The provenance, petrology and sedimentology of building stone in Bromyard, Herefordshire, UK

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The provenance, petrology and sedimentology of building stone in Bromyard, Herefordshire, UK E.J. Carter* , E. Andrews, K. Andrew Herefordshire & Worcestershire Earth Heritage Trust, Geological Records Centre, University of Worcester, Henwick Grove, Worcester WR2 6AJ, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O

Article history: Received 8 September 2015 Received in revised form 10 November 2016 Accepted 20 November 2016 Available online xxx Keywords: Lower Old Red Sandstone Freshwater West Formation St Maughans Formation Moor Cliffs Formation Raglan Mudstone Formation Building stone Bromyard Herefordshire Sedimentology Petrology

A B S T R A C T

A multi-disciplinary study was undertaken of the Lower Old Red Sandstone building stones of Bromyard, Bromyard Downs and Bringsty Common, Herefordshire, UK, to trace their original quarry sources. 196 stone structures were recorded in detail and 3 broad lithological groups recognised. Combining old maps, archival sources, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data and testimony of local residents, the historic quarries in the area have been mapped. Field studies of the geology of quarries and outcrops have established the area of origin of two distinctive coarse grained lithologies. Intraformational conglomerates have been demonstrated, with some confidence, to be derived from Bromyard itself. Coarse, pebbly, quartzose sandstones have been traced to Bringsty Common and shown to be used only in the church in Bromyard before the 20th century. The origins of fine grained sandstone are found to be more complex. Through a combination of fieldwork and archival research, Clater Park Quarry is indicated as the origin of high quality green sandstones in Bromyard. 15 samples of sandstone from the Bromyard Downs, have been petrographically analysed by point counting to determine their clastic and mineralogical proportions. Early results of this analysis are presented which show modal variation in lithics, feldspars and cements that may serve to link quarries to buildings. Finally, it is suggested that at least some of the diversity of stone present in Bromyard is the result of slight variation in depositional processes in the immediately underlying bedrock. © 2016 The Geologists' Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Local vernacular building stones provide a link between the built environment and the geology underlying it. Gradual cessation of quarrying in most counties has meant that both the knowledge and sources of such stone have been largely lost. Meanwhile, the implementation of listed building and conservation area consent has been strengthened. This has brought about a situation where Conservation Officers demand replacement of “like for like” and yet there is often poor understanding of what “like” actually is in all fields; whether planning, geology or archaeology. This lack of clarity is detrimental to both conservation and the engagement of the general public with the process. Correctly identifying original stone is important since replacement stone, if different in porosity, strength or chemistry, can focus problems associated with water ingress, salt effluence, structural

* Corresponding author. Present address: School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom. E-mail address: [email protected] (E.J. Carter).

settling or mechanical erosion into the surrounding stone. This accelerates degradation of the historic fabric (Odgers and Henry, 2012). In many cases the ideal solution would be to replace with stone from the quarry it was originally sourced from (Jefferson et al., 2006). Small scale reopening of quarries has been achieved in a minority of stone conservation projects – including at Dore Abbey (Hughes, 2008) and Baddesley Clinton (Natural Stone Specialist, 2011) – and is increasingly recognised as a viable prospect by local mineral planners (Worcestershire County Council, 2013) who may often waive requirements for planning consent for welljustified small scale propositions (Jefferson et al., 2006). Any moves towards reopening require as a prerequisite, however, a documented source or potential sources for the building in question. There is acknowledgement of the current lack of such knowledge from bodies including Government (Thompson et al., 2004), English Heritage, national stone forums and our own funders, the Heritage Lottery Fund. Some work has been done towards remedying this situation, in particular the Strategic Stone Study (British Geological Survey, no date). This was very successful in providing an overview of the variation and use of local stone in

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2016.11.007 0016-7878/© 2016 The Geologists' Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: E.J. Carter, et al., The provenance, petrology and sedimentology of building stone in Bromyard, Herefordshire, UK, Proc. Geol. Assoc. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2016.11.007

