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The myth and magic in OD
NEWTON MARGULIES
THE MYTH AND MAGIC IN OD Powerful and neglected forces Newton Margulies is lecturer in administraffon and director of the Executive Development Program at the University of California, Iroine.
The author offers another perspective of organizational development, a popular approach in the field o f administration. He suggests that OD is less a science than an art, and less an art than a magical process between consultant and client. Magic is still a critical part o f modern man's mental equipment. The OD consultant's actions and intentions are those of spiritual healer, and his motivations are directed through therapeutic channels. The magical forces of the placebo and doctrinal compliance are two major dimensions o f the magic of OD. The article concludes with descriptions of four myths in OD: the myth o f the OD discipline, the myth o f nonresearchable variables, the myth o f newness, and the myth of increased effectivehess.
In the past eight or ten years, there has been a good deal of excitement in the field of administration due to developments in the applied behavioral sciences. These develop-
AUGUST, 1972
ments are aimed at encouraging and facilitating organizational change; taken together as an approach or as a technology, they have come to be called "organizational developm e n t " or just OD. The processes and techniques e m b o d y a set of predominantly humanistic values which have been influenced by the work of McGregor, Argyris, Maslow, and others. 1 These humanistically oriented values define the organization as an environment in which individuals can be challenged b y their work, and grow, develop, and control m u c h more of their own organizational life than they could under traditionally bureaucratic systems. So in brief, and I am sure understating it, the inherent value system in OD is akin to the Theory Y managerial approach as described by McGregor and moves away from the Theory X managerial approach. OD is described as an organizational learning process, as a m e t h o d to bring about organizational culture change, and as a technology for improving organizational effectiveness) Indeed, OD may be one or all of these things. The definitions of OD are many, and they vary depending on one's perspective. The purpose of this article is to offer still another and slightly different perspective, and perhaps raise a question or two. The major
1. Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-HiU Book Company, 1960); Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization (New York: Harper & Bros., 1957); Abraham Maslow, Eupsychian Management (Homewood, Ill.: Irwin-Dorsey, 1965). 2. W. G. Bennis, Organization Development: Its Nature and Origins and Prospects (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969); R. Beckhard, Strategies of Organizational Development (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969); S. A. Davis, "An Organic Problem-Solving Method of Organizational Change,"JABS, III (1967).
77
NEWTON MARGULIES
78
thrust is that OD, as we know it and as it is now described in the literature, is less a science than it is an art, and less an art than a magical, spiritual, process between those who are the OD consultants and those who are the clients. Regardless of whether or not there is agreement on what OD is, if it does in fact help bring about organizational change, then a fuller understanding of the p h e n o m e n o n seems desirable. The perspective presented here is less a criticism than it is another point of view, which may add another dimension to how we think about OD and how it is implemented in organizations. Recent turmoil and the apparent need for change in our society have initiated attempts to derive rational and scientific approaches to the problems and processes of change. Certainly this has provided a significant impetus for the popularity of OD. Such approaches have derived reasonable and valid results to some extent. However, those elements that are n o n r a t i o n a l - a n d as much a force for change as the rational o n e s - h a v e been on the whole neglected. Just as we talk of the importance of science, culture, and religion, then we must also talk about the importance of magic. This article focuses on some of the myths and magical dimensions of OD. Every known society, regardless of how primitive or advanced, contains some kind of basic religion or philosophical notion of the supernatural. Magic performs an essential role in these societies; essentially, it is an extension of science into the realm where causeand-effect relationships are not clearly observable, not clearly testable, and hence not readily understood. The anthropologists explain magic as a groping attempt to bring order into the universe, and also to provide explanations for forces in nature. Magic art was credited with playing a significant role in the life and direction of the community. It provided a specific social function by supplying a charter
of ritual beliefs, a specific code of ethics, and the basis for social organization, a Modern man, and indeed managerial or organizational man, has come to place a high value on scientific evidence and pragmatic experience. Obviously, modern man has infinitely more control over his universe than did his primitive counterpart. And modern man's need for magic is proportionately smaller. However, as T h o r n d y k e has pointed out, even for m o d e r n man magic is still a critical and significant part of his mental equipment. 4 Call it religion, magic, or hybrid blend of the two, modern man still has a need for explaining and understanding phenomena that do not readily lend themselves to scientific classification and study. In the wake of the scientific and technological achievements of recent years, the emotional and intellectual climate of our society has remained dead set against the acceptance and use of "magical p h e n o m e n a . " Hence, m a n y p h e n o m e n a are cloaked in scientific paraphernalia in an effort to attain respectability. The value and significance of magic in social p h e n o m e n a do not lie in its ability to provide valid understanding of truth. Its usefulness is derived from its spiritual function. It tends to be effective regardless of its truth value, and, as such, it can be a powerful force for change and a potent therapeutic tool. The underlying function of magic may not have undergone as radical a change as we may suspect, except that the magician increasingly has changed his form and method.
