
40
-
30
-
20
=
10
~
C o n s t a n t Hot
2
3
6
34
62
90
DRY FIG. 2. Temperature schemes of Experiment 2 and the percent change in shell deformation as the birds were exposed to a gradual change in temperature.
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120
43
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
studied. Bone mineralization did not change with temperature, but shell formation was detrimentally affected by high temperatures; therefore, there is reason to believe that bone resorption does not occur based entirely upon the demands of shell formation. If bone formation is maintained in equilibrium, then high temperatures must effect estrogen, parathyroid, thyroid, and calcitonin hormone production and/ or secretion in such a way that they are maintained in balance but at lower levels. Thyroxine production decreases in laying fowl at high temperatures (Bell and Freeman, 1971) and there may be a corresponding decrease or increases in the other hormones that affect bone mineralization so that there is a net static condition. If the reduction in the calcium metabolizing hormones occurs because of a negative effect on the pituitary and/or hypothalamus, then this may account for a decreased egg weight because of less follicle stimulating hormone thus reducing the ovum weight. The absence of mortality due to heat stress in Experiment 2 as compared to Experiment 1 may have been due to the availability of water which was more adequately cooled in Experiment 2 than in Experiment 1. After finding large quantities of cool water in the crop of birds exposed to high temperatures, Fox (1951) hypothesized that the volume of cool water in close proximity to the main
TABLE 4.—The effect of a change in temperature on bone mineralization in Experiment 2 over a time period of 90 days No. birds
Mat 21° C. 0
1
2
CoC
2
15.6
15.3
14.1
Co C to Co H
6
16.5
Co H to Co C
6
16.1
CoH
3
14.7
Temperature scheme
14.3
15.2
Days after day 0 6 34' 3 Bone mass units
35
90
14.7
15.8
16.6
15.9
—
15.6
16.5
15.4
15.5
—
14.7
14.2
13.8
14.9
15.6
15.2
14.9
—
15.8
'Birds interchanged from one temperature chamber to another. 2 Blocked area is data gathered after the interchanged of birds.
2
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environment because shell formation would normally occur from 7 p.m. to 10 a.m. and this would correspond to the lower half of the Cycle Hot treatment where the mean temperatures would be less than that of the constant 32° C , but the present data (35 observations per data point) and the report of Hutchinson (1953) indicate an apparent advantage in having a high constant temperature of 32° C. rather than a cyclic temperature scheme of 26 to 38° C. with a mean of 32° C. The data in Table 4 indicates that bone mineralization is not effected by either increasing or decreasing temperatures. There was no significant difference (0.05 level) in BMU between the birds held at 21° C. (15.6 BMU) and the same birds six days later at 10° C. (16.6 BMU) nor was there a significant difference in BMU between the birds held at 21° C. and the same birds six days later at 32° C. Scans of 12 birds the day after (day 35) they were interchanged (day 34) between chambers gave no significant difference among birds in bone mass although there were apparent decreases in bone mass going from cold to hot environments and from hot to cold environments. The data given in Table 5 show no significant difference in bone mineralization, using a 2.8% calcium diet, after 90 days of exposure to various temperature schemes, therefore indicating that bone mineralization may be independent of temperature within the ranges
44
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
TABLE 5.—The effect of 90 days of various temperatures on bone mineralization in Experiment 2 Temperature scheme (°C.)
No. birds
Bone mass units 15.2 15.6 16.8 16.4 15.8 15.4 14.3 14.7
arteries and veins supplying the head region should have a cooling effect on the blood going to and returning from the brain. The cooling effect would prevent what Randall (1942) theorized to be the cause of death— paralyzation of the respiratory center due to high blood temperature. Data presented in Table 6 indicate that after the Co C (10° C.) birds were moved to the Co H (32° C.) chambers there was no appreciable change in the rate of egg production on a hen-day basis, but there was a marked increase in shell deformation and a decrease in egg weight, body weight and feed consumption. These adverse effects were also reported by Bennion and Warren (1933), Warren and Schnepel (1940), Hutchinson (1953), and Huston et al. (1957). The opposite occurred in these four criteria in the birds moved from the Co H to the Co C. As noted
Because of the time of oviposition in birds
TABLE 6.— The effect of a change in temperature in Experiment 2 on lay performance Prod Temperature scheme CoC Co C to Co H Col Co H to Co C CoH CyH 1 Egg production on a 2 Grams per hen-day. 3
No. birds 6 6 6 6 6 6
i
(%:) B3 A4 74 74 74 72 70 63 65 73 61 61 66 71
Deformation (0.001 B 16.0 14.7 17.4 22.5 18.1 23.2
mm.) A 15.8 17.4 16.7 16.0 16.6 17.8
hen-day basis.
Period of 4 weeks before (B) the interchange of birds. "Period of 8 weeks after (A) the interchange of birds.
Egg wt.
Body wt.
Feed C.
(8-)
(kg.)
(g./h.-d.) 2 B A 98 100 106 78 85 92 68 104 67 69 61 76
B 62 62 58 55 55 52
A 63 57 60 62 54 53
B 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4
A 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.4
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Co C (10) Co I (21) Co H (32) Cy H (26-38)
All at 21° C.