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most English counties. However, it did not take advantage of archival sources and was unable to survey buildings and quarries in quantity or detail. As a result, in terms of linking buildings directly to source quarries its successes were more limited. Successful approaches taken to directly provenancing stone and other geological materials have generally focused on specific archaeological artefacts of great importance. A variety of analytical techniques have been applied, including cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy (Goetze and Siedel, 2007), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry (Phillips and Speakman, 2009), heavy mineral analysis (Dickinson, 2007) and “total petrology” (Ixer et al., 2004). While such approaches may be highly effective, the techniques and equipment needed are prohibitively costly and time consuming for many projects. Thin section petrography remains an important and cost effective tool (Reedy, 1994) for provenance studies (see e.g. Dreesen and Dusar, 2004; Lott and Cameron, 2005). Aside from high profile projects, investigation has been largely limited to privately commissioned building stone consultancy, usually on a single building or even a single sample. These are rarely published and have a pragmatic focus on specifying the most suitable commercially available building stone. As a result, there has been little to emerge from this sphere to further our knowledge of historic links to individual quarries. 2. This study In this paper we present a multidisciplinary study of the building stones of Bromyard and surrounding areas. Our aim was both to audit the fine detail of lithological variation in building stones and, where possible, link them to likely source quarries. Bromyard presents an ideal subject for study as it has several distinct local building stones, recent high quality geological mapping (British Geological Survey, 1984a,b, c, 1990) and its own local history centre and archive. This has allowed us to proceed despite the closure of Hereford Record Office for a full rebuild for the duration of the project thus far. Various workers have described the historical development of the area (Williams, 1987; Hillaby and Pearson, 1970; Pearson, 1993) and in addition, James (2009) conducted a detailed structural survey of 50 historic buildings within the town centre. This study draws together the disparate fields of geology, archaeology and local history; combining field surveying, archival research and petrological microscopy. By applying multiple approaches to what is a difficult problem, greater strength of conclusions may be reached. This work has formed a sub-project of A Thousand Years of Building with Stone, a wide-ranging project being run by Herefordshire & Worcestershire Earth Heritage Trust. The project aims to uncover the history of stone use in heritage buildings across Herefordshire and Worcestershire and link buildings to their source quarries. The data gathered throughout the project will be freely available online via a searchable database at www.buildingstones.org.uk.

Freshwater West Formation (formerly St Maughans Formation) (Fig. 2), which form upstanding hills and plateaus. 2.2. Geology of Bromyard and surrounding areas Bromyard, in the northeast of the county, lies near the centre of one such plateau, situated on a slight bluff [SO 65 55] above the River Frome. On the east side of the river the ground rises up onto the Bromyard Downs [SO 6755], and, eastward, slopes down over Bringsty Common [SO 70 55] to the Teme Valley at Knightwick (Fig. 2). Bromyard [SO 65 55] and the Bromyard Downs [SO 65 75] are underlain by the Freshwater West Formation (St Maughans Formation) (Fig. 2). Mudstones predominate but are interbedded with numerous, laterally discontinuous sandstones and intraformational conglomerates which, together, make up approximately 30% of the formation (Brandon, 1989). Near the head of the ridge above the Downs [SO 68 55] the Freshwater West Formation (St Maughans Formation) is faulted against the stratigraphically lower Moor Cliffs Formation (Raglan Mudstone Formation) which outcrops across the area to the east, including Bringsty Common. The Chapel Point Limestone (formerly Bishop's Frome Limestone), a thick calcrete that marks the boundary between the two formations, is here faulted out and only outcrops to the north of the area. The geology of the area was most recently mapped in 1983 (British Geological Survey, 1984a, b, c) and 1986–1987 (east of grid line 665; British Geological Survey, 1990) at 1:10,000 scale. However, the laterally discontinuous nature of the strata means there is little to correlate sandstone horizons to one another on an outcrop scale. 3. Survey of buildings As part of the present work, surveys of stone buildings in the historic centre of Bromyard, on the Bromyard Downs and on Bringsty Common have been undertaken. The stone has been described in 196 structures where it constitutes a significant proportion of the building material (15% or more). These represent approximately 40% of buildings in the areas surveyed, with the remainder being mostly brick-built or, more rarely, timber framed. Many buildings, particularly in central Bromyard, combine multiple materials with a timber-framed core, stone rear ranges (Fig. 5A) and brick frontages (James, 2009). Three principal groups of lithologies have been recognised: (A) very fine to medium-grained sandstones; (B) calcareous intraformational conglomerates (cornstones) and (C) very coarse sandstones to pebble-conglomerates, rich in exotic (i.e. extrabasinal) clasts. Grain sizes are quoted throughout in reference to the Wentworth Scale (Wentworth, 1922). Block heights or thicknesses refer to the size of the block perpendicular to bedding. The proportions of buildings using each in the three areas surveyed are summarised in Table 1 and their occurrence in buildings mapped in Figs. 3 and 4. The individual lithologies are dealt with in detail below.

2.1. Geographical and geological setting 3.1. Group A—sandstones Herefordshire lies in the Welsh Borders, at western edge of the West Midlands region of England, United Kingdom. Generally flatlying strata of the Old Red Sandstone Supergroup underlie the majority of the county, terminated by the Malvern Hills Axis fault zone in the east and extending westwards into the Black Mountains in Wales (Fig. 1). In central and north Herefordshire, mudstones of the Moor Cliffs Formation (formerly Raglan Mudstone Formation; Barclay et al., 2015) form the low-lying plains and are overlain stratigraphically by sandstones of the

3.1.1. Lithology The predominant group of building stones in Bromyard and on Bromyard Downs consist of fine- to medium-grained sandstones (Table 1). They are dominantly arenitic with a subordinate lithic component visible in coarser grained examples and are frequently calcareously cemented. They are moderately to indifferently cemented and in many cases have weathered very poorly, generally by granular disintegration.