OD CONSU LTANT AS SHAMAN In m a n y primitive cultures, the medicine man was the magical healer; he alone was in 3. B. Malinowski, Sex, Culture, ana Myth (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962). 4. L. Thorndyke, History of Magic and Experimental Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1923-58).
BUSINESS HORIZONS
Myth and Magic in OD
contact with the forces of nature. His influence resulted from accident rather than design, and was often aided by what today would be attributed to suggestion or autosuggestion. An example of this is what is now described as the placebo effect. Of course, the m o d e r n day therapist or consultant operates on a higher plane. For example, he may understand and make use of the placebo. So in some sense, "science" has taken over magic, although the same tools are available and used. This does not suggest in any way that professional consultants or therapists are comparable to the primitive medicine man. Personal and organizational change, however, can be understood in part as a function of the magic which these professionals bring to the client. The OD consultant, in m a n y instances, is seen as the expert par excellence, as someone who has developed special techniques (known only to him) to facilitate change. The magician of the past involved himself in uninhibited acting out, frantic gesturing, or dramatic pantomime. The m o d e r n day OD consultant relies on words rather than deeds. His actions and intentions are still those of spiritual healer, and his motivations are increasingly directed through therapeutic channels, that is, facilitating change in the direction of increased organizational health and hence improved organizational functioning. In most cases, the OD consultant still impresses the client with his credentials and with his experience. He implores his client to realize that the elements of the r e m e d y are based on thoroughly scientific principles and not on magic. He emphasizes the metapurpose or w o r t h y "values which e m b o d y the procedures and techniques used. He is careful to maintain rapport by using the prevailing scientific temper of the times. In summary, there are three major dimensions of the OD consultant and his role which, in m a n y instances, resemble the role of the
AUGUST, 1972
primitive shaman. These include the tendency to influence clients with credentials and feats of accomplishment; the insistence on scientific principles as a basis for OD action; and proclamation of the metapurpose which guides the activities of OD programs. Of course, the operational elements of the role have changed. Although most OD consultants stress their individuality and their individual approaches, there are a n u m b e r of shared or c o m m o n activities, carried out as part of the routine. As such, they tend to become OD rituals. For example, interviewing and data feedback very often are ritualistic in nature. In effect, the consultant not only plays a role quite similar to that of the primitive shaman, but he also engages in m a n y rituals with the client that may be analogous to the primitive magician. This is not to say that these rituals are viewed in a negative way or are unimportant; they are important as a prelude to real change. My purpose is to put in perspective those things which make up the culture and process of OD.
MAGICAL DIMENSIONS OF OD Again, the point of the article is that the effects of OD are based partially on the elements of magic and spiritualism provided in the client-consultant relationship, and that what is being done in OD currently cannot be viewed as solely and entirely a rational scientific process. There are two major dimensions of the magic of OD, and they are not unlike the magical dimensions in psychotherapy. These are the placebo and doctrinal complialice.