After 90 days of the temperature scheme
in Experiment 1, shell rigidity was decreased by increasing temperature and increased by decreasing temperature. There was no appreciable difference between the Cy H and the Co H treated birds on the basis of egg weight, body weight or feed consumption, but the Cy H gave higher egg production and lower shell rigidity than the Co H environment. As indicated by the data (Table 6), the mean deformation for the four-week period from the birds under Cy H was 0.0232 mm., but the following eight weeks gave 0.0178 mm., which was similar to that of the Co H chamber. This adjustment may have been due to the occurrence of oviposition later in the day during the last eight weeks than in the previous four weeks, therefore subjecting the process of shell formation to less stressful conditions. The data from all 228 birds indicated 57% of the eggs laid in the Cy H chamber were laid after 9 a.m., but 43% of the eggs were laid after 9 a.m. in the Constant Hot chamber. The shell deformations were 0.0191 and 0.0205 mm. for the Constant and Cyclic Hot chambers respectfully prior to 9 a.m. and 17.7 and 18.5 thousandths mm. respectfully after 9 a.m. which is in agreement with Roland (1973) who reported increased specific gravity of those eggs laid in the late morning as compared to those laid in the early morning.
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
45
TABLE 7.—Component parts of eggs produced by hens exposed to various temperatures for a period of 90 days in Expt. 2 Temperature No. scheme eggs CoC 34 Col 38 CoH 29 CyH 33 1 By subtraction.
Egg wt. (g.) (%) 62.8 100 60.5 100 55.7 100 56.7 100
Shell wt. (g.) (%) 6.3 10.0 6.3 10.4 5.4 9.7 5.5 9.7
Albumen (g.) 37.5 35.4 33.5 34.2
wt. 1 (%) 59.7 58.5 60.1 60.3
was no net change in skeletal calcium. Both experiments showed very rapid effects of temperature changes on shell formation. The high temperatures markedly decreased shell rigidity compared to moderate temperatures while low temperatures tended to promote shell rigidity. The time of oviposition between temperatures may have been influenced by the various temperatures, thus accounting for some of the differences in shell rigidity between the temperature treatments. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to thank the Cosmic Medicine Laboratory for supplying the iodine 125 source used in taking bone mass scans. We also extend appreciation to Merck and Company for supplying the B 2 , niacin and calcium pantothenic used in the experiments. REFERENCES Bell, D. J., and B. M. Freeman, 1971. Physiology and Biochemistry of the Domestic Fowl. Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd. Bennion, N. L., and D. C. Warren, 1933. Temperature and its effect on egg size in the domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 12: 69-82. Campos, A. C , F. H. Wilcox and C. S. Shaffner, 1960. The influence of fast and slow rises in ambient temperature on production traits and mortality of laying pullets. Poultry Sci. 39: 119-129. Carmon, L. G., and T. M. Huston, 1965. The influence of environmental temperature upon egg components of domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 44: 1237-1240. Cotterill, O. J., A. B. Stephenson and E. M. Funk, 1962. Factors affecting the yield of egg products from shell eggs. Proc. 12th World's Poultry Congress, Sydney, Australia, pp. 443-447. Fox, T. W., 1951. Studies on heat tolerance in the
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subjected to high cyclic temperatures tended to occur later in the day than those subjected to constant temperatures, there is an indication that shell formation was affected not only by the temperature, but also by what time in the shell formation cycle the peak temperature occurs. This disagrees with Mueller (1961) who maintains that any difference between a Cy H environment and a Co H environment was not caused by a particular temperature at a definite stage of egg formation. Nordstrom (1971) suggested that the egg spends an additional two hours in the shell gland when the hens are exposed to heat stress. His finding may account for the later time of oviposition, but would not support the fact that the Cy H gave the higher egg production (64% vs. 60%). The data in Table 7 indicate that the proportion of shell, yolk and albumen does not change significantly due to temperature but that the amounts of each were decreased. This agrees with Lorenz and Almquist (1936), Gee et al. (1964), and Carmon and Huston (1965), but is in disagreement, with Bennion and Warren (1933) who reported that a greater percentage decrease took place in the shell and albumen and that the proportion of yolk to whole egg is greater at high temperatures than at low temperatures. Wilhelm (1940) also reported that high temperatures reduced the percentage of shell of the total egg weight. In neither experiment was there a change in bone mass due to shifts in environmental temperatures or in long exposures to various temperatures, therefore indicating that there
Yolk wt. (g.) (%) 19.0 30.3 18.8 31.1 16.8 30.2 17.0 30.0
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P . C . M I L L E R AND M . L .
Mueller, W. J., 1966. Effect of rapid temperature changes on acid-base balance and shell quality. Poultry Sci. 45: 1109. Nordstrom, J. O., 1971. Duration of egg formation in chickens during heat stress. Poultry Sci. 50: 1612. Randall, W. C , 1942. Factors influencing the temperature regulation of birds. Amer. J. Physiol. 139: 56-63. Roland, D. A., Sr., 1973. Calcium metabolism and the egg shell. Proc. Georgia Nutr. Confer., pp. 109-119. Rosenberg, M. M., and T. Tanaka, 1951. Effect of temperature on egg weight in Hawaii. Poultry Sci. 51:745-747. Smith, A. H., W. O. Wilson and J. G. Brown, 1954. Composition of eggs from individual hens maintained under controlled environments. Poultry Sci. 33: 898-908. Squibb, R. L., 1959. Relation of diurnal temperature and humidity ranges to egg production and feed efficiency of New Hampshire hens. J. Agric. Sci. 52: 217-222. Warren, D. C , and R. L. Schnepel, 1940. The effect of air temperatures on egg shell thickness in the fowl. Poultry Sci. 19: 67-72. Wilhelm, L. A., 1940. Some factors affecting variations in egg shell quality. Poultry Sci. 19: 246-253. Willham, O. S., 1931. The relation of temperature to egg production. Panhandle Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 28: 1-16. Wilson, W. O., 1949. High environmental temperatures as affecting the reaction of laying hens to iodized casein. Poultry Sci. 28: 581-592. Wilson, W. O., E. H. McNally and H. Ota, 1957. Temperature and calorimeter study on hens in individual cages. Poultry Sci. 36: 1254-1261.