Please cite this article in press as: E.J. Carter, et al., The provenance, petrology and sedimentology of building stone in Bromyard, Herefordshire, UK, Proc. Geol. Assoc. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2016.11.007

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Fig. 1. Regional setting of study area showing the area of Old Red Sandstone (ORS) outcrop with inset illustrating the geology of Herefordshire and neighbouring counties. [Contains EDINA Digimap supplied British Geological Survey Data and Ordnance Survey Data. Copyright EDINA Digimap 2015]

Lamination is very common while other macroscopic sedimentary features are lacking. Thinner blocks (5–10 cm) tend to show fine, mm-scale parallel laminae, picked out by slight differential weathering or, more rarely, colour variation. Thicker blocks (10– 40 cm) are generally more massively bedded, lacking laminations, and have very slightly coarser grain sizes. Many typical sedimentary features of the Freshwater West Formation (St Maughans Formation) – cross bedding, pebble or mud clasts, grading and

trace fossils (Brandon, 1989) – are rare or absent in the building stones. The fresh colours of the rocks are highly variable and define a continuous spectrum from very pale green-grey through to deep red-purple (Fig. 5C). Weathered colours are duller and often tinged towards orange hues compared to fresh rock (Fig. 5B). A general classification of building stone colour into two broad groups has been made. These consist of (1) red-brown (Munsell colour 5YR 4/

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Fig. 2. Geological and topographic map of study area with generalized stratigraphic column (text in grey indicates that the stratigraphic unit is not exposed in the area mapped). Adapted from 1:50,000 Series Sheet 199 (British Geological Survey, 1993). [Contains EDINA Digimap supplied British Geological Survey Data and Ordnance Survey Data. Copyright EDINA Digimap 2015]

4) to purple (10R 4/2) and (2) orange-brown (10YR 5/4) to greygreen (5Y 7/2) colours. These are referred to simply as red or green, respectively, on the accompanying maps and tables. 3.1.2. Use and distribution Group A sandstones are the main building stone in 75% of the structures surveyed (Table 1). They have been subdivided on the basis of colour, bed height and apparent weathering resistance into Group A1 and A2. Group A1 consists of thin (5–10 cm) coursed rubble flags of all colours and Group A2 of thicker (15–40 cm) squared blocks or ashlar of green sandstone; the latter often used as quoins or window surrounds together with the former. Although many buildings are constructed from a mix of all colours, the use of green sandstone (both rubble and ashlar) is markedly higher in

Bromyard than on the Downs where nearly 80% of the buildings are constructed almost entirely of red sandstones (Fig. 4; Table 1). A subset of green sandstone buildings (Group A2) are built from squared blocks (and occasionally, ashlar) of discernibly higher quality sandstone (Fig. 6); generally unlaminated and pure grey– green to olive green (10Y 7/6 to 5Y 7/2). Foremost among these is the former Congregational Chapel, constructed of well-dressed ashlar in courses of consistent height and colour. Variation in consistency of colour and block height between front (more consistent; larger blocks) and side elevations (vice versa) is very common. In several such cases there is a frontage of green sandstone rubble to an otherwise mixed colour building. In many buildings and even within single variegated blocks, red sandstones were observed to have weathered worse than their

Table 1 Proportions of buildings mostly built and partially built of (i.e. containing any of) each lithology. Area

Bromyard

The Downs

Bringsty Common

All

Group A1

Buildings in which used as main stone Buildings in which used in some amount Buildings in which used as main stone Buildings in which used in some amount Buildings in which used as main stone Buildings in which used in some amount Main Stone

Group A2

Group B

Group C

Group D

Green rubble

Red rubble

Mixed rubble

Green ashlar

Intra-formational conglomerate

Coarse pebbly sandstone

Other

Oolite

Total

45 (36%)

20 (16%)

27 (22%)

13 (10%)

7 (6%)

6 (5%)

2 (2%)

4 (3%)

124

86 (36%)

60 (25%)

–

31 (13%)

38 (16%)

12 (5%)

3 (1%)

8 (3%)

1 (2%)

33 (77%)

2 (5%)

7 (16%)

–

–

–

–

12 (20%)

37 (62%)

–

9 (15%)

2 (3%)

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

29 (100%)

–

–

3 (9%)

2 (6%)

–

–

1 (3%)

29 (83%)

–

–

46 (23%)

53 (27%)

29 (15%)

20 (10%)

7 (4%)

35 (18%)

2 (1%)

4 (2%)

