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The management of respiratory infection
Brit. J. Dis. Chest (x96o) 5'1, I57.
THE MANAGEMENT OF RESPIRATORY INFECTION BY A. BRIAN TAYLOR From the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham
INFECTIONS of the respiratory tract commonly start in the upper respiratory passages and are usually due to the viruses of the common cold, influenza or the adenoviruses. These are highly infectious and as yet not noticeably amenable to preventive vaccination or chemotherapy. T h e y are prone to excite secondary bacterial infection both locally and in the lower respiratory passages. Laryngitis and tracheitis are especially seriotls in infants and children because of the obstructive effects in their smaller air passages. Virus infection of the lung itself is rare in civilian practice in this country and a diagnosis of virus pneumonia is rarely warranted. Atypical primary pneumonia was seen in wartime but is not often found now; psittacosis and Q fever are rather exceptional. Epidemics and the presence of a cold agglutinin and a rather peculiar X-ray appearance may suggest their occurrence, but as a rule bacterial infection is the manifestation in the bronchi and lungs associated with acute respiratory infection. Bronchitis has special features because of its explosive development and diffuse and bilateral extent. The tox~emia may be slight and symptoms are more the result of bronchospasm and mucus production causing obstruction. Difficult expiration is most marked, though interference with airflow and loss of lung compliance add to the mechanical difficulties of breathing. The nature of bronchospasm is not clear and may well be largely anaphylactic, as the asthmatic character of the symptoms in many cases exceeds the inflammatory and the toxic. A rising pulmonary artery pressure is also associated with the infection and has its own deleterious effects on the pulmonary circulation and the right heart. Individual susceptibility and heredity are both important features in the development of this condition. The development of emphysema occurs sooner or later. It may be very rapid after only one slight attack or it may be delayed and result from numerous attacks over many years. It leads to permanent ventilatory defects. Antibiotics help to limit the bacterial infection and should be used early to shorten the period of high pulmonary artery pressure, but symptoms are often prolonged beyond elimination of the bacteria from the sputum. For the troublesome bronchospasm steroids often play a useful part, and A C T H by injection is effective, but of course requires frequent injections. The alternative is Brockbank's method of oral cortisone beginning with a large dose and reducing rapidly. The use of trypsin inhalers and other methods of attempting to reduce the viscid character of the sputum are not very effective, though steam is still of advantage. For prophylactic use long courses of Tetracycline have been recommended and may help some patients. The use of vaccines to combat the allergic reaction associated with the bronchitis seems rational, but it is difficult to reproduce the bacterial flora. That of the postnasal space often reflects a probable picture, but variations sometimes make the
158
TAYLOR
effect disappointing. Oxygen and antispasmodics, particularly aminophylline,. are of great symptomatic value. The former, of course, need care because of carbon dioxide retention in chronic cases. At the moment the tendency is perhaps not to use oxygen sufficiently; anoxia and hypox~emia are important and dangerous states which must be corrected. Pneumonia has largely changed in its character from the old classical lobar pneumonia to either a descending bronchiolitis with bronchopneumonia or some form of aspiration pneumonia with a factor of atelectasis. Resulting from influenza the lung infection is usually bacterial and the influenza virus is only rarely found and in small numbers, except in those fulminating and deadly cases that sometimes appear during severe epidemics. Most cases of pneumonia readily respond to the antibiotics, but the resistant staphylococcus is an awkward complication occasionally met. The most difficult situation to treat is the scattered bronchopneumonia in lungs already severely damaged by bronchitis and emphysema. Here again the factors of respiratory obstruction, carbon dioxide retention, viscid sputum and right heart failure produce a vicious circle. It is in these cases that tracheotomy has its great advantages. By reducing the dead space, increasing the oxygen inhalation to a high concentration, and aspirating bronchial secretions from those patients unable to cough them up, many cases are relieved who would otherwise quickly die. Indications are that it should be done early if at all and in patients with inability to cough and where there is sticky sputum and a rising pCO~. If necessary, artificial ventilation can be carried out through the tracheotomy. When tremor, convulsions, coma, and the other signs of CO s poisoning have developed, the situation is acute. When using potent antibiotics for pulmonary infections it must be remembered that superadded fungal infections sometimes occur, particularly in the pneumonic areas; for instance, aspergillus with a mycetoma and other monilia may be found. It is also necessary to remember the possible presence of actinomycosis. Bronchiectasis is perhaps less commonly seen in its florid state in these days because of the better treatment of the fundamental causes of atelectasis and superadded infection. These need not occur at the same time, and adequate treatment of primary tuberculosis with atelectasis or whooping cough and prevention of its pneumonic complications reduces the possibility of continuing atelectasis. Two types of bronchiectasis are seen clinically: first, the localised lobar atelectactic lesion, usually as a result of some early bronchial obstruction, and this, of course, is particularly amenable to surgery. The other type, especially from whooping cough or other aspiration pneumonic infection, is more scattered, often bilateral and associated with bronchitic changes which make surgery much less effective or even possible. Persistent postural drainage is the clue to effective treatment, but is difficult. Frequent physiotherapy and frequent use of antibiotics give much relief. The difficulty is to arrange sufficiently often the use of antibiotics. Tuberculosis is hardly in the scope of this paper, but it is worth p e r h a p s emphasising the different modes of presentation in these days. Mass radiography often shows the difficulty of assessing activity and the need for treat-