NEWS A N D NOTES (Continued from page 10) ABBOTT NOTES
A.E.B. NOTES
Charles E. Claybrook has been awarded the "Outstanding Poultry Health/Feed Additive Salesman" Award for 1973. The Award is given annually to the most deserving salesman in the Southeastern United States as voted upon by the poultry industry. He is District Manager for Alabama and Mississippi and has been with Abbott Laboratories Agriculture and Veterinary Products Division, for 11 years.
At the annual meeting of the American Egg Board, held in Chicago, the following officers were elected: Chairman of the Board—George H. Biddle, Sun Valley Farms, Modesto, California; Vice Chairman— Frederick C. Graves, Clear Creek Enterprises, Amanda, Ohio; Treasurer—Simon Cassady, Jr., Hy-Line International, Des Moines, Iowa; and Secretary— Jerry S. Straughan, Gold Kist Eggs, Hilliard, Florida.
(Continued on page 53)
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domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 30: 477-483. Gee, G., J. Mulkey and T. Huston, 1964. The influence of environmental temperatures upon egg components. Poultry Sci. 43: 1321-1322. Harrison,P. C , and H. V. Biellier, 1969. Physiological response of domestic fowl to abrupt changes of ambient air temperature. Poultry Sci. 48: 1034-1044. Heywang, B. W., 1946. Sources of calcium for laying chickens during hot weather. Poultry Sci. 25: 215— 222. Howes, J. R., W. Grub and C. A. Rollo, 1961. The effects of high constant environmental temperatures upon caged White Leghorn pullets. Poultry Sci. 40: 1416-1417. Huston, T. M., W. P. Joiner and J. L. Carmon, 1957. Breed differences in egg production of domestic fowl held at high environmental temperatures. Poultry Sci. 36: 1247-1254. Hutchinson, J. C , 1953. Effect of hot climates on egg weight. Poultry Sci. 32: 692-6%. Lorenz, F. W. and H. J. Almquist, 1936. Seasonal variations in egg quality. Poultry Sci. 15: 14-18. Meyer, G. B., S. W. Babcockand M. L. Sunde, 1968. An accurate in vivo technique for measuring bone mineral mass in chickens. J. Nutr. 96: 195-205. Mongin, P., 1968. Role of acid-base balance in the physiology of egg shell formation. World's Poultry Sci. J. 24: 200-230. Mueller, W. J., 1959. The effect of environmental temperature and humidity on the calcium balance and serum calcium of laying pullets. Poultry Sci. 38: 1296-1301. Mueller, W. J., 1961. The effect of constant and fluctuating environmental temperatures on the biological performance of laying pullets. Poultry Sci. 40: 1562-1571.
SUNDE
Department of Poultry Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706 (Received for publication February 4, 1974)
POULTRY SCIENCE 54: 36-46, 1975
temperatures below zero degrees centrigrade (0° C.) but Squibb (1959) reported no difference in five distinct climate areas having temperatures ranging from zero to 45° C. with variable humidities. Bennion and Warren (1933), Warren and Schnepel (1940), Wilson (1949), Hutchinson (1953), Mueller (1961) and Carmon and Huston (1965) reported decreased egg weight due to high temperatures, but Rosenberg and Tanaka (1951) reported no difference in egg weight from birds held at either moderate or high temperatures. Bennion and Warren (1933) and Carmon and Huston (1965) found an increase in egg weight at low temperatures. Decreased feed consumption along with decreased body weight at high temperatures was reported by Wilson (1949), Huston et al. (1957), Campos et al. (1960) and Mueller (1961), but Squibb (1959) found no difference between the various temperatures on the basis of these two criteria. Warren and Schnepel (1940), Wilhelm
INTRODUCTION
T
HE influence of high temperatures on lay performance is of particular importance in the tropics, subtropics and parts of the United States. Low temperatures have also been of importance because of the desire to decrease building costs or heating needs. Controlled experiments since 1930 have indicated various effects of temperature on the bird. Using Leghorns, Bennion and Warren (1933), Wilson (1949), Mueller (1961) and others found that egg production decreased at high temperatures while Huston et al. (1957) and Campos et al. (1960) reported no change in the rate of egg production at high temperatures as compared to moderate temperatures. Willham (1931) and Wilson et al. (1957) reported decreased egg production at
Research supported by the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.
36
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ABSTRACT Two hundred seventy-two White Leghorns were maintained at temperatures of 10, 21, 32, 26-38, 10.0-21.1, 15.6-26.7, 21.1-32.2 and 26.7-37.8° C. for time periods of several weeks to several months. The temperature environments were created in the Biotron Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Both gradual and abrupt increases in temperature gave immediate declines in shell rigidity, egg weight and feed consumption, but egg production was not markedly affected over an extended period of time. Both gradual and abrupt decreases in temperature gave the opposite effects which increases had given. In neither case was bone mineralization affected, thus indicating a maintenance of hormonal balance even if at a different level. Bone depletion did not occur under the stress of high temperatures and shell formation even though egg production was maintained. Constant high temperatures (32° C.) resulted in lower shell deformation (0.018 vs. 0.023 mm.) than a cyclic hot temperature (26-38° C ) , but cyclic temperatures resulted in higher egg production. The time of oviposition was later in the day in those birds subjected to high cyclic, as compared to constant high temperatures. This may account for the increase in shell rigidity after several weeks of exposure to the cyclic hot environment. The proportion of egg component parts at the end of three months of exposure was unchanged for birds exposed to constant temperatures of 10, 21 and 32° C , and to cyclic temperatures from 26-38° C.