43

29

196

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Fig. 3. Map of buildings in Bromyard Town Centre showing the main building stone used. [Contains EDINA Digimap supplied Ordnance Survey Mastermap Data. Copyright EDINA Digimap 2015]

green counterparts. Overall this suggests that green sandstone carried a higher status; whether through fashion or practicality. 3.2. Group B—intraformational conglomerates (cornstones) 3.2.1. Lithology Colloquially termed cornstone but also known as conglomeratic cornstone (Allen, 1960), this is a pebble-grade, grey-green (5Y 6/1) intraformational conglomerate (the “Type A” intraformational conglomerate of Allen and Williams (1979) with clasts of a similar colour which often weather to yellow/orange (5Y 7/6). The clasts are calcareous, derived from calcretes, irregular and angularly shaped but moderately rounded and are set in a fine quartz sand and silt matrix (Fig. 7C). Red mud and other lithic clasts are very rare. Clasts range from a few mm to 3 cm in diameter and are generally grain supported. Despite Allen's well-justified objections to the name, this lithology is hereafter referred to as “cornstone” where it is used within buildings, both for ease and because of that term's common colloquial usage in the area. 3.2.2. Use Despite its extremely rubbly texture and consequential unsuitability for dressing, quite extensive use is made of the cornstone in Bromyard (Fig. 8) and it appears to weather no worse than much of the sandstone used alongside it (Fig. 7). It is a minor component in 31 buildings in the town and is the predominant

lithology in seven of those (Table 1). It is also a major constituent in boundary walls around the town, particularly around Tower Hill [SO 654 544] (Fig. 8). On the Downs, by contrast, it occurs in only two buildings as rare isolated blocks and on Bringsty Common only in a small part of the boundary wall of the Brockhampton Estate. Courses are thick, on average approximately 15 cm. The stone is generally used as large, roughly squared blocks. In all examples it is used together with at least some green sandstone, usually flaggy rubble. 3.3. Group C—coarse pebbly sandstones 3.3.1. Lithology This grouping consists of very coarse to pebble-conglomerate grade sandstones, rich in pebbles of mottled white vein quartz (Fig. 9). Minor components include intraclasts of mud or calcrete and very fine-grained siliceous pebbles, possible chert. Cross beds and normal grading are common, as are isolated pebbles or ‘stringers’ of pebbles (Fig. 9B). Texturally it often shows a pervasive crystalline cement, most likely the result of quartz overgrowth, resulting in a rather glassy appearance to some blocks. The colouring of the stone is variable and encompasses grey– green (5Y 6/1), orange (5Y 7/6) and red (10R 4/2) variants (Fig. 9D). Grey and red are frequently irregularly mottled together. The orange colouring is often seen in the form of distinct laminations or apparent liesegang rings as well as more amorphous patches.

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Fig. 4. Map of buildings showing the main building stone used, illustrating the contrasts between different areas; A—Bromyard and Bromyard Downs, B—Bringsty Common. [Contains EDINA Digimap supplied Ordnance Survey Vectormap Local Data and Terrain5 Data. Copyright EDINA Digimap 2015]

In many examples the stone shows thin quartz veins with highly variable orientation to bedding which weather proud and which may cross-cut one another in places. A notable minority of blocks show well developed slickensides (Fig. 9A) on their outward surface. Only a few blocks share all the above features but in general most blocks show some permutation of one or two from the set which serves to connect them together as a distinct lithology.

blocks are the norm, used to build cottages and farm buildings mostly thought to be 18th Century (Williams, 1987). The proportion of this lithology in the estate wall which encloses the Brockhampton Estate can be seen to increase with proximity to the common, constituting nearly 100% of the material on the common [SO 694 548], while fine grained sandstones (Group A) are the predominant lithology at its westward edge on Bromyard Downs [SO 682 545].

3.3.2. Use The use of this stone in Bromyard itself is relatively restricted (Fig. 4A cf. 4). It occurs abundantly in St Peters Church in the town, in various phases of construction ranging from the 12th Century transepts to the 14th Century chancel and early 20th century buttresses. It is most often used for roughly coursed masonry in thick roughly squared block, which can be seen in the transepts and west elevation of the church. However, less pebbly varieties are used for the richly carved surrounds to the Norman (11th century) doorways of the church and for the alternating ashlar courses of the chancel. Elsewhere in the town it forms the gate piers to Tower House [SO 6549 2446] and a large gable end wall built to replace a previously internal one after the demolition of a house on the Market Square [SO 6559 5465] to widen the road circa 1930. Pebbly quartzose sandstones with an identical assemblage of lithological features are practically the only building stone used on Bringsty Common (Fig. 4B). Large (<40 cm thick) roughly shaped

3.4. Group D—non-local stones A few buildings around the town utilise stones clearly not sourced from the immediate vicinity. These include Jurassic oolites, Westmorland Slate, Pennant Sandstone, Grinshill Sandstone and Triassic sandstone. 4. Survey of quarries The locations of former quarries have been elucidated from a combination of Ordnance Survey County Series maps (1883– 1926 in this area), fieldwork, conversation with local residents, archival research and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data. There are at least 26 former quarries surrounding Bromyard, ranging from small pits to large industrial operations (Fig. 10). Unless otherwise stated, the earliest record found of these quarries’ existence is the 1st Edition of the Ordnance SurveyCounty Series (1:2500 scale: Ordnance Survey, 1886a, b, c, 1887a, b). Note

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Fig. 5. Rubble sandstone buildings in Bromyard (Group A1)—A: typical brick-fronted house with sandstone rear ranges, B: green and brown flaggy sandstones, note colour difference where recently cleaned. C: contrasting red (left) and green (right) sandstones.

that, in most cases, there is a disparity between the dates of survey and publication for County Series maps. In all cases the publication date is that listed in the full reference; the dates of survey and publication quoted are those published online by the National Library of Scotland (no date). Rocks have been studied in outcrop in Bromyard Railway Cutting [SO 655 550], Bromyard Downs Quarry, Clater Park Quarry

[SO 680 544] and in small scattered outcrops on the Downs. In addition, British Geological Survey memoirs (Barclay et al., 1997; Brandon, 1989) and field notes stored on the geodiversity database held by the Herefordshire & Worcestershire Earth Heritage Trust have been consulted and incorporated. The evidence of location, dates of working and geology for the main quarries are summarised in Table 2.

