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The Effects of Three Physical and Vocal Warm-Up Procedures on Acoustic and Perceptual Measures of Choral Sound
ARTICLE IN PRESS The Effects of Three Physical and Vocal Warm-Up Procedures on Acoustic and Perceptual Measures of Choral Sound *Sheri L. Cook-Cunningham and †Melissa L. Grady, *Conway, Arkansas, and †Lawrence, Kansas Summary: Objective. The purpose of this investigation was to assess the effects of three warm-up procedures (vocalonly, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) on acoustic and perceptual measures of choir sound. Methods. The researchers tested three videotaped, 5-minute, choral warm-up procedures on three university choirs. After participating in a warm-up procedure, each choir was recorded singing a folk song for long-term average spectra and pitch analysis. Singer participants responded to a questionnaire about preferences after each warm-up procedure. Warm-up procedures and recording sessions occurred during each choir’s regular rehearsal time and in each choir’s regular rehearsal space during three consecutive rehearsals. Results. Long-term average spectra results demonstrated more resonant singing after the physical/vocal warm-up for two of the three choirs. Pitch analysis results indicate that all three choirs sang “in-tune” or with the least pitch deviation after participating in the physical/vocal warm-up. Singer questionnaire responses showed general preference for the physical/vocal combination warm-up, and singer ranking of the three procedures indicated the physical/vocal warmup as the most favored for readiness to sing. Conclusions. In the context of this study with these three university choir participants, it seems that a combination choral warm-up that includes physical and vocal aspects is preferred by singers, enables more resonant singing, and more in-tune singing. Findings from this study could provide teachers and choral directors with important information as they structure and experiment with their choral warm-up procedures. Key Words: Warm-up–Choir–Physical–Vocal–Acoustic and perceptual measures.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE Warming up the body before physical activity has been a longaccepted and established practice. Athletes spend a great deal of time warming up before participating in any sports practice or competition. Voice users, particularly singers, have also been encouraged to warm-up the vocal structures before engaging in any vocal activity. Choral conductors are advised to provide a warm-up segment at the beginning of their rehearsal. However, there exists a scarcity of empirical data that has established the need for a choral warm-up, the goals of a choral warm-up, or reliable testing methods regarding the effectiveness of choral warm-ups. Athletes use a wide variety of warm-ups to achieve positive physical results. Bishop1,2 discussed the acceptance of warmingup before general physical exercise even though there was a lack of scientific evidence as to the effectiveness of specific warmups. His findings suggested that an active warm-up (jogging, swimming, calisthenics) of 3–5 minutes in duration and of moderate intensity could improve short-term performance, due mostly to an increase in muscle temperature. Researchers compared singers with athletes with the same warm-up and training principles applied to both. Sundberg and Rossing3 believed that the vocal folds, which consist of muscle tissue as a major component, require efficient blood flow to work Accepted for publication April 5, 2017. From the *The University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas; and the †The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Sheri L. Cook-Cunningham, The University of Central Arkansas, 201 Donaghey Ave., Conway, AR 72035. E-mail: scookcunningham@ uca.edu Journal of Voice, Vol. ■■, No. ■■, pp. ■■-■■ 0892-1997 © 2017 The Voice Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2017.04.003
at an optimum level. They surmised that good circulation would be a result of an appropriate warm-up procedure. Saxon and Berry4 attempted to establish a relationship between exercise physiology and voice training, suggesting overloading the muscles used and gradually increasing the resistance placed on those muscles. Voice pedagogues in particular wrote much about the necessity of warming up the vocal instrument before attempting any type of singing. McKinney5 recommended a gradual warm-up of the voice, starting in the most comfortable part of the voice’s range and using exercises of a limited range. Miller6 stated that any singer who did not feel he or she needed a warm-up was deluding himself or herself. He encouraged warm-up of the entire body, not just the larynx. Although the goals and types of a warm-up have appeared to be many and varied, there also exists a great deal of confusion regarding measurement parameters. Elliot et al7 hypothesized that a vocal warm-up would lower phonation threshold pressure (PTP). Although subjects reported positive perceptual results (improved voice timbre, easier to sing at high pitches, voice was in better condition), PTP data varied greatly. Results indicated PTP pressure increased with pitch among some participants, decreased in others, and remained unchanged in other subjects. Researchers8 measured the effects of vocal warm-ups on PTP among solo soprano singers (N = 10). They reported PTP levels increased after warm-up for high pitch phonation but remained the same for comfortable and low pitch phonation. These results contradicted the perceptual results from Elliott et al7 and suggested that PTP may not be a reliable measure of warm-up effectiveness. Amir et al9 studied the effectiveness of vocal warm-ups on young female singers (N = 20) using acoustic analysis. Their
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results indicated reduced frequency-perturbation and amplitude– perturbation values, increased singer’s formant amplitude, and improved noise-to-harmonics ratio. The warm-up did not have a significant effect on participants’ tone-matching accuracy. Their results suggested that vocal warm-ups positively impacted vocal quality and that acoustic analysis could assist in quantifying this impact. McHenry et al10 tested the effectiveness of vocal-only warmup exercises versus vocal warm-up exercises combined with aerobic activity on spoken vocal production of 20 actors. Their study measured acoustic parameters (jitter, noise-to-harmonicsratio), PTP, and self-perceived vocal effort. Results indicated a significant decrease in PTP values for women in the combined versus the specific warm-up and no significant difference for men. Jitter percent values for men were significantly lower for men in the specific warm-up than the combined warm-up. McHenry and Evans11 studied the effects of a 30-minute aerobic workout on sound pressure levels of vocal performance majors (N = 22). Results indicated that 17 participants maintained or increased sound pressure level after the aerobic workout and that most participants exhibited positive aerodynamic changes during singing after the workout. Although the majority of research to date has focused on warmup procedures used by speakers or singers in a solo context, warming up the voice in a choral setting has been a muchdiscussed topic in choral journals. Titze12 discussed the benefits of a vocal warm-up in terms of motor skills, with muscles and tissue responding differently after they have already undergone the same movement. He suggested individual vocal warmups for singers, similar to that of instrumentalists, followed by group choral warm-ups focusing on tuning and achieving choral blend. Choral directors suggested additional benefits for choir warmups, including using the warm-up as a means to prepare the mind and body for the upcoming rehearsal and for teaching vocal skills and concepts. Other goals of a warm-up could include ear training, mind training, and tuning the voices in the choir.13–15 Physical fitness trends also influenced choral warm-ups. Kuhn16 advocated for adding yoga to singing warm-ups to improve breath, posture, vocal accuracy, and concentration, whereas Park17 suggested incorporating tai chi into the choral warm-up as a means of improving natural breathing, body alignment, and muscle relaxation around the laryngeal area. Choral textbooks that are commonly used in undergraduate choral methods classes often devote entire sections or chapters to the subject of choral warm-ups. Many of the writers of these