The placebo in general medicine and psychotherapy can be a powerful vehicle for therapeutic influence brought to bear upon the client. The placebo is the psychological effect of a medically inert drug or procedure. It may be the source of the therapist's
79
Myth and Magic in OD
80
self-fulfilling assumptions and the carrier of his personal charisma. For example, not long ago it was reported that a medical doctor in New York discovered that it was possible to remove warts on the hands of children if the child would trace the afflicted hand with a piece of paper; then, in the presence of the child, the doctor would burn the paper. The wart would disappear in a short time. The procedure itself obviously has little to do with the removal of the wart. However, the f o r c e - t h e psychological and spiritual f o r c e - w a s critical in bringing about physiological change. The placebo in OD is very similar. If the client believes that OD procedures can bring about important change, then important changes will occur regardless of the scientific validity of the procedures. The procedures of OD do not appear to be new or scientifically valid (at least there is little scientific evidence to support them). Important changes are being brought about in organizations, however, and, at least in part, are due to the placebo-belief on the part of the client that important changes can result from the application of these techniques. In instances where the client is less than fully committed to OD, the procedure is a useless one, d o o m e d to failure, regardless of how scientifically valid it may be. The second magical force is called doctrinal compliance, s This is closely related to the concept of suggestion. It differs essentially because often it is unconscious in nature. It is independent of the consultant's deliberate and explicit intention. As a rule, the consultant and the client remain unaware of its operation. In this case, effects of OD interventions are more often than not the client's attempt to act as the OD doctrine states he should. Organizational change results as m u c h from the client's desire to conform to OD standards than from the application of techniques. Again, the client's relationship 5. For a good discussion, see Jan Ehrenwald, Psychotherapy: Myth and Method (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1966).
AUGUST, 1972
with the consultant can be a mediating force, one which can induce superficial results. In summary, the two magical components that have been discussed are: The placebo--In this instance, the client is already enthusiastic and committed to change. OD is simply the psychological force that initiates the process. Doctrinal compliance--In this instance, the force is the client-consultant relationship and the implicit desire on the part of the client to act in terms of the doctrine prescribed by the consultant. Even if the changes made are surface ones, potentially real organizational change is now possible.
The possibility of such influences in the outcomes of psychotherapy has long been suggested. The existence of the placebo is illustrated in this sample statement that some OD consultants h a v e / n a d e in response to the question, "What is it that y o u do as a consultant"? They reply, "I'm simply there. Very often m y presence is the sole important factor." More and more, the element of the placebo, doctrinal compliance, or in other terms, psychological force in the presence of the shaman, can facilitate organizational change.
THE MYTHS IN OD The magical or spiritual quality in OD can produce significant effects. These forces are ignored and clouded in a variety of ways. As a result, and in light of the technological and scientific aura of the times, a number of myths have developed around OD which help block out the magical, spiritual qualities.
The Myth of the OD Discipline There has been some emphasis on the development of an OD discipline. Practitioners place high reliance (and even faith) on the fact that OD is based on rational scientific principles, and as such is a discipline in embryonic form. For both consultants and clients there is increased comfort from the belief that what they are doing has a scientific
Myth and Magic in OD
base and has the potential for becoming a full-blown discipline if only certain requirements can be met. The specification of these requirements has n o t yet been pursued. There have been a number of discussions in the literature on what tends to be called "emerging issues in organizational developm e n t . ''~ For the most part, these seem to be less emerging issues and more like older problems which have come from a variety of other practices and a variety of other disciplines. For example, the use of sensitivity training and client-consultant relationships are often discussed. These are n o t areas that are particularly in the domain of OD, but they are discussed as if they belonged solely in that area. These are no d o u b t problem areas in the applied social sciences, b u t they have little to do with the n o t i o n of OD p e r se, or with OD as a potential discipline.
The Myth of Nonresearchable Variables Another m y t h has to do with the general resistance toward traditional research in OD programs. There tends to be some feeling about the fact that these programs are more difficult to research than other social phenomena, that the variables are more difficult to measure, and that the research process itself would interfere with the process of OD. Although these claims are partially true, they serve to perpetuate a climate in which a traditional exploration is viewed as dysfunctional and unimportant. These arguments are used, however, as a basis for resisting research rather than as a basis for discovering new ways of doing useful, scientific research on the processes and techniques of OD. In a sense, there is a contradiction in this kind of thinking. The covert claim of OD consultants is that what they do is based on solid scientific knowledge; but at the same 6. See, for example, W. G. Bennis, "Unresolved Problems Facing Organizational Development," Business Quarterly (Winter, 1969).
AUGUST, 1972
time, they resist the use of scientific methods of inquiry for research and study of OD phenomena. This is an instance where OD is discussed in a quasimagical sense, where such phenomena are difficult if n o t impossible to research.
The Myth of Newness The third m y t h has to do with the notion of OD as a new process or as a set of new techniques which are used to facilitate change. In many instances, it appears that the processes and methods of OD are simply older, well-established methods which have taken on new names and new labels, and are being applied in different situations. This is a m y t h that helps add a magical quality to OD. This quality arises from the idea that since the methods and techniques are new, they are more effective, and that somehow older, well-established processes cannot be as effective. Whether consciously or unconsciously assumed, the pretense of newness adds a dimension to OD which, in some sense, facilitates the process of change. The cloak of newness, whether real or unreal, is an added force which can make OD an effective means of change.