Fig. 6. Higher quality green sandstones (Group A2)—A: Sherford Street, well squared blocks and finely carved lintels. B: Former Congregational Chapel, Sherford Street. Note the consistency of the ashlar courses and the fine joints. C: Old Road, more irregular blockwork but still of a noticeably higher quality of stone.

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Fig. 7. Intraformational Conglomerates (Group B)—A: Rowberry Street, cornstones make up the majority of this outbuilding together with some rough green sandstone, B: Old Road, large blocks of cornstone on the frontage, C: Linton Lane, close-up showing detail of pebbles and matrix, in a block in a dry stone wall.

4.1. The downs The largest quarries in the area are on and around Bromyard Downs. Two of the four larger quarries – Bromyard Downs Quarry and Clater Park Quarry – remain unfilled. In addition to the

quarries listed in Table 2, there were several smaller pits on the Downs (Ordnance Survey, 1886a, b) and further north near Sandy Cross (Ordnance Survey, 1885), none of which show outcrop today. These small pits had all ceased operation by 1885, with the exception of a quarry in Hillfield Coppice [SO 673 562]. Published

Fig. 8. Map of buildings in Bromyard which use some intraformational conglomerate (Group B) showing the widespread use of this lithology within the town. [Contains EDINA Digimap supplied Ordnance Survey Mastermap Data. Copyright EDINA Digimap 2015]

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Fig. 9. Coarse pebbly sandstones (Group C)—A: Slickensides on block in St. Peter’s Church (scale bar is 1 cm), B: very coarse block with stringers of quartz pebbles, Brockhampton Estate Wall, C: typical construction on Bringsty Common, D: finely carved Norman doorway of St. Peter’s Church, Bromyard.

Fig. 10. Locations of quarries in and around Bromyard. Circles indicate minor quarries and squares major ones. Insets: historic OS County Series mapping overlain by hillshaded LiDAR DTM where data is available (Environment Agency, 2016). A—Bromyard Downs Quarry (1st Revision; Ordnance Survey, 1904b); B—Bringsty Common 1, note quarry and area of disturbed ground to south (Ordnance Survey, 1887b) C—Clater Park Quarry with crane, no LiDAR available (1st Revision; Ordnance Survey, 1904a); D— Bromyard showing Old Road top left and ambulance Station right (1st Edition; Ordnance Survey, 1887a). [Contains EDINA Digimap supplied Ordnance Survey Vectormap Local and Terrain5 Data. Copyright EDINA Digimap 2015. Contains LiDAR data, copyright Environment Agency 2016]

Please cite this article in press as: E.J. Carter, et al., The provenance, petrology and sedimentology of building stone in Bromyard, Herefordshire, UK, Proc. Geol. Assoc. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2016.11.007

Location

1:2500 ordnance survey County Series mapping

Other evidence of working

Evidence of bedrock geology

Appears to have begun working before 1839: Murchison (1839) writes: “in the large quarries of Bromyard Downs on the road to Worcester there are . . . whitish or greenish sandstones in beds of 6 and more feet thick . . . [these] produce blocks of stone 20 feet long by 6 feet wide”.

Surveyed: A thick bed of medium grained, massively bedded sandstone, underlain by intraformational conglomerate, forms most of the visible outcrop. Majority though all of the stone is buff or greenish where unweathered (see logs: Fig. 11).

Quarry

Grid Sheet reference

1st edition (1883– 1885)

1st revision (1902)

2nd revision (1926)

Bromyard Downs

Clater Park Quarry

SO 680 544

XXI.11

“Quarry” and “Crane”; fairly large with face at east and apparently extensive spoil heaps and access tracks1

“Quarry” and “Crane”; face appears extended at south end6

No label; Appears unchanged in size from previous edition11

Bromyard Downs Quarry

SO 668 553

XXI.6

“Quarry”; face at north2

“Quarry” and “Crane”; markedly extended in all directions, particularly to the southeast7

“Quarry”; appears only slightly larger than as mapped on preceding edition12

Warren Farm Quarry

SO 674 548

XXI.7

“Quarry”; face to NW and NE, apparent earthwork track down to lowered quarry floor3

“Quarry”; extended to north since previous edition8

No label; Slightly extended from previous edition to the east13

Quarry still present 1964 map.16 Mapped as “Refuse Tip” in 1973.17 Appears to have been filled in by 1984.18 Probably one of the quarries referred to by Murchison (1839), see above.