texts suggested that the focus of the warm-up period was to develop vocal technique. Although their methods and order of warm-ups varied from author to author, they discussed many of the same technical goals, such as posture, breath support, tone, range, intonation, and flexibility. Incorporating some type of physical activity at the start of the rehearsal was recommended by several authors.18–21 The purpose of this study was to assess with intact university choirs (N = 3) the potential effects of three different choral warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) on acoustic and perceptual measures of choral sound. The following research questions guided this investigation: (1) What effect, if any, do three different warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) have on the choral sound of intact choirs, according to longterm average spectra (LTAS) analysis? (2) What effect, if any, do three different warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) have on the intonation of intact choirs, according to pitch analysis? (3) What effect, if any, do three different warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) have on perceptual measures of intact choirs, according to participant questionnaires? METHODS Singer participants Participants (N = 61) constituted three established university choirs (two mixed voices and one female-only voice; Table 1). Warm-up videos Researchers used three videotaped warm-up procedures (physicalonly, vocal-only, physical/vocal combination) to insure consistency between the multiple choirs. The same conductor appeared in all three stimulus videos. Each warm-up video lasted 5 minutes. Vocal-only warm-up video Researchers selected the vocal exercises (n = 13) used in the vocalonly warm-up video from a popular choral methods textbook (Brinson and Demorest, 2014). Vocal exercises began with gentle humming and transitioned into singing on multiple vowels and consonants, at varying tempos, multiple keys, and both major and minor tonalities. The video conductor demonstrated each
TABLE 1. Demographics of Participating Choirs Including Level and Type of Choir, Number of Singers, Mean Age, and Number of Music Majors or Non-Majors
Choir Choir A Choir B Choir C
University Major
Voicing
Number of Singers
Mean Age of Singers
Music
Non-Music
SATB SATB SSA
n = 22 n = 21 n = 18
22.68 years 21.50 years 21.00 years
n=6 n=7 n=7
n = 16 n = 14 n = 11
ARTICLE IN PRESS Sheri L. Cook-Cunningham and Melissa L. Grady
Effects of Three Warm-Ups
new exercise once. All vocal exercises were accompanied by a piano. Physical-only warm-up video The physical-only warm-up contained stretches and movements intended to warm up the singers’ bodies and elevate their heart rates. The physical-only video consisted of 11 activities: (a) inhale, exhale; (b) stretch arms overhead; (c) arm circles; (d) shoulder rolls; (e) head rolls; (f) bend and hang; (g) heel lift; (h) heel lift with arm lift; (i) step touch; (j) march in place; and (k) inhale, exhale. The conductor in the video modeled all physical movements and counted off each activity. Physical/vocal warm-up video The physical/vocal warm-up video comprised the first 2.5 minutes of the physical-only warm-up video and the first 2.5 minutes of the vocal-only warm-up video. The video contained six stretch/ movement activities and six vocal exercises. Rehearsal procedures Each choir participated in one of the three warm-up procedures at the beginning of their regularly scheduled rehearsal time for three consecutive rehearsals. The video order was counterbalanced between the three choirs. Each choir participated and recorded in their regular rehearsal spaces. Singers stood in the same place on risers for each recording session. All equipment, including video projection and calibrated recording devices, remained a consistent distance from the singers during each recording session. During the warm-up procedure and recording session, singers viewed a life-sized projection of the videotaped conductor. Projected videos remained at a consistent distance of 15 ft from the risers. Immediately following the warm-up procedure, the choirs sang the folk tune Danny Boy in unison (SSA choir) or octaves (SATB choirs) while following a video-recorded conductor. Researchers audio-recorded the choirs singing Danny Boy for LTAS and pitch analysis. The choirs viewed the same conductor from the warm-up video on a video demonstrating a simple pattern in 4/4. The conductor mouthed the words and breathed where the singers should breathe. The Danny Boy conducting video was played on mute so as to not disrupt the recording of the singers. Roland R05 digital sound recorders (Roland Corporation U.S., Los Angeles, CA) captured each Danny Boy performance at a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz (16 bits) in .wav format. The recorder was placed 12 ft from the front row of the choir, in a mixed to diffuse sound field, at a height of 5′4″ or approximate conductor ear height. Volume and gain controls were set manually at the beginning of the recording session and remained the same throughout all recordings. Singer participants responded to a written questionnaire at two points during the warm-up and recording session. Participants completed the top section of the questionnaire upon arrival in the rehearsal space. The bottom portion of the questionnaire was finished after the recording session. The daily warm-up and recording procedure were as follows: singer participants (a) entered the rehearsal space, (b) stood in
3
his or her assigned position on the risers, (c) responded to the first section of the daily questionnaire about vocal health, (d) participated in one of the three warm-up videos, (e) listened to a pitch pipe play the starting pitch of Danny Boy, (f) sang Danny Boy in unison, and (g) responded to the rest of the questionnaire about perceived singing and preferences of warm-up procedure. Singer participants completed this procedure in three successive choir rehearsals to ensure all singers experienced each of the three warm-up methods. Post choir recording session audio analyses LTAS measurements Using KayPentax Computerized Speech Lab software (KayPENTAX, PENTAX Medical Company, NJ), researchers obtained LTAS data for each recording with a window size of 512 points, no pre-emphasis or smoothing, a bandwidth of 86.13 Hz, and a Blackman window. Pitch analysis measurements For pitch analysis, researchers extracted from each of the Danny Boy recordings a 1-second excerpt from the midpoint of the opening [ɔ] vowel (“O”) and the midpoint of the [ɔ] vowel (“so”) on the final pitch. Choral sound constitutes a complex acoustic phenomenon that makes it difficult to use computerized extractions of fundamental frequency (f0). Following procedures used by Howard,22 the researchers evaluated perceptual “pitch” with the assistance of Pitch Analyzer 2.1 software (Bryan Haaheim, Lawrence, KS). The Pitch Analyzer 2.1 software produced a reference tone set initially to the score-notated pitch. The software program enabled simultaneous playing of the extracted one-second sung excerpt (on a loop) and the reference tone. Researchers adjusted the frequency of the reference tone until it matched the perceived pitch of the sung excerpt. The Pitch Analyzer 2.1 displayed the difference in cents between the notated pitch and the perceived pitch. Each investigator individually analyzed the two extracted vowels for each of the three recordings for each of the three choirs. Counted as agreement were any differences within ±1 Hz but not any difference of more than 1 Hz. Obtained reliability (agreements divided by agreements plus disagreements) was 0.93. Singer questionnaire At the start of each rehearsal and again immediately following the recording session, singer participants completed a questionnaire. The first section solicited responses concerning (a) the amount of singing that the participant had done that day before the rehearsal, (b) if the participant perceived that he or she was experiencing vocal problems, and (c) if the participant was having health issues that day that could affect his or her voice. After the warm-up and the recording session, participants responded to the rest of the questionnaire, which consisted of three short questions, a request for comments, and a ranking. Participants responded to “yes or no” questions concerning the preparedness of his or her voice for singing after participating in the day’s warm-up procedure, whether he or she enjoyed the warm-up, and rated the effectiveness of the warm-up on a scale
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Journal of Voice, Vol. ■■, No. ■■, 2017
of 1–5 from “not helpful” to “very helpful.” The questionnaire elicited comments concerning the participant’s perceptions of what he or she liked and did not like about the day’s warm-up. Finally, on the third rehearsal of the study, participants ranked the three warm-up procedures according to which they felt best prepared them for singing to least prepared for singing. RESULTS Results are presented according to the research questions posed for this investigation. Research question one: choral sound according to LTAS The first research question investigated whether acoustic differences were apparent between each choir’s performances after the three warm-up procedures according to LTAS data. Results are presented with reference to the entire spectrum (0–10 kHz) for each choir.