37
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
CD
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50
40
Cyclic Hot
30
20
10
Cyclic Cold
A. 2
3
6
DAY FIG. 1. Temperature schemes of Experiment 1 and the percent change in shell deformation as the birds were exposed to an abrupt change in temperature.
38
P . C. MILLER AND M . L . SUNDE
TABLE 1.—Lay rations used in Experiment 1 and 2 Percent of total ration Experiment Experiment Ingredients
1
2
71.8
72.2
0.0
12.0
11.0
0.0
2.5
3.0
2.5 2.5 2.5 0.5 0.5 5.5 0.0 0.5' 100.0
3.0 2.5 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.0 5.5 0.5 2 100.0
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experiment 1. T h e experiment was carried out in the Biotron facilities of the University ! Premix supplied per kilogram of diet: 4,0001.U. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin using 44 vit. A, 2,000 I.U. vit. D 3 , 10 mg. B 2 , 10 mg. Single C o m b White Leghorn pullets in double panthothenic acid, 10 mg. niacin, 0.01 mg. B 1 2 , tiered cages. From 29 to 42 weeks of age, and 150 mg. manganese oxide. 2 Same as premix 1 plus 1 g. D, L-methionine the pullets were subjected to the following temperature schemes: 1) Cyclic Cold (Cy C), per kg. of diet. 10.0-21.1 ± 0.5° C ; 2) Cyclic Intermediate Cold (Cy I C), 15.6-26.7 ± 0.5° C ; 3) Cyclic Chemical composition Experiment Experiment (calculated) 1 2 Intermediate H o t (Cy I H ) , 21.1-32.2 ± Protein (%) 14J 15^3 0.5° C ; and 4) Cyclic H o t (Cy H ) , 26.7-37.8 Metabolizable energy ± 0.5° C. The maximum temperatures were (kcal./kg.) 2750 2890 from 3 to 6 p . m . and the minimum temperaCalcium (%) 2.7 2.8 tures were from 3 t o 6 a.m. Constant increment changes in temperature were made when going from one plateau to another (Figure 1). (1940), Heywang (1946), Wilson (1949), Hutchinson (1953), Mueller (1959, 1961) and The diet given in Table 1 was fed ad libitum Harrison and Biellier (1969) reported a defrom 40 to 43 weeks of age. Prior to 40 weeks crease in shell quality at high temperatures of age, most of these birds were fed a and Campos et al. (1960), Harrison and Bielcommercial lay ration containing 15.2% prolier (1969), Mueller (1966) and Warren and tein, 2,750 Calories (kcal.) of metabolizable Schnepel (1940) reported improved shell energy (M.E.) per kilogram (kg.), 3.8% calciquality at low temperatures. um and 0.7% phosphorus. Lorenz and Almquist (1936), Smith et al. Incandescent lighting provided 14 hours of (1954), Gee et al. (1964) and Carmon and light from 4 a.m. to 6 p.m. each day at the Huston (1965) reported that there was no rate of 54 lux. at the top of the upper tier. change in the proportion of shell, yolk and Tap water containing approximately 100 parts albumen to the total egg weight as temperaper million calcium was given ad libitum with tures were elevated, but Cotterill et al. (1962) dew drop waterers and its temperature was found that the ratio of yolk to albumen approximately 20° C . prior t o entering the
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Corn, yellow ground Soybean meal (44% protein) Soybean meal (49% protein) Alfalfa meal (17% protein) Meat and bone meal (50% protein) Fish meal (60% protein) Cellulose (Solka Floe) Dicalcium phosphate Salt, iodized Limestone flour Oyster shell, coarse Premix
changed as egg size decreased d u e to increased temperature. Bennion and Warren (1933) also reported an observable decrease in the amount of yolk, shell and albumen, but that the decrease in yolk was not as great as the other two components. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of temperature on bone mineralization and on other lay performance criteria, especially shell rigidity over a short period of time, and to theorize the possible cause(s) of shell deterioration at high temperatures observed in previous studies.
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
Experiment 2. This experiment was also carried out in the same facilities, but over a period of 90 days. From day three through day 90, the 228 Single Comb White Leghorn pullets were subjected to the following temperature schemes: 1) Constant Cold (Co C), 10 ± 0.5° C ; 2) Constant Intermediate (Co I), 21 ± 0.5° C ; 3) Constant Hot (Co H), 32 ± 0.5° C ; 4) Cyclic Hot (Cy H), 26-38 1. Marius, N. V. Fabriek en Magazijn Van Wetenschappelijke Instrumenten, Utrecht, Hollantl.