Unknown, lost c.1980

Linton Tileworks (Stream Hall Quarry)

SO 668 541

XXI.10

“Quarry”, Brickworks and “kiln”; large pit with faces all round it4

“Quarry” and “Brickworks”; pit somewhat reduced in areal size since last edition but appears to have been deepened. Clay pits have opened 200 m to the south9

“Brickworks”, quarry not labelled; appears to be in process of being filled in. Tramway connects to clay pits and brickworks enlarged.14

Opened around 1870 as a stone quarry but switched to brick and tile production by 1879 and closed in the 1970s (Clark, 2014)

Original stone quarry lost. Clay pits to south expose 2 m of fine grained massively bedded sandstone underlain by over 10 m fissile argillaceous rocks. (Lee, no date)

Ambulance Station

SO 652 546

XXI.10

Large shallow area of apparent quarrying4

“Quarry” and “Kilns”; small pit in north corner of area9

Area levelled and partially built over. No quarry remains.14

Unknown, lost. Nearby tempory section in building works (SO 6509 5460) revealed red and green sandstones. Large blocks of cornstone removed from foundations nearby house (Anon., 2008)

Old Road

SO 650 546

XXI.10

Apparent scalloped quarrying in lane cutting4

Unchanged9

Unchanged14

See above

Tower Hill

SO 654 545

XXI.10

NA

NA

NA

Bromyard Town Centre

Surveyed: Mostly parallel bedded, finely laminated, medium grained red to purple sandstones; rare pale buff beds. Logged by Barclay and Jackson (1984): sandstone units separated by channelized scour surfaces and horizons of intraformational debris.

Hopkinson (2014) reported an 18th Century quarry on the west side of Tower Hill. A local resident, who was employed by the council in the 1960s, recalls filling in a 12” deep hole in the grounds of the doctor's surgery; now an area of grass south of the bypass.

Unknown, lost. Nearby on Nunwell Road (SO 6546 5441) are drystone walls (Fig. 7), predominantly constructed of cornstone; suggests plentiful supply in immediate area.

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Area

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Table 2 Locations and evidence of history of exploitation and geology for selected quarries. For full historic map references, see numbered footnotes in table.

XXI.6 NA

NA

NA

NA

A quarry near the churchyard was for sale in 1855 (Oakley, 1855). Exact location is unclear, likely removed during the construction of the Railway, (opened 1877). Photographs taken during the WWI show a possible quarry face behind the train station.

Unknown, lost. Adjacent former railway cutting (SO 6559 5495) exposes a complex association of intraformational basal lag deposits in channels grading laterally and interdigiated with medium grained green and red-purple sandstones (see section: Fig. 12)

Quarry Field

SO 651 550

XXI.6

No quarry2

“Quarry”; small pit at north of field7

No label; larger, clearly abandoned hollow12

Field recorded as “Quarry Field” in the Tithe Map of 1853 although no quarry is marked.

Unknown, lost

Cellars

NA

XXI.10

NA

NA

NA

James (2009) recorded several building with cellars cut into bedrock and speculated that they may have supplied stone used in rear ranges.

Images provided by Duncan James and field visits revealed three unlined cellars on Broad St. and High St. (SO 6549 5461) dug into bedrock of sandstone or intraformational conglomerate.

Bringsty Common 1

SO 702 553

XXI.8

“Quarry”, large shallow quarry on outside bend of road5

“Old Quarry”, very slightly extended from previous edition10

Depression mapped but not labelled15

LiDAR digital terrain model (Environment Agency, 2016) shows no deep quarries but several large areas of apparently disturbed ground (see Fig. 10)

Surveyed: Loose blocks up to 30 cm diameter of coarse sandstone and conglomerate are abundant in unmetalled trackways. Brandon (1989) mentions a locally pebbly, coarse sandstone underlying Bringsty Common; Barclay and Jackson (1984) recorded a single outcrop of the same at about SO 699 552.

Bringsty Common 2

SO 709 255

XXI.8

“Quarry”, small pit5

No quarry mapped10

Ditto previous edition15

See above

See above

Bringsty Common 3

SO 700 550

XXI.8

NA

NA

NA

Surveyed: apparent spoil heaps loose fragments of rock. Disturbed ground show by LiDAR (Env. Agency, 2016)