Choir B Figure 2 presents obtained LTAS contours across the 0–10 kHz spectrum according to three different warm-up procedures (vocalonly, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) for choir B. Evaluations of choir B LTAS data indicated the choir sang with more spectral energy after participating in the vocal-only and vocal/physical warm-up procedures than the physical-only procedure, by an average of 4.82 dB across the spectrum. Choir B’s entire spectrum grand mean differences and ranges were (a) vocal-only warm-up versus physical-only warm-up (M = 5.69 dB, range = 0.24–8.21 dB); (b) vocal-only warm-up versus physical/ vocal warm-up (M = 1.74 dB, range = 0.05–3.82 dB); and (c) physical-only warm-up versus physical/vocal warm-up (M = 3.95 dB, range = 0.23–6.22 dB). Results of a one-way repeated measures ANOVA indicated a significant interaction effect (F [2, 115] = 1800.629, P < 0.001). Three follow-up paired t tests (two-tailed) measured specific differences in the model with a Bonferroni adjustment of alpha levels to provide conservative tests of significance (P = 0.05/3 = 0.017). The t test results indicated significant statistical differences (P < 0.001) between all pairings of the warm-up procedures. Choir C Figure 3 presents LTAS contours for choir C (women) across the 0–10 kHz spectrum according to three different warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination).
Relative SPL (in 2 dB increments)
Choir A Figure 1 presents obtained LTAS contours across the 0–10 kHz spectrum according to three different warm-up procedures (vocalonly, physical-only, physical/vocal combination). Visual comparisons of differences among the three warm-up procedures indicated similar results for both the vocal-only and vocal/physical warm-up procedures and a large decrease in the mean signal energy of higher frequency partials for the physicalonly warm-up. Choir A’s entire spectrum grand mean differences and ranges were (a) vocal-only warm-up versus physical-only warm-up (M = 9.69 dB, range = 5.83–13.02 dB); (b) vocalonly warm-up versus physical/vocal warm-up (M = 0.16 dB, range = 0.04–3.7 dB); and (c) physical-only warm-up versus physical/vocal warm-up (M = 9.54 dB, range = 5.95–12.08 dB). Results of a one-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated a significant interaction effect (F [2, 115] = 3852.900, P < 0.001). Three follow-up paired t tests
(two-tailed) measured specific differences in the model with a Bonferroni adjustment of alpha levels to provide conservative tests of significance (P = 0.05/3 = 0.017). The t test results indicated significant statistical differences (P < 0.001) between the vocal-only versus the physical-only and the physical-only versus the physical/vocal warm-up procedures. The t test comparing the vocal-only and physical/vocal warm-up procedures did not yield statistical significance (P = 0.180).
Vocal Only Physical Only
0 258.4 516.8 775.2 1033.59 1291.99 1550.39 1808.79 2067.19 2325.59 2583.98 2842.38 3100.78 3359.18 3617.58 3875.98 4134.38 4392.77 4651.17 4909.57 5167.97 5426.37 5684.77 5943.16 6201.56 6459.96 6718.36 6976.76 7235.16 7493.55 7751.95 8010.35 8268.75 8527.15 8785.55 9043.95 9302.34 9560.74 9819.14
Physical/Vocal
Frequency
FIGURE 1. Choir A (SATB) LTAS of the three warm-up procedures across the entire 0–10 kHz spectrum.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 5
Effects of Three Warm-Ups
Relative SPL (in 2 dB increments)
Sheri L. Cook-Cunningham and Melissa L. Grady
Vocal Only Physical Only
0 258.4 516.8 775.2 1033.59 1291.99 1550.39 1808.79 2067.19 2325.59 2583.98 2842.38 3100.78 3359.18 3617.58 3875.98 4134.38 4392.77 4651.17 4909.57 5167.97 5426.37 5684.77 5943.16 6201.56 6459.96 6718.36 6976.76 7235.16 7493.55 7751.95 8010.35 8268.75 8527.15 8785.55 9043.95 9302.34 9560.74 9819.14
Physical/Vocal
Frequency
Relative SPL (in 2 dB increments)
FIGURE 2. Choir B (SATB) LTAS of the three warm-up procedures across the entire 0–10 kHz spectrum.
Vocal Only Physical Only
0 258.4 516.8 775.2 1033.59 1291.99 1550.39 1808.79 2067.19 2325.59 2583.98 2842.38 3100.78 3359.18 3617.58 3875.98 4134.38 4392.77 4651.17 4909.57 5167.97 5426.37 5684.77 5943.16 6201.56 6459.96 6718.36 6976.76 7235.16 7493.55 7751.95 8010.35 8268.75 8527.15 8785.55 9043.95 9302.34 9560.74 9819.14
Vocal/Physical
Frequency
FIGURE 3. Choir C (SSA) LTAS of the three warm-up procedures across the entire 0–10 kHz spectrum. Results of LTAS analyses for choir C suggested similar trends in terms of the physical-only and vocal/physical warm-up procedures and a dampening of higher partials for the recording following the vocal-only warm-up procedure. Choir C’s entire spectrum grand mean differences and ranges were (a) vocalonly warm-up versus physical-only warm-up (M = 2.74 dB, range = 0.58–5.04 dB); (b) vocal-only warm-up versus physical/ vocal warm-up (M = 3.12 dB, range = 0.75–5.38 dB); and (c) physical-only warm-up versus physical/vocal warm-up (M = 0.38 dB, range = 0.02–3.57 dB). Results of a one-way repeated measures ANOVA indicated a significant interaction effect (F [2, 115] = 623.360, P < 0.001). Three follow-up paired t tests (two-tailed) measured specific differences in the model with a Bonferroni adjustment of alpha levels to provide conservative tests of significance (P = 0.05/3 = 0.017).
The t test results indicated significant statistical differences (P < 0.001) between all pairings of the warm-up procedures. Research question two: pitch analysis The second research question examined choral intonation and participant perceptions in terms of differences among the three warm-up procedures. Pitch analysis results are presented first, followed by results from the participant questionnaire. Pitch analysis Using Pitch Analyzer 2.1 procedures, researchers compared two sung pitch measurement points in each of the Danny Boy recordings following the three warm-up procedures for all three university choirs. In-tune or out-of-tune singing was qualified
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Journal of Voice, Vol. ■■, No. ■■, 2017 Choir A
Choir B
Choir C
0
Deviation in Cents
-5 -10
-6.65
-4.25 -5.67
-6.25
-6.65
-15 -20
-18.62
-25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50
Vocal Only
-33.49
Physical Only Physical/Vocal
-44.65 -47.07
FIGURE 4. Pitch deviation for each choir according to the three warm-up procedures. by the measurement of ±7 cents for this study according to Lindgren and Sundberg23 (Figure 4). Choir A sang “in-tune” (±7 cents) from beginning to end (the two pitch points measured) for all three warm-up procedures. Choir B sang with less than 7 cents deviation after performing the vocal-only and vocal/physical warm-ups, and sang with a 33.49 cent deviation after participating in the physical-only warmup procedure. Choir C did not sing “in-tune” after participating in any of the warm-up procedures. Choir C sang with the least pitch deviation after participating in the vocal/physical warmup and with much larger pitch deviations after the vocal-only (44.65 cent deviation) and physical-only (47.07 cent deviation) warm-up procedures. Research question three: participant questionnaire Immediately after each warm-up procedure and recording session, participants responded to a questionnaire that began with three questions: (a) Does your voice feel more prepared to sing now than it did at the start of class (yes or no); (b) Please rate the effectiveness of today’s warm-up procedure (on a scale from 1 to 5, with 1 “not helpful” to 5 “very helpful”); and (c) Did you enjoy the warm-up (yes or no). Tables 2 and 3 present results
of the yes or no questions for each choir according to each warmup procedure. Figure 5 demonstrates participant perceptions of the effectiveness of each warm-up procedure disaggregated by choir and warm-up procedure. The questionnaire asked participants to share what they did or did not like about the warm-up. Researchers disaggregated the comments into the two categories of “positive comments” and “negative comments” for each of the three warm-up procedures. Participants in the three choirs wrote 70 discrete comments about the vocal-only warm-up procedure. Positive comments (n = 37, 53%) included comments about the variety of vocal exercises, that all aspects of range were addressed, and a feeling of being adequately warmed-up and ready for singing. Negative comments (n = 33, 47%) comprised comments that the warm-up was too short, no physical movement, and dislike of particular vocal exercises. Participants recorded 86 comments concerning the physicalonly warm-up. Sixty-two percent (n = 53) of the comments about the physical-only warm-up were positive. Positive comments included increased energy, the body feeling relaxed, and a sense of better breath support. Negative comments about the
TABLE 2. Choir Results for Questionnaire Question (A): Does Your Voice Feel More Prepared to Sing Now Than It Did at the Start of Class (Yes or No)?