The Myth of Increased Effectiveness OD proponents argue that moving in the direction of OD values can improve the organization's ability to meet its goals. So far, little evidence has been presented to demonstrate that this hypothesis is true.* Although some work has been done in this area, the results are by no means conclusive. 7 OD concepts and techniques are significant in terms of the values they embody. The notion that OD is value-free or that its techniques can directly affect organi7. R. R. Blake and others, "Breakthrough in Organization Development," Harvard Business Review (NovemberDecember, 1964).
NEWTON MARGULIES
zational effectiveness is part of the mythology. For example, more authentic relations do not necessarily mean an increase in organizational profits. It is more likely that OD consultants believe more strongly in the process and method of OD than they do in the productive outcomes. One can argue that organizations functioning under an umbrella of socially accepted values are likely to be more effective. This argument stretches the point and is simply theoretical with little support. The myth, however, helps to initiate and sustain organizational change efforts by translating OD value systems into organizational outputs. ,~h'l,'ll,II The underlying thrust of this article ~,,,,,,, was derived from actual first-hand involvement as an OD consultant, from discussions with other professionals who are OD consultants, and numerous clients. It seems that a powerful and neglected force in the effectiveness of OD has been the magical
quality which is derived from the clientconsultant relationship, and from the psychological belief in OD values and process. It also seems that a variety of myths and rituals have developed in the field which help to stimulate and encourage this spiritual force. A number of elements that make up the magic and a number of myths that help to perpetuate the magic have been mentioned. The purpose was not to negate or deemphasize these magical qualities, but rather to understand more clearly how these qualities, much as was the case in other healing professions (for example, psychotherapy), can be a useful and an important tool in bringing about organizational,-community, and social change. For the most part, these qualities are ignored and devalued in a society which emphasizes and rewards scientific and technologically oriented attitudes. Such attitudes can potentially cloud and disguise the true nature of the change process and the true nature of the human temperament.
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BUSINESS HORIZONS
THE MYTH AND MAGIC IN OD Powerful and neglected forces Newton Margulies is lecturer in administraffon and director of the Executive Development Program at the University of California, Iroine.
The author offers another perspective of organizational development, a popular approach in the field o f administration. He suggests that OD is less a science than an art, and less an art than a magical process between consultant and client. Magic is still a critical part o f modern man's mental equipment. The OD consultant's actions and intentions are those of spiritual healer, and his motivations are directed through therapeutic channels. The magical forces of the placebo and doctrinal compliance are two major dimensions o f the magic of OD. The article concludes with descriptions of four myths in OD: the myth o f the OD discipline, the myth o f nonresearchable variables, the myth o f newness, and the myth of increased effectivehess.
In the past eight or ten years, there has been a good deal of excitement in the field of administration due to developments in the applied behavioral sciences. These develop-
AUGUST, 1972
ments are aimed at encouraging and facilitating organizational change; taken together as an approach or as a technology, they have come to be called "organizational developm e n t " or just OD. The processes and techniques e m b o d y a set of predominantly humanistic values which have been influenced by the work of McGregor, Argyris, Maslow, and others. 1 These humanistically oriented values define the organization as an environment in which individuals can be challenged b y their work, and grow, develop, and control m u c h more of their own organizational life than they could under traditionally bureaucratic systems. So in brief, and I am sure understating it, the inherent value system in OD is akin to the Theory Y managerial approach as described by McGregor and moves away from the Theory X managerial approach. OD is described as an organizational learning process, as a m e t h o d to bring about organizational culture change, and as a technology for improving organizational effectiveness) Indeed, OD may be one or all of these things. The definitions of OD are many, and they vary depending on one's perspective. The purpose of this article is to offer still another and slightly different perspective, and perhaps raise a question or two. The major
1. Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-HiU Book Company, 1960); Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization (New York: Harper & Bros., 1957); Abraham Maslow, Eupsychian Management (Homewood, Ill.: Irwin-Dorsey, 1965). 2. W. G. Bennis, Organization Development: Its Nature and Origins and Prospects (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969); R. Beckhard, Strategies of Organizational Development (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969); S. A. Davis, "An Organic Problem-Solving Method of Organizational Change,"JABS, III (1967).