± 0.5° C. The maximum temperature was attained at 1 p.m. and then immediately began to decline to the minimum temperature at 3 a.m. Each of the four temperature chambers contained 54 individually caged birds. There were six additional pullets in each of the extreme constant temperature chambers for interchanging between compartments. All birds at day zero (34 weeks of age) were in an environment of 21° C. A phasing program of two days (Figure 2) was used to create the experimental temperature schemes. A commercial lay ration, containing 16.7% protein, 2,830 M.E. kcal. per kg., 3.7% calcium and 0.7% phosphorus was given from day zero to day six and then the ration in Table 1 or its modification was fed ad libitum to day 90. The modifications produced nine rations. There were three protein levels (13.3, 15.2 and 17.3%), three energy levels (2420, 2860, and 3300 M.E. kcal./kg.) and three calcium levels (2.4, 2.8 and 3.1%). The calcium levels increased as the energy level increased. Each of the several ration modifications was equally represented in all chambers and all birds that were evaluated for bone mineralization received the ration in Table 1. Relative humidity was held constant at 40 ± 5%. Egg weight and shell deformation data were taken twice weekly on the principle 36 birds which were later scanned. Water temperature was controlled at 20 ± 1° C. and ventilation, egg gathering and lighting were the same as in Experiment 1. All eggs from 54 birds per chamber on days 0,1,2, 3,6, 34, and 62 which included before, during and after the temperature phasing program, were measured for shell deformation as in Experiment 1. This measurement of shell rigidity was converted to a percent of the shell rigidity measurement obtained on day zero and contrasted with the temperature schemes. Bone mass scans were taken of birds in
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chamber. Outside air was supplied at the rate of five cubic meters per minute per chamber (2.6 by 3.7 by 2.4 meters) and inside air was recirculated at the rate of 53 cubic meters per minute per chamber. The relative humidity was 55 ± 5% for the first three treatments and 45 ± 5% for the Cy H treatment. Eggs were gathered twice daily from the individually caged birds. Individual feed consumption measurements were made. All eggs were weighed to the nearest tenth gram (g.) and nondestructive shell deformation on the large end of all eggs was made to the nearest thousandth millimeter (mm.) using the Marius' apparatus under a 500 g. load. Bone mass scans using a modified Cameron-Sorenson scanning apparatus (Meyer et al., 1968) were taken of all 44 birds at 280, 284, 291 and 298 days of age between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. Due to the death of four birds caused by heat prostration because of the sudden change from Cy C to Cy H or Cy I C to Cy H, only the data from 40 birds could be used. When the birds were 281 days of age, the following groups of birds were moved from one chamber to another: 1) six birds from the Cy I C to the Cy C; 2) six birds from the Cy I C to the Cy H; 3) six birds from the Cy I H to the Cy H; 4) six birds from the Cy I H to the Cy C and nine days later a total of eight birds were interchanged between the Cy H and Cy C chambers.
39
40
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Experiment I. Within several hours after the eight birds were interchanged between the Cyclic Hot (27-38° C.) and Cyclic Cold (10-21° C.) chambers (Figure 1) there was an effect upon shell formation as indicated by an abrupt change in shell rigidity the following day. The abrupt movement from the cold environment to the hot environment caused mortality (two out of four) and the production of shell-less eggs for several dsys indicating a major physiological disturbance, but there was rapid adaptation to the change indicated by a cessation of mortality and the renewed production of sound eggs. This abrupt adverse effect of high temperature change was also observed by Warren and Schnepel (1940) and Harrison and Biellier (1969) and can be partially explained by the development of respiratory alkalosis and subsequent com-
pensatory renal excretion of calcium bases (Mongin, 1968). Figure 1 also shows that an abrupt change from the Cy H to the Cy C environment promoted an increase in shell rigidity of 30% the following day (day one) which cannot be accounted for by the increase in feed consumption (Table 2) of only 9% unless calcium retention was increased significantly. Minor day-to-day fluctuations in shell rigidity of the control groups on Cy H and Cy C temperatures is due to individual bird variations. Comparing seven days of data before the interchange of birds to the mean of an equal number of days after the interchange showed a decrease in shell rigidity of 77% from the birds moved to the hot chamber (Table 2). This could be attributed to a decrease in calcium intake of 53% but according to Mueller (1959) the decreased calcium intake is offset by increased calcium utilization. After interchanging the birds between chambers, there were also marked differences in egg weight, body weight and feed consumption. The decline in egg weight of 11% after the shift from the Cy C to the Cy H chamber could possibly be due to the decreased feed consumption (53%) but Bennion and Warren (1933) reported that reduced feed consumption of up to 50% did not decrease the egg size. Wilson (1949) also reported sharp declines in egg weight by hens exposed to the high temperatures and noted that 24 hours of exposure was sufficient to cause reduced egg weight. Both control groups maintained relatively constant values on the basis of the above criteria over a period of 14 days with differences between the two treatments consistent with previous reports by Mueller (1961) and Howes et al. (1961). The data in Table 3 indicates that no significant change (0.05 level) in bone mineralization occurred after the birds were moved from one environment to another. There is also no indication from the data
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all chambers between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. as in Experiment 1 on designated days. There were 36 birds scanned on day zero. Five of these 36 were again scanned on days one, two and three which included the period of time when the temperatures were being increased. On days 6 and 34, 17 birds were scanned. On day 34, after four weeks on the diet given in Table 1, six birds from each of the Co C and Co H chambers were interchanged and on the following day these 12 birds plus five control birds were again scanned. On day 90, the original 36 birds were scanned. Data was adjusted to a hen standard value of 38.0 if the deviation of the standard on the scanning day was greater than 5% (Meyer et al., 1968). All eggs produced on the 90th day of the experiment from 54 birds per chamber were broken out in an attempt to determine the cause of decreased egg weight in the hot chambers. Egg weight, shell weight (air-dried with membrane) and yolk weight with chalazae were obtained by weighing; albumen weight was calculated by subtraction.
41
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
TABLE 2.—Effect
of a change in temperature on the lay performance in Experiment 1 i
Prod Temperature scheme Cy Cy Cy Cy
C C H H
(10-21° C.) to Cy H to Cy C (27-38° C.)
No. birds 6 4 4 6
B3
(%
67 79 57 57
Deformation
Egg wt.
A4
(0.001 mm.) B A
B
69 57 57 46
18.3 16.9 28.3 25.0
58 56 48 50
17.2 29.9 18.2 24.0
(g.)
Body wt.