Choir A Choir B Choir C
Vocal-Only
Physical-Only
Vocal/Physical
95% yes, 5% no 71% yes, 29% no 100% yes
90% yes, 10% no 59% yes, 41% no 77% yes, 23% no
100% yes 94% yes, 6% no 89% yes, 11% no
TABLE 3. Choir Results for Questionnaire Question (C): Did You Enjoy the Warm-Up (Yes or No)?
Choir A Choir B Choir C
Vocal-Only
Physical-Only
Vocal/Physical
100% yes 94% yes, 6% no 100% yes
96% yes, 4% no 83% yes, 17% no 77% yes, 23% no
100% yes 94% yes, 6% no 94% yes, 6% no
ARTICLE IN PRESS Sheri L. Cook-Cunningham and Melissa L. Grady
Effects of Three Warm-Ups
Choir A
3.7 3.67 3.82
Choir B
3.82 3.52 3.55
Choir C 1 Not Helpful
3.06 2
3 Somewhat Helpful
7
Vocal Only Physical Only Physical/Vocal
3.69 4.25 4
5 Very Helpful
FIGURE 5. Singer participant responses to “rate the effectiveness of today’s warm-up procedure” on a scale of 1–5 (1 not helpful, 3 somewhat helpful, 5 very helpful).
TABLE 4. Choir Mean Ratings for the Three Warm-Up Procedures
1 2 3
Choir A
Choir B
Choir C
Physical/vocal Physical-only Vocal-only
Physical/vocal Vocal-only Physical-only
Physical/vocal Physical-only Vocal-only
physical-only warm-up mostly referred to the voice not being prepared for singing and the exercise made the participant tired. Singer participants wrote 70 discrete comments about the physical/vocal combination warm-up procedure. Of the 70 comments, 73% (n = 51) positively addressed the physical/vocal warmup. Positive remarks included feeling physically and vocally prepared to sing and a variety of singing and movement activities. Negative comments (n = 19, 27%) comprised the length of the warm-up (both too short and too long) and a dislike or uncertainty of need for specific physical exercises. Finally, after each choir had participated in all three warmup procedures, singer participants were asked to rank the three warm-up procedures according to which they felt best prepared them for singing to least prepared for singing (ranking of 1 for most prepared and 3 least prepared). Table 4 shows the rankings of the warm-up procedures for each choir. DISCUSSION The primary findings of this investigation revealed that all three choirs preferred the physical/vocal warm-up, wrote the most positive comments for the physical/vocal warm-up, and that this warm-up (physical/vocal) elicited the most spectral energy for two of the three choirs studied. The third choir sang with only slightly more spectral energy (just over 1 dB difference) during the vocal-only warm-up as compared with the physical/vocal combination warm-up. These results are limited to the specific methods and procedures used. This study focused on three university choirs, and the results of this study should not be generalized to other singers or contexts.
LTAS results from choirs A and B were very similar, with both choirs singing with less spectral energy after performing the physical-only warm-up. For these two choirs it would appear that warming up the body through physical movement only did not increase the overall spectral energy in the choral sound. The director of choir B commented that after the physical-only warmup and subsequent data collection, she led the choir in a vocal warm-up because they did not sound like they were prepared to sing. The one choir that did not sing with less spectral energy during the physical-only warm-up was the women’s choir. The director of this choir reported that the women enthusiastically participated in the physical-only warm-up and that participants indicated a high level of enjoyment while engaging in the physical actions. Discrete comments from choir C (women) seem to further substantiate the director’s observations. Singers commented that “I felt like I had a lot of energy after we warmed up and actually helped my muscles get ready for singing”; “I liked being able to stretch and move before we sang, doing cardio tends to make me feel more energized in everything I do”; and “I was able to sing with better supported breath throughout the song.” Perhaps singing in a single-sex choir created an environment in which the singers felt freer to actively participate in the physical warm-up movements without fear of appearing “silly” to their male counterparts. Comments from the two SATB choirs (choirs A and B) indicate that these participants may not have experienced the same comfort level as the women’s choir when performing the physical actions associated with the physicalonly warm-up. One chorister commented that “It made me kind of tense and slightly breathless” while another singer wrote “It didn’t seem to help and now I’m sweaty.” Perceptually, it appears that all three choirs felt they were the most prepared to sing after completing the physical/vocal combination warm-up. This finding suggests that choir conductors might consider a warm-up that includes both vocal and physical exercises. It is interesting to note that two choirs (choirs A and C) ranked the physical-only warm-up as the second most effective in preparing them to sing. This may have been due to the novelty of
ARTICLE IN PRESS 8 this warm-up, which differed greatly from the choirs’ typical warm-up segment. Results from the pitch analyses indicate that the most outof-tune singing for choirs B and C occurred after the physicalonly warm-up. Remember that pitch analysis data indicated that choir A was considered “in tune” after all three warm-up segments. Future studies could replicate these procedures with more choirs, analyzing more pitches throughout the song, and analyzing pitch deviations throughout the warm-up segment. Although it appears that a combined physical/vocal warmup is the most preferred procedure for these three university choirs, there is a need for more research with choirs of a variety of ages. The three choirs in this study rehearsed either in the afternoon or evening, and their vocal folds had already been in use for 4–7 hours. Future studies might investigate choirs that rehearse before school or during the first class of the day. Many high-school choral programs offer 0-hour choirs beginning before 8:00 am when the vocal mechanism has not been significantly used. In this and other contexts, information about specific types of warm-up procedures could provide choral directors with a more time-efficient and effective means to prepare their singers. For the purpose of this study, the length of each warm-up segment was 5 minutes. A future study might consider increasing the amount of time for each warm-up segment and restructuring the physical exercises. Several students commented on the type of physical warm-ups used in the videos, terming them “old lady exercises” or “jazzercise.” Movements that are perceived as more “up to date” might be better received by participants. Study participants from these three choirs included future choral and instrumental music educators with varied rehearsal and warmup experiences. These experiences most likely influenced their comments and perceptions of the three types of warm-ups. For example, the instrumental students were unfamiliar with the concept of movement during the warm-up procedures and expressed their discomfort to the directors when movement was a part of the warm-up process. A future study might replicate the methods of this study with younger choirs who may not have preconceived ideas of how a warm-up should function. From a pedagogical viewpoint, the findings from this study could provide teachers and directors with important information as they structure their choral warm-up procedures. Studies such as this might not only provide insights into better warm-up
Journal of Voice, Vol. ■■, No. ■■, 2017