77
NEWTON MARGULIES
78
thrust is that OD, as we know it and as it is now described in the literature, is less a science than it is an art, and less an art than a magical, spiritual, process between those who are the OD consultants and those who are the clients. Regardless of whether or not there is agreement on what OD is, if it does in fact help bring about organizational change, then a fuller understanding of the p h e n o m e n o n seems desirable. The perspective presented here is less a criticism than it is another point of view, which may add another dimension to how we think about OD and how it is implemented in organizations. Recent turmoil and the apparent need for change in our society have initiated attempts to derive rational and scientific approaches to the problems and processes of change. Certainly this has provided a significant impetus for the popularity of OD. Such approaches have derived reasonable and valid results to some extent. However, those elements that are n o n r a t i o n a l - a n d as much a force for change as the rational o n e s - h a v e been on the whole neglected. Just as we talk of the importance of science, culture, and religion, then we must also talk about the importance of magic. This article focuses on some of the myths and magical dimensions of OD. Every known society, regardless of how primitive or advanced, contains some kind of basic religion or philosophical notion of the supernatural. Magic performs an essential role in these societies; essentially, it is an extension of science into the realm where causeand-effect relationships are not clearly observable, not clearly testable, and hence not readily understood. The anthropologists explain magic as a groping attempt to bring order into the universe, and also to provide explanations for forces in nature. Magic art was credited with playing a significant role in the life and direction of the community. It provided a specific social function by supplying a charter
of ritual beliefs, a specific code of ethics, and the basis for social organization, a Modern man, and indeed managerial or organizational man, has come to place a high value on scientific evidence and pragmatic experience. Obviously, modern man has infinitely more control over his universe than did his primitive counterpart. And modern man's need for magic is proportionately smaller. However, as T h o r n d y k e has pointed out, even for m o d e r n man magic is still a critical and significant part of his mental equipment. 4 Call it religion, magic, or hybrid blend of the two, modern man still has a need for explaining and understanding phenomena that do not readily lend themselves to scientific classification and study. In the wake of the scientific and technological achievements of recent years, the emotional and intellectual climate of our society has remained dead set against the acceptance and use of "magical p h e n o m e n a . " Hence, m a n y p h e n o m e n a are cloaked in scientific paraphernalia in an effort to attain respectability. The value and significance of magic in social p h e n o m e n a do not lie in its ability to provide valid understanding of truth. Its usefulness is derived from its spiritual function. It tends to be effective regardless of its truth value, and, as such, it can be a powerful force for change and a potent therapeutic tool. The underlying function of magic may not have undergone as radical a change as we may suspect, except that the magician increasingly has changed his form and method.
OD CONSU LTANT AS SHAMAN In m a n y primitive cultures, the medicine man was the magical healer; he alone was in 3. B. Malinowski, Sex, Culture, ana Myth (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962). 4. L. Thorndyke, History of Magic and Experimental Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1923-58).
BUSINESS HORIZONS
Myth and Magic in OD
contact with the forces of nature. His influence resulted from accident rather than design, and was often aided by what today would be attributed to suggestion or autosuggestion. An example of this is what is now described as the placebo effect. Of course, the m o d e r n day therapist or consultant operates on a higher plane. For example, he may understand and make use of the placebo. So in some sense, "science" has taken over magic, although the same tools are available and used. This does not suggest in any way that professional consultants or therapists are comparable to the primitive medicine man. Personal and organizational change, however, can be understood in part as a function of the magic which these professionals bring to the client. The OD consultant, in m a n y instances, is seen as the expert par excellence, as someone who has developed special techniques (known only to him) to facilitate change. The magician of the past involved himself in uninhibited acting out, frantic gesturing, or dramatic pantomime. The m o d e r n day OD consultant relies on words rather than deeds. His actions and intentions are still those of spiritual healer, and his motivations are increasingly directed through therapeutic channels, that is, facilitating change in the direction of increased organizational health and hence improved organizational functioning. In most cases, the OD consultant still impresses the client with his credentials and with his experience. He implores his client to realize that the elements of the r e m e d y are based on thoroughly scientific principles and not on magic. He emphasizes the metapurpose or w o r t h y "values which e m b o d y the procedures and techniques used. He is careful to maintain rapport by using the prevailing scientific temper of the times. In summary, there are three major dimensions of the OD consultant and his role which, in m a n y instances, resemble the role of the
AUGUST, 1972
primitive shaman. These include the tendency to influence clients with credentials and feats of accomplishment; the insistence on scientific principles as a basis for OD action; and proclamation of the metapurpose which guides the activities of OD programs. Of course, the operational elements of the role have changed. Although most OD consultants stress their individuality and their individual approaches, there are a n u m b e r of shared or c o m m o n activities, carried out as part of the routine. As such, they tend to become OD rituals. For example, interviewing and data feedback very often are ritualistic in nature. In effect, the consultant not only plays a role quite similar to that of the primitive shaman, but he also engages in m a n y rituals with the client that may be analogous to the primitive magician. This is not to say that these rituals are viewed in a negative way or are unimportant; they are important as a prelude to real change. My purpose is to put in perspective those things which make up the culture and process of OD.