THE MANAGEMENT OF RESPIRATORY INFEOTION
I59
ment, which should not be embarked on lightly when it can be troublesome, potentially dangerous and very prolonged, unless there are particular reasons for demanding it. Another point to remember is that the disease is being found more often in patients over the age of 4 ° , especially in the male sex. The odd onset in patients with vague respiratory infection without the usual characteristics of tuberculosis demands the use of X-ray examination for any persisting respiratory symptoms. Another very important diagnostic problem is the early stage of bronchial carcinoma. The so-called unresolved pneumonia is very frequently the beginning of a bronchial carcinoma, and the label " unresolved pneumonia " should never be used diagnostically, but should be an indication for investigation. X-ray changes may give a complete answer, but with the vague appearances procrastination is not the way to discover the disease if effective treatment is to be considered. Early bronchoscop~ and, if necessary, thoracotomy are additional measures that should be applied. Early and effective surgery can offer patients a more than 21 per cent. chance of surviving ten years. Empyema from pneumonia is perhaps less common in these days of antibiotics and has often a quiet onset which may make diagnosis difficult. Sometimes the cases are ambulant and come to out-patients. Aspiration of postpneumonic effusions should always be carried out and, if the fluid is only just turbid, early and persistent aspiration may relieve the condition, though pleural thickening can be troublesome. Drainage in the intermediate stage can still be used, but, if the condition is at all prolonged, thoracotomy and decortication of the lung lead to quick cure and early restoration of respiratory function. In conclusion, a word must be said about prophylaxis of respiratory infections. Work is going o n to obtain effective vaccination against virus infections, but as yet the variability of the virus makes its use, except in epidemics, unreliable. Bronchitis also gives great probiems for prophylaxis. Long-term winter Tetracycline administration has been tried with moderate success. Vaccines sometimes help against the development of bacterial sensitivity and asthmatic features of the condition. Air pollution is being tackled, but the climate in this country is especially disadvantageous and can be avoided only by a few.
THE MANAGEMENT OF RESPIRATORY INFECTION BY A. BRIAN TAYLOR From the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham
INFECTIONS of the respiratory tract commonly start in the upper respiratory passages and are usually due to the viruses of the common cold, influenza or the adenoviruses. These are highly infectious and as yet not noticeably amenable to preventive vaccination or chemotherapy. T h e y are prone to excite secondary bacterial infection both locally and in the lower respiratory passages. Laryngitis and tracheitis are especially seriotls in infants and children because of the obstructive effects in their smaller air passages. Virus infection of the lung itself is rare in civilian practice in this country and a diagnosis of virus pneumonia is rarely warranted. Atypical primary pneumonia was seen in wartime but is not often found now; psittacosis and Q fever are rather exceptional. Epidemics and the presence of a cold agglutinin and a rather peculiar X-ray appearance may suggest their occurrence, but as a rule bacterial infection is the manifestation in the bronchi and lungs associated with acute respiratory infection. Bronchitis has special features because of its explosive development and diffuse and bilateral extent. The tox~emia may be slight and symptoms are more the result of bronchospasm and mucus production causing obstruction. Difficult expiration is most marked, though interference with airflow and loss of lung compliance add to the mechanical difficulties of breathing. The nature of bronchospasm is not clear and may well be largely anaphylactic, as the asthmatic character of the symptoms in many cases exceeds the inflammatory and the toxic. A rising pulmonary artery pressure is also associated with the infection and has its own deleterious effects on the pulmonary circulation and the right heart. Individual susceptibility and heredity are both important features in the development of this condition. The development of emphysema occurs sooner or later. It may be very rapid after only one slight attack or it may be delayed and result from numerous attacks over many years. It leads to permanent ventilatory defects. Antibiotics help to limit the bacterial infection and should be used early to shorten the period of high pulmonary artery pressure, but symptoms are often prolonged beyond elimination of the bacteria from the sputum. For the troublesome bronchospasm steroids often play a useful part, and A C T H by injection is effective, but of course requires frequent injections. The alternative is Brockbank's method of oral cortisone beginning with a large dose and reducing rapidly. The use of trypsin inhalers and other methods of attempting to reduce the viscid character of the sputum are not very effective, though steam is still of advantage. For prophylactic use long courses of Tetracycline have been recommended and may help some patients. The use of vaccines to combat the allergic reaction associated with the bronchitis seems rational, but it is difficult to reproduce the bacterial flora. That of the postnasal space often reflects a probable picture, but variations sometimes make the