procedures but also encourage future educators to experiment with a variety of warm-up methods and processes. REFERENCES 1. Bishop D. Warm-up I: potential mechanisms and the effects of passive warm-up on exercise performance. Sports Med. 2003;33:439–454. 2. Bishop D. Warm-up II: performance changes following active warm-up and how to structure the warm-up. Sports Med. 2003;33:483–498. 3. Sundberg J, Rossing DT. The science of singing voice. J Acoust Soc Am. 1990;87:462–463. 4. Saxon K, Berry S. Care of the professional voice: vocal exercise physiology: same principles, new training paradigms. J Sing. 2009;66:51–57. 5. McKinney JC. The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Nashville, TN: Singular Publishing Group; 1982. 6. Miller R. Solutions for Singers. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2004. 7. Elliot N, Sundberg J, Gramming P. What happens during vocal warm-up? J Voice. 1995;9:37–44. 8. Motel T, Fisher K, Leydon C. Vocal warm-up increases phonation threshold pressure in soprano singers at high pitch. J Voice. 2003;17:160–167. 9. Amir O, Amir N, Michaeli O. Evaluating the influence of warm-up on singing voice quality using acoustic measures. J Voice. 2005;19:252–260. 10. McHenry M, Johnson J, Foshea B. The effect of specific versus combined warm-up strategies on the voice. J Voice. 2009;23:572–576. 11. McHenry M, Evans J. Aerobic exercise as a warm-up for singing: aerodynamic, changes. J Voice. 2016;30:693–697. 12. Titze IR. Getting the most from the vocal instrument. Choral J. 2008;49:34– 41. 13. Rosabal-Coto G. Music makers: choir—meaningful vocal development through purposeful choral warm-ups. Can Music Educ. 2006;48:57–60. 14. Roberts B. Music makers: choir—some thoughts on warm-ups. Can Music Educ. 2006;47:53–54. 15. Stukenholtz L. Repertoire & standards: two-year college choirs: tone-up and tune up during warm-ups. Choral J. 2007;47:39–40. 16. Kuhn I. Chorus: add yoga to your singing warm-ups. Teach Music. 2006;13:32–35. 17. Park J. On the voice-breathing without breathing: incorporating tai chi into choral warm-ups. Choral J. 2009;49:61–68. 18. Hylton JB. Comprehensive Choral Music Education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1995. 19. Collins DL. Teaching Choral Music. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1999. 20. Phillips KH. Directing the Choral Music Program. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford Press; 2016. 21. Brinson BA, Demorest SM. Choral Music Methods and Materials (Grades 5 to 12). 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Schirmer Cengage Learning; 2014. 22. Howard DM. Measuring the tuning accuracy of thousands singing in unison: an English premier football league table of fans’ singing tunefulness. Logoped Phoniatr Vocol. 2004;29:77–83. 23. Lindgren H, Sundberg J. Grundfrekvensförlopp och falsksäng, stencil. University of Stockholm, Department of Musicology; 1972.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE Warming up the body before physical activity has been a longaccepted and established practice. Athletes spend a great deal of time warming up before participating in any sports practice or competition. Voice users, particularly singers, have also been encouraged to warm-up the vocal structures before engaging in any vocal activity. Choral conductors are advised to provide a warm-up segment at the beginning of their rehearsal. However, there exists a scarcity of empirical data that has established the need for a choral warm-up, the goals of a choral warm-up, or reliable testing methods regarding the effectiveness of choral warm-ups. Athletes use a wide variety of warm-ups to achieve positive physical results. Bishop1,2 discussed the acceptance of warmingup before general physical exercise even though there was a lack of scientific evidence as to the effectiveness of specific warmups. His findings suggested that an active warm-up (jogging, swimming, calisthenics) of 3–5 minutes in duration and of moderate intensity could improve short-term performance, due mostly to an increase in muscle temperature. Researchers compared singers with athletes with the same warm-up and training principles applied to both. Sundberg and Rossing3 believed that the vocal folds, which consist of muscle tissue as a major component, require efficient blood flow to work Accepted for publication April 5, 2017. From the *The University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas; and the †The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Sheri L. Cook-Cunningham, The University of Central Arkansas, 201 Donaghey Ave., Conway, AR 72035. E-mail: scookcunningham@ uca.edu Journal of Voice, Vol. ■■, No. ■■, pp. ■■-■■ 0892-1997 © 2017 The Voice Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2017.04.003
at an optimum level. They surmised that good circulation would be a result of an appropriate warm-up procedure. Saxon and Berry4 attempted to establish a relationship between exercise physiology and voice training, suggesting overloading the muscles used and gradually increasing the resistance placed on those muscles. Voice pedagogues in particular wrote much about the necessity of warming up the vocal instrument before attempting any type of singing. McKinney5 recommended a gradual warm-up of the voice, starting in the most comfortable part of the voice’s range and using exercises of a limited range. Miller6 stated that any singer who did not feel he or she needed a warm-up was deluding himself or herself. He encouraged warm-up of the entire body, not just the larynx. Although the goals and types of a warm-up have appeared to be many and varied, there also exists a great deal of confusion regarding measurement parameters. Elliot et al7 hypothesized that a vocal warm-up would lower phonation threshold pressure (PTP). Although subjects reported positive perceptual results (improved voice timbre, easier to sing at high pitches, voice was in better condition), PTP data varied greatly. Results indicated PTP pressure increased with pitch among some participants, decreased in others, and remained unchanged in other subjects. Researchers8 measured the effects of vocal warm-ups on PTP among solo soprano singers (N = 10). They reported PTP levels increased after warm-up for high pitch phonation but remained the same for comfortable and low pitch phonation. These results contradicted the perceptual results from Elliott et al7 and suggested that PTP may not be a reliable measure of warm-up effectiveness. Amir et al9 studied the effectiveness of vocal warm-ups on young female singers (N = 20) using acoustic analysis. Their
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results indicated reduced frequency-perturbation and amplitude– perturbation values, increased singer’s formant amplitude, and improved noise-to-harmonics ratio. The warm-up did not have a significant effect on participants’ tone-matching accuracy. Their results suggested that vocal warm-ups positively impacted vocal quality and that acoustic analysis could assist in quantifying this impact. McHenry et al10 tested the effectiveness of vocal-only warmup exercises versus vocal warm-up exercises combined with aerobic activity on spoken vocal production of 20 actors. Their study measured acoustic parameters (jitter, noise-to-harmonicsratio), PTP, and self-perceived vocal effort. Results indicated a significant decrease in PTP values for women in the combined versus the specific warm-up and no significant difference for men. Jitter percent values for men were significantly lower for men in the specific warm-up than the combined warm-up. McHenry and Evans11 studied the effects of a 30-minute aerobic workout on sound pressure levels of vocal performance majors (N = 22). Results indicated that 17 participants maintained or increased sound pressure level after the aerobic workout and that most participants exhibited positive aerodynamic changes during singing after the workout. Although the majority of research to date has focused on warmup procedures used by speakers or singers in a solo context, warming up the voice in a choral setting has been a muchdiscussed topic in choral journals. Titze12 discussed the benefits of a vocal warm-up in terms of motor skills, with muscles and tissue responding differently after they have already undergone the same movement. He suggested individual vocal warmups for singers, similar to that of instrumentalists, followed by group choral warm-ups focusing on tuning and achieving choral blend. Choral directors suggested additional benefits for choir warmups, including using the warm-up as a means to prepare the mind and body for the upcoming rehearsal and for teaching vocal skills and concepts. Other goals of a warm-up could include ear training, mind training, and tuning the voices in the choir.13–15 Physical fitness trends also influenced choral warm-ups. Kuhn16 advocated for adding yoga to singing warm-ups to improve breath, posture, vocal accuracy, and concentration, whereas Park17 suggested incorporating tai chi into the choral warm-up as a means of improving natural breathing, body alignment, and muscle relaxation around the laryngeal area. Choral textbooks that are commonly used in undergraduate choral methods classes often devote entire sections or chapters to the subject of choral warm-ups. Many of the writers of these