MAGICAL DIMENSIONS OF OD Again, the point of the article is that the effects of OD are based partially on the elements of magic and spiritualism provided in the client-consultant relationship, and that what is being done in OD currently cannot be viewed as solely and entirely a rational scientific process. There are two major dimensions of the magic of OD, and they are not unlike the magical dimensions in psychotherapy. These are the placebo and doctrinal complialice.
The placebo in general medicine and psychotherapy can be a powerful vehicle for therapeutic influence brought to bear upon the client. The placebo is the psychological effect of a medically inert drug or procedure. It may be the source of the therapist's
79
Myth and Magic in OD
80
self-fulfilling assumptions and the carrier of his personal charisma. For example, not long ago it was reported that a medical doctor in New York discovered that it was possible to remove warts on the hands of children if the child would trace the afflicted hand with a piece of paper; then, in the presence of the child, the doctor would burn the paper. The wart would disappear in a short time. The procedure itself obviously has little to do with the removal of the wart. However, the f o r c e - t h e psychological and spiritual f o r c e - w a s critical in bringing about physiological change. The placebo in OD is very similar. If the client believes that OD procedures can bring about important change, then important changes will occur regardless of the scientific validity of the procedures. The procedures of OD do not appear to be new or scientifically valid (at least there is little scientific evidence to support them). Important changes are being brought about in organizations, however, and, at least in part, are due to the placebo-belief on the part of the client that important changes can result from the application of these techniques. In instances where the client is less than fully committed to OD, the procedure is a useless one, d o o m e d to failure, regardless of how scientifically valid it may be. The second magical force is called doctrinal compliance, s This is closely related to the concept of suggestion. It differs essentially because often it is unconscious in nature. It is independent of the consultant's deliberate and explicit intention. As a rule, the consultant and the client remain unaware of its operation. In this case, effects of OD interventions are more often than not the client's attempt to act as the OD doctrine states he should. Organizational change results as m u c h from the client's desire to conform to OD standards than from the application of techniques. Again, the client's relationship 5. For a good discussion, see Jan Ehrenwald, Psychotherapy: Myth and Method (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1966).
AUGUST, 1972
with the consultant can be a mediating force, one which can induce superficial results. In summary, the two magical components that have been discussed are: The placebo--In this instance, the client is already enthusiastic and committed to change. OD is simply the psychological force that initiates the process. Doctrinal compliance--In this instance, the force is the client-consultant relationship and the implicit desire on the part of the client to act in terms of the doctrine prescribed by the consultant. Even if the changes made are surface ones, potentially real organizational change is now possible.
The possibility of such influences in the outcomes of psychotherapy has long been suggested. The existence of the placebo is illustrated in this sample statement that some OD consultants h a v e / n a d e in response to the question, "What is it that y o u do as a consultant"? They reply, "I'm simply there. Very often m y presence is the sole important factor." More and more, the element of the placebo, doctrinal compliance, or in other terms, psychological force in the presence of the shaman, can facilitate organizational change.
THE MYTHS IN OD The magical or spiritual quality in OD can produce significant effects. These forces are ignored and clouded in a variety of ways. As a result, and in light of the technological and scientific aura of the times, a number of myths have developed around OD which help block out the magical, spiritual qualities.