Feed C.
(kg.)
(g./h.-d.) 2 B A
A
B
A
58 50 50 50
1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3
1.5 1.3 1.4 1.2
75 76 66 54
86 36 72 56
1 2
TABLE 3.—Effect
of a change in temperature on bone mineralization in Experiment 1 Age (days)
Temperature scheme
No. birds
280'
284
291
294
Bone mass units
CyC
6
15.5
15.1
14.6
14.6
Cy C to Cy H 2
2
13.8
13.5
13.0
13.4
Cy I C to Cy C Cy I C to Cy H 4
6
15.1 14.6
15.2 14.6
15.2 15.6
14.8
4
Cy I H to Cy H 4
6
15.1
15.1
15.4
16.0
Cy I H to Cy C 4
6
15.0
14.9
14.6
15.2
Cy H to Cy C 2
4
14.4
14.0
14.0
15.3
CyH
6
14.9
15.2
15.4
14.7
3
15.3
'After a period of 11 weeks on the temperature scheme. 2 Moved birds from first chamber to the second at 290 days of age. 'Blocked area is data gathered after shifting birds from one chamber to another. 4 Moved birds from first chamber to the second at 281 days of age.
gathered at 280 days of age that the birds kept under 11 weeks of different temperature schemes showed a significant difference (0.05) in bone mineralization. The weightedmeans at 280 days were 15.1, 14.9, 15.1 and 14.7 bone mass units (BMU) for the four respective treatments. The absence of a change in bone mineralization indicates either 1) bone is in a static condition or 2) bone structure changed but off-setting hormonal changes caused a net stability. This would be in agreement with Mueller (1959) who found using the calcium balance method essentially no change in the calcium stored in or removed from bones of birds held at 13° C , 29° C. or in a fluctuating environment. It is also possible that the treatment period of 91
days (11 weeks plus 14 days) was not long enough for the effects to show. Experiment 2. The data (Figure 2) again indicate that shell rigidity is quickly affected by temperature changes. During the two-day phasing period there were no differences in the changes in shell rigidity but the day after the experimental environments were attained there were marked changes in the shell. The cooler environments gave less changes in shell rigidity than the warmer environments, and there was a distinct difference between the two hot environments. Greater shell rigidity should be expected from those eggs produced in the Cyclic Hot environment as compared to those from the Constant Hot
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Egg production on a hen-day basis. Grams per hen-day. 'Period of seven days before (B) the interchange of birds. "Period of seven days after (A) the interchange of birds.
42
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
CD
lbU
140
Cy H (26-38° C)
130
110
Co H ( 3 2 ° C)
100
Co I ( 2 1 ° C)
90 Co C ( 1 0 ° C)
80
50
r-
40
-
30
-
20
=
10
~
C o n s t a n t Hot
2
3
6
34
62
90
DRY FIG. 2. Temperature schemes of Experiment 2 and the percent change in shell deformation as the birds were exposed to a gradual change in temperature.
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120
43
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
studied. Bone mineralization did not change with temperature, but shell formation was detrimentally affected by high temperatures; therefore, there is reason to believe that bone resorption does not occur based entirely upon the demands of shell formation. If bone formation is maintained in equilibrium, then high temperatures must effect estrogen, parathyroid, thyroid, and calcitonin hormone production and/ or secretion in such a way that they are maintained in balance but at lower levels. Thyroxine production decreases in laying fowl at high temperatures (Bell and Freeman, 1971) and there may be a corresponding decrease or increases in the other hormones that affect bone mineralization so that there is a net static condition. If the reduction in the calcium metabolizing hormones occurs because of a negative effect on the pituitary and/or hypothalamus, then this may account for a decreased egg weight because of less follicle stimulating hormone thus reducing the ovum weight. The absence of mortality due to heat stress in Experiment 2 as compared to Experiment 1 may have been due to the availability of water which was more adequately cooled in Experiment 2 than in Experiment 1. After finding large quantities of cool water in the crop of birds exposed to high temperatures, Fox (1951) hypothesized that the volume of cool water in close proximity to the main
TABLE 4.—The effect of a change in temperature on bone mineralization in Experiment 2 over a time period of 90 days No. birds
Mat 21° C. 0
1
2
CoC
2
15.6
15.3
14.1
Co C to Co H
6
16.5
Co H to Co C
6
16.1
CoH
3
14.7
Temperature scheme
14.3
15.2
Days after day 0 6 34' 3 Bone mass units
35
90
14.7
15.8
16.6
15.9
—
15.6
16.5
15.4
15.5
—
14.7
14.2
13.8
14.9
15.6
15.2
14.9
—
15.8
'Birds interchanged from one temperature chamber to another. 2 Blocked area is data gathered after the interchanged of birds.
2
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environment because shell formation would normally occur from 7 p.m. to 10 a.m. and this would correspond to the lower half of the Cycle Hot treatment where the mean temperatures would be less than that of the constant 32° C , but the present data (35 observations per data point) and the report of Hutchinson (1953) indicate an apparent advantage in having a high constant temperature of 32° C. rather than a cyclic temperature scheme of 26 to 38° C. with a mean of 32° C. The data in Table 4 indicates that bone mineralization is not effected by either increasing or decreasing temperatures. There was no significant difference (0.05 level) in BMU between the birds held at 21° C. (15.6 BMU) and the same birds six days later at 10° C. (16.6 BMU) nor was there a significant difference in BMU between the birds held at 21° C. and the same birds six days later at 32° C. Scans of 12 birds the day after (day 35) they were interchanged (day 34) between chambers gave no significant difference among birds in bone mass although there were apparent decreases in bone mass going from cold to hot environments and from hot to cold environments. The data given in Table 5 show no significant difference in bone mineralization, using a 2.8% calcium diet, after 90 days of exposure to various temperature schemes, therefore indicating that bone mineralization may be independent of temperature within the ranges
44
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
TABLE 5.—The effect of 90 days of various temperatures on bone mineralization in Experiment 2 Temperature scheme (°C.)