texts suggested that the focus of the warm-up period was to develop vocal technique. Although their methods and order of warm-ups varied from author to author, they discussed many of the same technical goals, such as posture, breath support, tone, range, intonation, and flexibility. Incorporating some type of physical activity at the start of the rehearsal was recommended by several authors.18–21 The purpose of this study was to assess with intact university choirs (N = 3) the potential effects of three different choral warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) on acoustic and perceptual measures of choral sound. The following research questions guided this investigation: (1) What effect, if any, do three different warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) have on the choral sound of intact choirs, according to longterm average spectra (LTAS) analysis? (2) What effect, if any, do three different warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) have on the intonation of intact choirs, according to pitch analysis? (3) What effect, if any, do three different warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) have on perceptual measures of intact choirs, according to participant questionnaires? METHODS Singer participants Participants (N = 61) constituted three established university choirs (two mixed voices and one female-only voice; Table 1). Warm-up videos Researchers used three videotaped warm-up procedures (physicalonly, vocal-only, physical/vocal combination) to insure consistency between the multiple choirs. The same conductor appeared in all three stimulus videos. Each warm-up video lasted 5 minutes. Vocal-only warm-up video Researchers selected the vocal exercises (n = 13) used in the vocalonly warm-up video from a popular choral methods textbook (Brinson and Demorest, 2014). Vocal exercises began with gentle humming and transitioned into singing on multiple vowels and consonants, at varying tempos, multiple keys, and both major and minor tonalities. The video conductor demonstrated each
TABLE 1. Demographics of Participating Choirs Including Level and Type of Choir, Number of Singers, Mean Age, and Number of Music Majors or Non-Majors
Choir Choir A Choir B Choir C
University Major
Voicing
Number of Singers
Mean Age of Singers
Music
Non-Music
SATB SATB SSA
n = 22 n = 21 n = 18
22.68 years 21.50 years 21.00 years
n=6 n=7 n=7
n = 16 n = 14 n = 11
ARTICLE IN PRESS Sheri L. Cook-Cunningham and Melissa L. Grady
Effects of Three Warm-Ups
new exercise once. All vocal exercises were accompanied by a piano. Physical-only warm-up video The physical-only warm-up contained stretches and movements intended to warm up the singers’ bodies and elevate their heart rates. The physical-only video consisted of 11 activities: (a) inhale, exhale; (b) stretch arms overhead; (c) arm circles; (d) shoulder rolls; (e) head rolls; (f) bend and hang; (g) heel lift; (h) heel lift with arm lift; (i) step touch; (j) march in place; and (k) inhale, exhale. The conductor in the video modeled all physical movements and counted off each activity. Physical/vocal warm-up video The physical/vocal warm-up video comprised the first 2.5 minutes of the physical-only warm-up video and the first 2.5 minutes of the vocal-only warm-up video. The video contained six stretch/ movement activities and six vocal exercises. Rehearsal procedures Each choir participated in one of the three warm-up procedures at the beginning of their regularly scheduled rehearsal time for three consecutive rehearsals. The video order was counterbalanced between the three choirs. Each choir participated and recorded in their regular rehearsal spaces. Singers stood in the same place on risers for each recording session. All equipment, including video projection and calibrated recording devices, remained a consistent distance from the singers during each recording session. During the warm-up procedure and recording session, singers viewed a life-sized projection of the videotaped conductor. Projected videos remained at a consistent distance of 15 ft from the risers. Immediately following the warm-up procedure, the choirs sang the folk tune Danny Boy in unison (SSA choir) or octaves (SATB choirs) while following a video-recorded conductor. Researchers audio-recorded the choirs singing Danny Boy for LTAS and pitch analysis. The choirs viewed the same conductor from the warm-up video on a video demonstrating a simple pattern in 4/4. The conductor mouthed the words and breathed where the singers should breathe. The Danny Boy conducting video was played on mute so as to not disrupt the recording of the singers. Roland R05 digital sound recorders (Roland Corporation U.S., Los Angeles, CA) captured each Danny Boy performance at a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz (16 bits) in .wav format. The recorder was placed 12 ft from the front row of the choir, in a mixed to diffuse sound field, at a height of 5′4″ or approximate conductor ear height. Volume and gain controls were set manually at the beginning of the recording session and remained the same throughout all recordings. Singer participants responded to a written questionnaire at two points during the warm-up and recording session. Participants completed the top section of the questionnaire upon arrival in the rehearsal space. The bottom portion of the questionnaire was finished after the recording session. The daily warm-up and recording procedure were as follows: singer participants (a) entered the rehearsal space, (b) stood in
3
his or her assigned position on the risers, (c) responded to the first section of the daily questionnaire about vocal health, (d) participated in one of the three warm-up videos, (e) listened to a pitch pipe play the starting pitch of Danny Boy, (f) sang Danny Boy in unison, and (g) responded to the rest of the questionnaire about perceived singing and preferences of warm-up procedure. Singer participants completed this procedure in three successive choir rehearsals to ensure all singers experienced each of the three warm-up methods. Post choir recording session audio analyses LTAS measurements Using KayPentax Computerized Speech Lab software (KayPENTAX, PENTAX Medical Company, NJ), researchers obtained LTAS data for each recording with a window size of 512 points, no pre-emphasis or smoothing, a bandwidth of 86.13 Hz, and a Blackman window. Pitch analysis measurements For pitch analysis, researchers extracted from each of the Danny Boy recordings a 1-second excerpt from the midpoint of the opening [ɔ] vowel (“O”) and the midpoint of the [ɔ] vowel (“so”) on the final pitch. Choral sound constitutes a complex acoustic phenomenon that makes it difficult to use computerized extractions of fundamental frequency (f0). Following procedures used by Howard,22 the researchers evaluated perceptual “pitch” with the assistance of Pitch Analyzer 2.1 software (Bryan Haaheim, Lawrence, KS). The Pitch Analyzer 2.1 software produced a reference tone set initially to the score-notated pitch. The software program enabled simultaneous playing of the extracted one-second sung excerpt (on a loop) and the reference tone. Researchers adjusted the frequency of the reference tone until it matched the perceived pitch of the sung excerpt. The Pitch Analyzer 2.1 displayed the difference in cents between the notated pitch and the perceived pitch. Each investigator individually analyzed the two extracted vowels for each of the three recordings for each of the three choirs. Counted as agreement were any differences within ±1 Hz but not any difference of more than 1 Hz. Obtained reliability (agreements divided by agreements plus disagreements) was 0.93. Singer questionnaire At the start of each rehearsal and again immediately following the recording session, singer participants completed a questionnaire. The first section solicited responses concerning (a) the amount of singing that the participant had done that day before the rehearsal, (b) if the participant perceived that he or she was experiencing vocal problems, and (c) if the participant was having health issues that day that could affect his or her voice. After the warm-up and the recording session, participants responded to the rest of the questionnaire, which consisted of three short questions, a request for comments, and a ranking. Participants responded to “yes or no” questions concerning the preparedness of his or her voice for singing after participating in the day’s warm-up procedure, whether he or she enjoyed the warm-up, and rated the effectiveness of the warm-up on a scale
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of 1–5 from “not helpful” to “very helpful.” The questionnaire elicited comments concerning the participant’s perceptions of what he or she liked and did not like about the day’s warm-up. Finally, on the third rehearsal of the study, participants ranked the three warm-up procedures according to which they felt best prepared them for singing to least prepared for singing. RESULTS Results are presented according to the research questions posed for this investigation. Research question one: choral sound according to LTAS The first research question investigated whether acoustic differences were apparent between each choir’s performances after the three warm-up procedures according to LTAS data. Results are presented with reference to the entire spectrum (0–10 kHz) for each choir.