The Myth of the OD Discipline There has been some emphasis on the development of an OD discipline. Practitioners place high reliance (and even faith) on the fact that OD is based on rational scientific principles, and as such is a discipline in embryonic form. For both consultants and clients there is increased comfort from the belief that what they are doing has a scientific
Myth and Magic in OD
base and has the potential for becoming a full-blown discipline if only certain requirements can be met. The specification of these requirements has n o t yet been pursued. There have been a number of discussions in the literature on what tends to be called "emerging issues in organizational developm e n t . ''~ For the most part, these seem to be less emerging issues and more like older problems which have come from a variety of other practices and a variety of other disciplines. For example, the use of sensitivity training and client-consultant relationships are often discussed. These are n o t areas that are particularly in the domain of OD, but they are discussed as if they belonged solely in that area. These are no d o u b t problem areas in the applied social sciences, b u t they have little to do with the n o t i o n of OD p e r se, or with OD as a potential discipline.
The Myth of Nonresearchable Variables Another m y t h has to do with the general resistance toward traditional research in OD programs. There tends to be some feeling about the fact that these programs are more difficult to research than other social phenomena, that the variables are more difficult to measure, and that the research process itself would interfere with the process of OD. Although these claims are partially true, they serve to perpetuate a climate in which a traditional exploration is viewed as dysfunctional and unimportant. These arguments are used, however, as a basis for resisting research rather than as a basis for discovering new ways of doing useful, scientific research on the processes and techniques of OD. In a sense, there is a contradiction in this kind of thinking. The covert claim of OD consultants is that what they do is based on solid scientific knowledge; but at the same 6. See, for example, W. G. Bennis, "Unresolved Problems Facing Organizational Development," Business Quarterly (Winter, 1969).
AUGUST, 1972
time, they resist the use of scientific methods of inquiry for research and study of OD phenomena. This is an instance where OD is discussed in a quasimagical sense, where such phenomena are difficult if n o t impossible to research.
The Myth of Newness The third m y t h has to do with the notion of OD as a new process or as a set of new techniques which are used to facilitate change. In many instances, it appears that the processes and methods of OD are simply older, well-established methods which have taken on new names and new labels, and are being applied in different situations. This is a m y t h that helps add a magical quality to OD. This quality arises from the idea that since the methods and techniques are new, they are more effective, and that somehow older, well-established processes cannot be as effective. Whether consciously or unconsciously assumed, the pretense of newness adds a dimension to OD which, in some sense, facilitates the process of change. The cloak of newness, whether real or unreal, is an added force which can make OD an effective means of change.
The Myth of Increased Effectiveness OD proponents argue that moving in the direction of OD values can improve the organization's ability to meet its goals. So far, little evidence has been presented to demonstrate that this hypothesis is true.* Although some work has been done in this area, the results are by no means conclusive. 7 OD concepts and techniques are significant in terms of the values they embody. The notion that OD is value-free or that its techniques can directly affect organi7. R. R. Blake and others, "Breakthrough in Organization Development," Harvard Business Review (NovemberDecember, 1964).
NEWTON MARGULIES
zational effectiveness is part of the mythology. For example, more authentic relations do not necessarily mean an increase in organizational profits. It is more likely that OD consultants believe more strongly in the process and method of OD than they do in the productive outcomes. One can argue that organizations functioning under an umbrella of socially accepted values are likely to be more effective. This argument stretches the point and is simply theoretical with little support. The myth, however, helps to initiate and sustain organizational change efforts by translating OD value systems into organizational outputs. ,~h'l,'ll,II The underlying thrust of this article ~,,,,,,, was derived from actual first-hand involvement as an OD consultant, from discussions with other professionals who are OD consultants, and numerous clients. It seems that a powerful and neglected force in the effectiveness of OD has been the magical
quality which is derived from the clientconsultant relationship, and from the psychological belief in OD values and process. It also seems that a variety of myths and rituals have developed in the field which help to stimulate and encourage this spiritual force. A number of elements that make up the magic and a number of myths that help to perpetuate the magic have been mentioned. The purpose was not to negate or deemphasize these magical qualities, but rather to understand more clearly how these qualities, much as was the case in other healing professions (for example, psychotherapy), can be a useful and an important tool in bringing about organizational,-community, and social change. For the most part, these qualities are ignored and devalued in a society which emphasizes and rewards scientific and technologically oriented attitudes. Such attitudes can potentially cloud and disguise the true nature of the change process and the true nature of the human temperament.
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