No. birds
Bone mass units 15.2 15.6 16.8 16.4 15.8 15.4 14.3 14.7
arteries and veins supplying the head region should have a cooling effect on the blood going to and returning from the brain. The cooling effect would prevent what Randall (1942) theorized to be the cause of death— paralyzation of the respiratory center due to high blood temperature. Data presented in Table 6 indicate that after the Co C (10° C.) birds were moved to the Co H (32° C.) chambers there was no appreciable change in the rate of egg production on a hen-day basis, but there was a marked increase in shell deformation and a decrease in egg weight, body weight and feed consumption. These adverse effects were also reported by Bennion and Warren (1933), Warren and Schnepel (1940), Hutchinson (1953), and Huston et al. (1957). The opposite occurred in these four criteria in the birds moved from the Co H to the Co C. As noted
Because of the time of oviposition in birds
TABLE 6.— The effect of a change in temperature in Experiment 2 on lay performance Prod Temperature scheme CoC Co C to Co H Col Co H to Co C CoH CyH 1 Egg production on a 2 Grams per hen-day. 3
No. birds 6 6 6 6 6 6
i
(%:) B3 A4 74 74 74 72 70 63 65 73 61 61 66 71
Deformation (0.001 B 16.0 14.7 17.4 22.5 18.1 23.2
mm.) A 15.8 17.4 16.7 16.0 16.6 17.8
hen-day basis.
Period of 4 weeks before (B) the interchange of birds. "Period of 8 weeks after (A) the interchange of birds.
Egg wt.
Body wt.
Feed C.
(8-)
(kg.)
(g./h.-d.) 2 B A 98 100 106 78 85 92 68 104 67 69 61 76
B 62 62 58 55 55 52
A 63 57 60 62 54 53
B 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4
A 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.4
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Co C (10) Co I (21) Co H (32) Cy H (26-38)
All at 21° C.
After 90 days of the temperature scheme
in Experiment 1, shell rigidity was decreased by increasing temperature and increased by decreasing temperature. There was no appreciable difference between the Cy H and the Co H treated birds on the basis of egg weight, body weight or feed consumption, but the Cy H gave higher egg production and lower shell rigidity than the Co H environment. As indicated by the data (Table 6), the mean deformation for the four-week period from the birds under Cy H was 0.0232 mm., but the following eight weeks gave 0.0178 mm., which was similar to that of the Co H chamber. This adjustment may have been due to the occurrence of oviposition later in the day during the last eight weeks than in the previous four weeks, therefore subjecting the process of shell formation to less stressful conditions. The data from all 228 birds indicated 57% of the eggs laid in the Cy H chamber were laid after 9 a.m., but 43% of the eggs were laid after 9 a.m. in the Constant Hot chamber. The shell deformations were 0.0191 and 0.0205 mm. for the Constant and Cyclic Hot chambers respectfully prior to 9 a.m. and 17.7 and 18.5 thousandths mm. respectfully after 9 a.m. which is in agreement with Roland (1973) who reported increased specific gravity of those eggs laid in the late morning as compared to those laid in the early morning.
LAYING PERFORMANCE AND ENVIRONMENT
45
TABLE 7.—Component parts of eggs produced by hens exposed to various temperatures for a period of 90 days in Expt. 2 Temperature No. scheme eggs CoC 34 Col 38 CoH 29 CyH 33 1 By subtraction.
Egg wt. (g.) (%) 62.8 100 60.5 100 55.7 100 56.7 100
Shell wt. (g.) (%) 6.3 10.0 6.3 10.4 5.4 9.7 5.5 9.7
Albumen (g.) 37.5 35.4 33.5 34.2
wt. 1 (%) 59.7 58.5 60.1 60.3
was no net change in skeletal calcium. Both experiments showed very rapid effects of temperature changes on shell formation. The high temperatures markedly decreased shell rigidity compared to moderate temperatures while low temperatures tended to promote shell rigidity. The time of oviposition between temperatures may have been influenced by the various temperatures, thus accounting for some of the differences in shell rigidity between the temperature treatments. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to thank the Cosmic Medicine Laboratory for supplying the iodine 125 source used in taking bone mass scans. We also extend appreciation to Merck and Company for supplying the B 2 , niacin and calcium pantothenic used in the experiments. REFERENCES Bell, D. J., and B. M. Freeman, 1971. Physiology and Biochemistry of the Domestic Fowl. Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd. Bennion, N. L., and D. C. Warren, 1933. Temperature and its effect on egg size in the domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 12: 69-82. Campos, A. C , F. H. Wilcox and C. S. Shaffner, 1960. The influence of fast and slow rises in ambient temperature on production traits and mortality of laying pullets. Poultry Sci. 39: 119-129. Carmon, L. G., and T. M. Huston, 1965. The influence of environmental temperature upon egg components of domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 44: 1237-1240. Cotterill, O. J., A. B. Stephenson and E. M. Funk, 1962. Factors affecting the yield of egg products from shell eggs. Proc. 12th World's Poultry Congress, Sydney, Australia, pp. 443-447. Fox, T. W., 1951. Studies on heat tolerance in the
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subjected to high cyclic temperatures tended to occur later in the day than those subjected to constant temperatures, there is an indication that shell formation was affected not only by the temperature, but also by what time in the shell formation cycle the peak temperature occurs. This disagrees with Mueller (1961) who maintains that any difference between a Cy H environment and a Co H environment was not caused by a particular temperature at a definite stage of egg formation. Nordstrom (1971) suggested that the egg spends an additional two hours in the shell gland when the hens are exposed to heat stress. His finding may account for the later time of oviposition, but would not support the fact that the Cy H gave the higher egg production (64% vs. 60%). The data in Table 7 indicate that the proportion of shell, yolk and albumen does not change significantly due to temperature but that the amounts of each were decreased. This agrees with Lorenz and Almquist (1936), Gee et al. (1964), and Carmon and Huston (1965), but is in disagreement, with Bennion and Warren (1933) who reported that a greater percentage decrease took place in the shell and albumen and that the proportion of yolk to whole egg is greater at high temperatures than at low temperatures. Wilhelm (1940) also reported that high temperatures reduced the percentage of shell of the total egg weight. In neither experiment was there a change in bone mass due to shifts in environmental temperatures or in long exposures to various temperatures, therefore indicating that there
Yolk wt. (g.) (%) 19.0 30.3 18.8 31.1 16.8 30.2 17.0 30.0
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P . C . M I L L E R AND M . L .