Choir B Figure 2 presents obtained LTAS contours across the 0–10 kHz spectrum according to three different warm-up procedures (vocalonly, physical-only, physical/vocal combination) for choir B. Evaluations of choir B LTAS data indicated the choir sang with more spectral energy after participating in the vocal-only and vocal/physical warm-up procedures than the physical-only procedure, by an average of 4.82 dB across the spectrum. Choir B’s entire spectrum grand mean differences and ranges were (a) vocal-only warm-up versus physical-only warm-up (M = 5.69 dB, range = 0.24–8.21 dB); (b) vocal-only warm-up versus physical/ vocal warm-up (M = 1.74 dB, range = 0.05–3.82 dB); and (c) physical-only warm-up versus physical/vocal warm-up (M = 3.95 dB, range = 0.23–6.22 dB). Results of a one-way repeated measures ANOVA indicated a significant interaction effect (F [2, 115] = 1800.629, P < 0.001). Three follow-up paired t tests (two-tailed) measured specific differences in the model with a Bonferroni adjustment of alpha levels to provide conservative tests of significance (P = 0.05/3 = 0.017). The t test results indicated significant statistical differences (P < 0.001) between all pairings of the warm-up procedures. Choir C Figure 3 presents LTAS contours for choir C (women) across the 0–10 kHz spectrum according to three different warm-up procedures (vocal-only, physical-only, physical/vocal combination).
Relative SPL (in 2 dB increments)
Choir A Figure 1 presents obtained LTAS contours across the 0–10 kHz spectrum according to three different warm-up procedures (vocalonly, physical-only, physical/vocal combination). Visual comparisons of differences among the three warm-up procedures indicated similar results for both the vocal-only and vocal/physical warm-up procedures and a large decrease in the mean signal energy of higher frequency partials for the physicalonly warm-up. Choir A’s entire spectrum grand mean differences and ranges were (a) vocal-only warm-up versus physical-only warm-up (M = 9.69 dB, range = 5.83–13.02 dB); (b) vocalonly warm-up versus physical/vocal warm-up (M = 0.16 dB, range = 0.04–3.7 dB); and (c) physical-only warm-up versus physical/vocal warm-up (M = 9.54 dB, range = 5.95–12.08 dB). Results of a one-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated a significant interaction effect (F [2, 115] = 3852.900, P < 0.001). Three follow-up paired t tests
(two-tailed) measured specific differences in the model with a Bonferroni adjustment of alpha levels to provide conservative tests of significance (P = 0.05/3 = 0.017). The t test results indicated significant statistical differences (P < 0.001) between the vocal-only versus the physical-only and the physical-only versus the physical/vocal warm-up procedures. The t test comparing the vocal-only and physical/vocal warm-up procedures did not yield statistical significance (P = 0.180).
Vocal Only Physical Only
0 258.4 516.8 775.2 1033.59 1291.99 1550.39 1808.79 2067.19 2325.59 2583.98 2842.38 3100.78 3359.18 3617.58 3875.98 4134.38 4392.77 4651.17 4909.57 5167.97 5426.37 5684.77 5943.16 6201.56 6459.96 6718.36 6976.76 7235.16 7493.55 7751.95 8010.35 8268.75 8527.15 8785.55 9043.95 9302.34 9560.74 9819.14
Physical/Vocal
Frequency
FIGURE 1. Choir A (SATB) LTAS of the three warm-up procedures across the entire 0–10 kHz spectrum.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 5
Effects of Three Warm-Ups
Relative SPL (in 2 dB increments)
Sheri L. Cook-Cunningham and Melissa L. Grady
Vocal Only Physical Only
0 258.4 516.8 775.2 1033.59 1291.99 1550.39 1808.79 2067.19 2325.59 2583.98 2842.38 3100.78 3359.18 3617.58 3875.98 4134.38 4392.77 4651.17 4909.57 5167.97 5426.37 5684.77 5943.16 6201.56 6459.96 6718.36 6976.76 7235.16 7493.55 7751.95 8010.35 8268.75 8527.15 8785.55 9043.95 9302.34 9560.74 9819.14
Physical/Vocal
Frequency
Relative SPL (in 2 dB increments)
FIGURE 2. Choir B (SATB) LTAS of the three warm-up procedures across the entire 0–10 kHz spectrum.
Vocal Only Physical Only
0 258.4 516.8 775.2 1033.59 1291.99 1550.39 1808.79 2067.19 2325.59 2583.98 2842.38 3100.78 3359.18 3617.58 3875.98 4134.38 4392.77 4651.17 4909.57 5167.97 5426.37 5684.77 5943.16 6201.56 6459.96 6718.36 6976.76 7235.16 7493.55 7751.95 8010.35 8268.75 8527.15 8785.55 9043.95 9302.34 9560.74 9819.14
Vocal/Physical
Frequency
FIGURE 3. Choir C (SSA) LTAS of the three warm-up procedures across the entire 0–10 kHz spectrum. Results of LTAS analyses for choir C suggested similar trends in terms of the physical-only and vocal/physical warm-up procedures and a dampening of higher partials for the recording following the vocal-only warm-up procedure. Choir C’s entire spectrum grand mean differences and ranges were (a) vocalonly warm-up versus physical-only warm-up (M = 2.74 dB, range = 0.58–5.04 dB); (b) vocal-only warm-up versus physical/ vocal warm-up (M = 3.12 dB, range = 0.75–5.38 dB); and (c) physical-only warm-up versus physical/vocal warm-up (M = 0.38 dB, range = 0.02–3.57 dB). Results of a one-way repeated measures ANOVA indicated a significant interaction effect (F [2, 115] = 623.360, P < 0.001). Three follow-up paired t tests (two-tailed) measured specific differences in the model with a Bonferroni adjustment of alpha levels to provide conservative tests of significance (P = 0.05/3 = 0.017).
The t test results indicated significant statistical differences (P < 0.001) between all pairings of the warm-up procedures. Research question two: pitch analysis The second research question examined choral intonation and participant perceptions in terms of differences among the three warm-up procedures. Pitch analysis results are presented first, followed by results from the participant questionnaire. Pitch analysis Using Pitch Analyzer 2.1 procedures, researchers compared two sung pitch measurement points in each of the Danny Boy recordings following the three warm-up procedures for all three university choirs. In-tune or out-of-tune singing was qualified
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Journal of Voice, Vol. ■■, No. ■■, 2017 Choir A
Choir B
Choir C
0
Deviation in Cents
-5 -10
-6.65
-4.25 -5.67
-6.25
-6.65
-15 -20
-18.62
-25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50
Vocal Only
-33.49
Physical Only Physical/Vocal
-44.65 -47.07
FIGURE 4. Pitch deviation for each choir according to the three warm-up procedures. by the measurement of ±7 cents for this study according to Lindgren and Sundberg23 (Figure 4). Choir A sang “in-tune” (±7 cents) from beginning to end (the two pitch points measured) for all three warm-up procedures. Choir B sang with less than 7 cents deviation after performing the vocal-only and vocal/physical warm-ups, and sang with a 33.49 cent deviation after participating in the physical-only warmup procedure. Choir C did not sing “in-tune” after participating in any of the warm-up procedures. Choir C sang with the least pitch deviation after participating in the vocal/physical warmup and with much larger pitch deviations after the vocal-only (44.65 cent deviation) and physical-only (47.07 cent deviation) warm-up procedures. Research question three: participant questionnaire Immediately after each warm-up procedure and recording session, participants responded to a questionnaire that began with three questions: (a) Does your voice feel more prepared to sing now than it did at the start of class (yes or no); (b) Please rate the effectiveness of today’s warm-up procedure (on a scale from 1 to 5, with 1 “not helpful” to 5 “very helpful”); and (c) Did you enjoy the warm-up (yes or no). Tables 2 and 3 present results
of the yes or no questions for each choir according to each warmup procedure. Figure 5 demonstrates participant perceptions of the effectiveness of each warm-up procedure disaggregated by choir and warm-up procedure. The questionnaire asked participants to share what they did or did not like about the warm-up. Researchers disaggregated the comments into the two categories of “positive comments” and “negative comments” for each of the three warm-up procedures. Participants in the three choirs wrote 70 discrete comments about the vocal-only warm-up procedure. Positive comments (n = 37, 53%) included comments about the variety of vocal exercises, that all aspects of range were addressed, and a feeling of being adequately warmed-up and ready for singing. Negative comments (n = 33, 47%) comprised comments that the warm-up was too short, no physical movement, and dislike of particular vocal exercises. Participants recorded 86 comments concerning the physicalonly warm-up. Sixty-two percent (n = 53) of the comments about the physical-only warm-up were positive. Positive comments included increased energy, the body feeling relaxed, and a sense of better breath support. Negative comments about the
TABLE 2. Choir Results for Questionnaire Question (A): Does Your Voice Feel More Prepared to Sing Now Than It Did at the Start of Class (Yes or No)?