See above

1:2500 County Series, 1st Edition, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.11, Surv. 1885, Pub. 1886 (Ordnance Survey, 1886a). 1:2500 County Series, 1st Edition, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.6, Surv. 1885, Pub. 1886 (Ordnance Survey, 1886b). 3 1:2500 County Series, 1st Edition, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.7, Surv. 1885, Pub. 1886 (Ordnance Survey, 1886c). 4 1:2500 County Series, 1st Edition, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.10, Surv. 1885, Pub. 1887 (Ordnance Survey, 1887a). 5 1:2500 County Series, 1st Edition, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.8, Surv. 1883-5, Pub. 1887 (Ordnance Survey, 1887b). 6 1:2500 County Series, 1st Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.11, Surv. 1902, Pub. 1904 (Ordnance Survey, 1904a). 7 1:2500 County Series, 1st Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.6, Surv. 1902, Pub. 1904 (Ordnance Survey, 1904b). 8 1:2500 County Series, 1st Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.7, Surv. 1902, Pub. 1904 (Ordnance Survey, 1904c). 9 1:2500 County Series, 1st Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.10, Surv. 1902, Pub. 1904 (Ordnance Survey, 1904d). 10 1:2500 County Series, 1st Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.8, Surv. 1902, Pub. 1905 (Ordnance Survey, 1905). 11 1:2500 County Series, 2nd Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.11, Surv. 1926, Pub. 1928 (Ordnance Survey, 1928a). 12 1:2500 County Series, 2nd Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.6, Surv. 1926, Pub. 1928 (Ordnance Survey, 1928b). 13 1:2500 County Series, 2nd Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.7, Surv. 1926, Pub. 1928 (Ordnance Survey, 1928c). 14 1:2500 County Series, 2nd Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.10, Surv. 1926, Pub. 1928 (Ordnance Survey, 1928d). 15 1:2500 County Series, 2nd Revision, Herefordshire Sheet XXI.8, Surv. 1926, Pub. 1928 (Ordnance Survey, 1928e). 16 1:10,560 National Grid Series, 1st Imperial Edition, Sheet SO 65SE, Surv. 1964, Pub. 1964 (Ordnance Survey, 1964). 17 1:2500 National Grid Series, 1st Edition, Sheet SO 7654, Surv. 1973, Pub. 1973 (Ordnance Survey, 1973). 18 1:10,000 National Grid Series, 1st Revision, Sheet SO 65SE, Surv. 1984, Pub. 1984 (Ordnance Survey, 1984). 2

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SO 657 548

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Bringsty Common

Former Bromyard Station

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lists of quarries by county (Hunt, 1859), refer to a quarry at or near Bromyard exploiting “Tilestone” in 1858, however, it has not been possible to pinpoint which quarry this might be. 4.1.1. Bromyard Downs Quarry Bromyard Downs Quarry (Fig. 10A) has an area of 1500 m2 (Environment Agency, 2016) and exposes 4 m of parallel-bedded and finely laminated medium grained sandstones (Table 2). Some pale buff stone occurs but the majority of the outcrop is red and closely matches lithology of surrounding buildings. 4.1.2. Clater Park Quarry With an area of 6900 m2 (Environment Agency, 2016) and depth of around 15 m, Clater Park Quarry [SO 680 544] is on a larger scale than any other quarries in the area (Fig. 10C). In contrast to the Bromyard Downs Quarry most, though not all, the stone is buff or greenish where fresh. A 1 m thick bed of massively-bedded, fine to medium-grained sandstone can be traced around the quarry (Fig. 11). This bed shows highly variable colour from red to buff and green within a metre or so with no obviously discernible sedimentary cause. The remaining height of the quarry face is hidden by talus so determining whether the overlying strata constituted overburden or useful stone is not possible. Murchison (1839) appears to refer to Clater Quarry (and possibly nearby Warren Farm Quarry) as “the large quarries of Bromyard Downs on the road to Worcester”. It is hard to see which other quarries could fit this description of location. His description emphasises the quality of the stone relative to other Old Red Sandstone quarries in the area (Table 2). 4.1.3. Linton Tileworks Quarry Towards Bromyard is Linton Tileworks [SO 668 541] which opened around 1870 as a stone quarry but switched to brick and tile production by 1879 (Clark, 2014). It consequently seems unlikely that this quarry was a significant source of stone to Bromyard.

4.2. Bromyard There is abundant evidence indicating now lost quarries existed within the present-day town centre of Bromyard. Historic mapping, sales articles, archived photographs and local residents’ recollections together indicate the existence of four separate areas of quarrying at various times from 1853 to c.1900 (Table 2). One of these, on the site of the present day Ambulance Station [SO 652 546] (Fig. 10D), had kilns on the site in 1902 (Ordnance Survey, 1904d) and is very near the site where several large blocks of cornstone were excavated during building works c.2000 (Anon., 2008). This may have been primarily a lime-burning operation, though brick making cannot be ruled out. West of the town there are small quarries recorded on the various editions of the Ordnance Survey maps. The closest of these are Stonehouse Farm and Instone, both about a mile outside the historic centre to the west and north, respectively. Another potential source of stone is derived from the digging of cellars. James (2009) recorded several building with cellars cut into bedrock and many similarly deep cellars, which have been lined or tanked in modern times. Photos provided by Mr James and inspection of a number of cellars revealed cornstone and sandstone bedrock exposed in three cellars on Broad Street and High Street. The only significant exposure of bedrock in Bromyard (a former railway cutting at SO 6559 5495), exposes 2 m of channelised intraformational conglomerate interbedded with medium grained sandstones (Fig. 12). The 1:10,000 scale geological sheet shows 1.1 m of intraformational conglomerate at the south-eastern edge of the town [SO 6540 5435], though no trace of this remains now. A broad band of laterally grading sandstone and intraformational conglomerate is mapped, connecting these two outcrops and passing under Broad Street and Rowberry Street (British Geological Survey, 1990). The combined evidence suggests there are large volumes of cornstone, interbedded with sandstone, in the bedrock under Bromyard and shows that quarries existed which could have extracted this, possibly primarily for lime-burning.