Mueller, W. J., 1966. Effect of rapid temperature changes on acid-base balance and shell quality. Poultry Sci. 45: 1109. Nordstrom, J. O., 1971. Duration of egg formation in chickens during heat stress. Poultry Sci. 50: 1612. Randall, W. C , 1942. Factors influencing the temperature regulation of birds. Amer. J. Physiol. 139: 56-63. Roland, D. A., Sr., 1973. Calcium metabolism and the egg shell. Proc. Georgia Nutr. Confer., pp. 109-119. Rosenberg, M. M., and T. Tanaka, 1951. Effect of temperature on egg weight in Hawaii. Poultry Sci. 51:745-747. Smith, A. H., W. O. Wilson and J. G. Brown, 1954. Composition of eggs from individual hens maintained under controlled environments. Poultry Sci. 33: 898-908. Squibb, R. L., 1959. Relation of diurnal temperature and humidity ranges to egg production and feed efficiency of New Hampshire hens. J. Agric. Sci. 52: 217-222. Warren, D. C , and R. L. Schnepel, 1940. The effect of air temperatures on egg shell thickness in the fowl. Poultry Sci. 19: 67-72. Wilhelm, L. A., 1940. Some factors affecting variations in egg shell quality. Poultry Sci. 19: 246-253. Willham, O. S., 1931. The relation of temperature to egg production. Panhandle Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 28: 1-16. Wilson, W. O., 1949. High environmental temperatures as affecting the reaction of laying hens to iodized casein. Poultry Sci. 28: 581-592. Wilson, W. O., E. H. McNally and H. Ota, 1957. Temperature and calorimeter study on hens in individual cages. Poultry Sci. 36: 1254-1261.
NEWS A N D NOTES (Continued from page 10) ABBOTT NOTES
A.E.B. NOTES
Charles E. Claybrook has been awarded the "Outstanding Poultry Health/Feed Additive Salesman" Award for 1973. The Award is given annually to the most deserving salesman in the Southeastern United States as voted upon by the poultry industry. He is District Manager for Alabama and Mississippi and has been with Abbott Laboratories Agriculture and Veterinary Products Division, for 11 years.
At the annual meeting of the American Egg Board, held in Chicago, the following officers were elected: Chairman of the Board—George H. Biddle, Sun Valley Farms, Modesto, California; Vice Chairman— Frederick C. Graves, Clear Creek Enterprises, Amanda, Ohio; Treasurer—Simon Cassady, Jr., Hy-Line International, Des Moines, Iowa; and Secretary— Jerry S. Straughan, Gold Kist Eggs, Hilliard, Florida.
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domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 30: 477-483. Gee, G., J. Mulkey and T. Huston, 1964. The influence of environmental temperatures upon egg components. Poultry Sci. 43: 1321-1322. Harrison,P. C , and H. V. Biellier, 1969. Physiological response of domestic fowl to abrupt changes of ambient air temperature. Poultry Sci. 48: 1034-1044. Heywang, B. W., 1946. Sources of calcium for laying chickens during hot weather. Poultry Sci. 25: 215— 222. Howes, J. R., W. Grub and C. A. Rollo, 1961. The effects of high constant environmental temperatures upon caged White Leghorn pullets. Poultry Sci. 40: 1416-1417. Huston, T. M., W. P. Joiner and J. L. Carmon, 1957. Breed differences in egg production of domestic fowl held at high environmental temperatures. Poultry Sci. 36: 1247-1254. Hutchinson, J. C , 1953. Effect of hot climates on egg weight. Poultry Sci. 32: 692-6%. Lorenz, F. W. and H. J. Almquist, 1936. Seasonal variations in egg quality. Poultry Sci. 15: 14-18. Meyer, G. B., S. W. Babcockand M. L. Sunde, 1968. An accurate in vivo technique for measuring bone mineral mass in chickens. J. Nutr. 96: 195-205. Mongin, P., 1968. Role of acid-base balance in the physiology of egg shell formation. World's Poultry Sci. J. 24: 200-230. Mueller, W. J., 1959. The effect of environmental temperature and humidity on the calcium balance and serum calcium of laying pullets. Poultry Sci. 38: 1296-1301. Mueller, W. J., 1961. The effect of constant and fluctuating environmental temperatures on the biological performance of laying pullets. Poultry Sci. 40: 1562-1571.
SUNDE