Choir A Choir B Choir C
Vocal-Only
Physical-Only
Vocal/Physical
95% yes, 5% no 71% yes, 29% no 100% yes
90% yes, 10% no 59% yes, 41% no 77% yes, 23% no
100% yes 94% yes, 6% no 89% yes, 11% no
TABLE 3. Choir Results for Questionnaire Question (C): Did You Enjoy the Warm-Up (Yes or No)?
Choir A Choir B Choir C
Vocal-Only
Physical-Only
Vocal/Physical
100% yes 94% yes, 6% no 100% yes
96% yes, 4% no 83% yes, 17% no 77% yes, 23% no
100% yes 94% yes, 6% no 94% yes, 6% no
ARTICLE IN PRESS Sheri L. Cook-Cunningham and Melissa L. Grady
Effects of Three Warm-Ups
Choir A
3.7 3.67 3.82
Choir B
3.82 3.52 3.55
Choir C 1 Not Helpful
3.06 2
3 Somewhat Helpful
7
Vocal Only Physical Only Physical/Vocal
3.69 4.25 4
5 Very Helpful
FIGURE 5. Singer participant responses to “rate the effectiveness of today’s warm-up procedure” on a scale of 1–5 (1 not helpful, 3 somewhat helpful, 5 very helpful).
TABLE 4. Choir Mean Ratings for the Three Warm-Up Procedures
1 2 3
Choir A
Choir B
Choir C
Physical/vocal Physical-only Vocal-only
Physical/vocal Vocal-only Physical-only
Physical/vocal Physical-only Vocal-only
physical-only warm-up mostly referred to the voice not being prepared for singing and the exercise made the participant tired. Singer participants wrote 70 discrete comments about the physical/vocal combination warm-up procedure. Of the 70 comments, 73% (n = 51) positively addressed the physical/vocal warmup. Positive remarks included feeling physically and vocally prepared to sing and a variety of singing and movement activities. Negative comments (n = 19, 27%) comprised the length of the warm-up (both too short and too long) and a dislike or uncertainty of need for specific physical exercises. Finally, after each choir had participated in all three warmup procedures, singer participants were asked to rank the three warm-up procedures according to which they felt best prepared them for singing to least prepared for singing (ranking of 1 for most prepared and 3 least prepared). Table 4 shows the rankings of the warm-up procedures for each choir. DISCUSSION The primary findings of this investigation revealed that all three choirs preferred the physical/vocal warm-up, wrote the most positive comments for the physical/vocal warm-up, and that this warm-up (physical/vocal) elicited the most spectral energy for two of the three choirs studied. The third choir sang with only slightly more spectral energy (just over 1 dB difference) during the vocal-only warm-up as compared with the physical/vocal combination warm-up. These results are limited to the specific methods and procedures used. This study focused on three university choirs, and the results of this study should not be generalized to other singers or contexts.
LTAS results from choirs A and B were very similar, with both choirs singing with less spectral energy after performing the physical-only warm-up. For these two choirs it would appear that warming up the body through physical movement only did not increase the overall spectral energy in the choral sound. The director of choir B commented that after the physical-only warmup and subsequent data collection, she led the choir in a vocal warm-up because they did not sound like they were prepared to sing. The one choir that did not sing with less spectral energy during the physical-only warm-up was the women’s choir. The director of this choir reported that the women enthusiastically participated in the physical-only warm-up and that participants indicated a high level of enjoyment while engaging in the physical actions. Discrete comments from choir C (women) seem to further substantiate the director’s observations. Singers commented that “I felt like I had a lot of energy after we warmed up and actually helped my muscles get ready for singing”; “I liked being able to stretch and move before we sang, doing cardio tends to make me feel more energized in everything I do”; and “I was able to sing with better supported breath throughout the song.” Perhaps singing in a single-sex choir created an environment in which the singers felt freer to actively participate in the physical warm-up movements without fear of appearing “silly” to their male counterparts. Comments from the two SATB choirs (choirs A and B) indicate that these participants may not have experienced the same comfort level as the women’s choir when performing the physical actions associated with the physicalonly warm-up. One chorister commented that “It made me kind of tense and slightly breathless” while another singer wrote “It didn’t seem to help and now I’m sweaty.” Perceptually, it appears that all three choirs felt they were the most prepared to sing after completing the physical/vocal combination warm-up. This finding suggests that choir conductors might consider a warm-up that includes both vocal and physical exercises. It is interesting to note that two choirs (choirs A and C) ranked the physical-only warm-up as the second most effective in preparing them to sing. This may have been due to the novelty of
ARTICLE IN PRESS 8 this warm-up, which differed greatly from the choirs’ typical warm-up segment. Results from the pitch analyses indicate that the most outof-tune singing for choirs B and C occurred after the physicalonly warm-up. Remember that pitch analysis data indicated that choir A was considered “in tune” after all three warm-up segments. Future studies could replicate these procedures with more choirs, analyzing more pitches throughout the song, and analyzing pitch deviations throughout the warm-up segment. Although it appears that a combined physical/vocal warmup is the most preferred procedure for these three university choirs, there is a need for more research with choirs of a variety of ages. The three choirs in this study rehearsed either in the afternoon or evening, and their vocal folds had already been in use for 4–7 hours. Future studies might investigate choirs that rehearse before school or during the first class of the day. Many high-school choral programs offer 0-hour choirs beginning before 8:00 am when the vocal mechanism has not been significantly used. In this and other contexts, information about specific types of warm-up procedures could provide choral directors with a more time-efficient and effective means to prepare their singers. For the purpose of this study, the length of each warm-up segment was 5 minutes. A future study might consider increasing the amount of time for each warm-up segment and restructuring the physical exercises. Several students commented on the type of physical warm-ups used in the videos, terming them “old lady exercises” or “jazzercise.” Movements that are perceived as more “up to date” might be better received by participants. Study participants from these three choirs included future choral and instrumental music educators with varied rehearsal and warmup experiences. These experiences most likely influenced their comments and perceptions of the three types of warm-ups. For example, the instrumental students were unfamiliar with the concept of movement during the warm-up procedures and expressed their discomfort to the directors when movement was a part of the warm-up process. A future study might replicate the methods of this study with younger choirs who may not have preconceived ideas of how a warm-up should function. From a pedagogical viewpoint, the findings from this study could provide teachers and directors with important information as they structure their choral warm-up procedures. Studies such as this might not only provide insights into better warm-up
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