158
TAYLOR
effect disappointing. Oxygen and antispasmodics, particularly aminophylline,. are of great symptomatic value. The former, of course, need care because of carbon dioxide retention in chronic cases. At the moment the tendency is perhaps not to use oxygen sufficiently; anoxia and hypox~emia are important and dangerous states which must be corrected. Pneumonia has largely changed in its character from the old classical lobar pneumonia to either a descending bronchiolitis with bronchopneumonia or some form of aspiration pneumonia with a factor of atelectasis. Resulting from influenza the lung infection is usually bacterial and the influenza virus is only rarely found and in small numbers, except in those fulminating and deadly cases that sometimes appear during severe epidemics. Most cases of pneumonia readily respond to the antibiotics, but the resistant staphylococcus is an awkward complication occasionally met. The most difficult situation to treat is the scattered bronchopneumonia in lungs already severely damaged by bronchitis and emphysema. Here again the factors of respiratory obstruction, carbon dioxide retention, viscid sputum and right heart failure produce a vicious circle. It is in these cases that tracheotomy has its great advantages. By reducing the dead space, increasing the oxygen inhalation to a high concentration, and aspirating bronchial secretions from those patients unable to cough them up, many cases are relieved who would otherwise quickly die. Indications are that it should be done early if at all and in patients with inability to cough and where there is sticky sputum and a rising pCO~. If necessary, artificial ventilation can be carried out through the tracheotomy. When tremor, convulsions, coma, and the other signs of CO s poisoning have developed, the situation is acute. When using potent antibiotics for pulmonary infections it must be remembered that superadded fungal infections sometimes occur, particularly in the pneumonic areas; for instance, aspergillus with a mycetoma and other monilia may be found. It is also necessary to remember the possible presence of actinomycosis. Bronchiectasis is perhaps less commonly seen in its florid state in these days because of the better treatment of the fundamental causes of atelectasis and superadded infection. These need not occur at the same time, and adequate treatment of primary tuberculosis with atelectasis or whooping cough and prevention of its pneumonic complications reduces the possibility of continuing atelectasis. Two types of bronchiectasis are seen clinically: first, the localised lobar atelectactic lesion, usually as a result of some early bronchial obstruction, and this, of course, is particularly amenable to surgery. The other type, especially from whooping cough or other aspiration pneumonic infection, is more scattered, often bilateral and associated with bronchitic changes which make surgery much less effective or even possible. Persistent postural drainage is the clue to effective treatment, but is difficult. Frequent physiotherapy and frequent use of antibiotics give much relief. The difficulty is to arrange sufficiently often the use of antibiotics. Tuberculosis is hardly in the scope of this paper, but it is worth p e r h a p s emphasising the different modes of presentation in these days. Mass radiography often shows the difficulty of assessing activity and the need for treat-
THE MANAGEMENT OF RESPIRATORY INFEOTION
I59
ment, which should not be embarked on lightly when it can be troublesome, potentially dangerous and very prolonged, unless there are particular reasons for demanding it. Another point to remember is that the disease is being found more often in patients over the age of 4 ° , especially in the male sex. The odd onset in patients with vague respiratory infection without the usual characteristics of tuberculosis demands the use of X-ray examination for any persisting respiratory symptoms. Another very important diagnostic problem is the early stage of bronchial carcinoma. The so-called unresolved pneumonia is very frequently the beginning of a bronchial carcinoma, and the label " unresolved pneumonia " should never be used diagnostically, but should be an indication for investigation. X-ray changes may give a complete answer, but with the vague appearances procrastination is not the way to discover the disease if effective treatment is to be considered. Early bronchoscop~ and, if necessary, thoracotomy are additional measures that should be applied. Early and effective surgery can offer patients a more than 21 per cent. chance of surviving ten years. Empyema from pneumonia is perhaps less common in these days of antibiotics and has often a quiet onset which may make diagnosis difficult. Sometimes the cases are ambulant and come to out-patients. Aspiration of postpneumonic effusions should always be carried out and, if the fluid is only just turbid, early and persistent aspiration may relieve the condition, though pleural thickening can be troublesome. Drainage in the intermediate stage can still be used, but, if the condition is at all prolonged, thoracotomy and decortication of the lung lead to quick cure and early restoration of respiratory function. In conclusion, a word must be said about prophylaxis of respiratory infections. Work is going o n to obtain effective vaccination against virus infections, but as yet the variability of the virus makes its use, except in epidemics, unreliable. Bronchitis also gives great probiems for prophylaxis. Long-term winter Tetracycline administration has been tried with moderate success. Vaccines sometimes help against the development of bacterial sensitivity and asthmatic features of the condition. Air pollution is being tackled, but the climate in this country is especially disadvantageous and can be avoided only by a few.