Fig. 11. Sedimentary logs of Clater Park Quarry—A: North Outcrop, B: Middle Outcrop, C: South Outcrop.

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Fig. 12. Annotated photograph of road cutting in Bromyard Industrial Estate showing complex cross cutting units channelized with erosional reactivation surfaces and associated intraformational lag deposits (hatched).

4.3. Bringsty common

5.1. Porosity

In addition to two mapped quarries (Ordnance Survey, 1887b, 1905), LiDAR data (Environment Agency, 2016) – processed as a digital terrain model with vegetation removed – shows several large areas of apparently disturbed ground (Fig. 10 B). There is a striking coincidence of this disturbed ground with the sandstone units mapped on the Common (British Geological Survey, 1993). No outcrop is visible today but loose blocks in trackways and published sources (Table 2) indicate the bedrock matches the pebbly sandstones recorded in surrounding buildings (see Section 3.3).

The porosity of the samples is generally low (0–2%) with the exception of three of the four Clater Quarry samples and one from Down House Cellar which are markedly higher (8–12%) (Table 4). Lamination textures seen in hand specimen are recognisable aslayers of variable porosity on a mm scale and preferred orientations of micas and other tabular grains. Porosity is closely linked to proportions of calcite cement in each sample (see Section 5.3 below) and, other than the Clater samples, does not seem to be consistent within a quarry. 5.2. Grain makeup

5. Petrological study To investigate the finer grained sandstones (Group A) whose origins, as revealed by their field distribution, are less clear than Groups B and C, a set of 21 samples, from both buildings and quarries on the Bromyard Downs, was thin sectioned for petrographic analysis. A good coverage of the main unfilled quarries has been achieved however, as samples of buildings have mainly come from stone removed during building works, there has been little to no control over where these were from. Unfortunately, there were no building samples from Bromyard itself. All the samples are lodged with Herefordshire & Worcestershire Earth Heritage Trust and the corresponding identity numbers are those listed in Table 3. Thin sections were cut to a standard thickness of 30 mm and impregnated with blue stained resin to highlight porosity. Pointcounting was carried out to quantitatively determine the proportions of mineral species by sampling on a regular grid of points. This was undertaken on a series of traverses, perpendicular to bedding with point and line spacings slightly larger than the greatest grain diameter in the sample, as recommended in Folk (1980). Mineral identifications were made with reference to Deer et al. (2013) and grains assigned to each clastic category in accordance with Folk (1980, p. 149). The majority of samples have been counted to approximately 100 points (N, Table 3) per slide. A subset of 4 samples was counted to N > 500 in order to test whether the variability seen in the bulk of the data was genuine. A further five samples, three from a cottage near Sandy Cross [SO 676 569] and two from Woodcock Hill Wood [SO 683 565] at the north of the Brockhampton Estate, were also studied but not point-counted.

All the samples analysed are fine to very fine grained sandstones, quartz rich (40–60%), with moderate feldspar (3– 10%) and lithic (7–15%) contents. All the samples are classified as litharenites, under the scheme of Pettijohn et al. (1987). In assessing the relative proportions of different clasts (Fig. 13A & B), the total of the matrix, cement and porosity fractions has been excluded and the remaining detrital species normalised to 100%. Feldspar abundance and weathering (as indicated by the abundances of fresh plagioclase, FP, versus highly weathered feldspars, FU) as well as lithic abundance and character show notable variations between the quarries and between some of the buildings (Table 4; Fig. 13). 5.3. Cement/matrix The majority of the sandstones studied have calcite cements which, where present, are pervasive leaving very little porosity. The only exceptions to this are three samples from Clater Quarry and one from the bedrock of Down House Cellar which are entirely devoid of calcite. It is notable that, despite having the highest porosity, most of the Clater samples actually have low matrix + porosity (17–20%) or, conversely, have a higher proportion of framework grains by volume. This supports the view that Clater Quarry supplies a higher quality stone. The calcite cements and clays which are more abundant in other samples are both likely to cause adverse weathering of the stone (Honeyborne, 1998; Dreesen and Dusar, 2004). Unsurprisingly, the proportion of oxides – mostly present as amorphous haematite rims to grains – is closely related to the colour of the rock in hand specimen (Fig. 13C). All samples of an

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Location

Quarries

Buildings

Clater Park Quarry

Bromyard Downs Quarry

Linton Tileworks Quarry

Down House cellar

Down House barn

Union Lane cottages

Old Cottage

539

540

541

543

542

HD34

HD21

HD39

545

538

537

BS49

BS35

551

552

Colour

Buff

0.54 2.62

Red–purple brown 0.37 3.38

Pale red– purple 0.71 3.12

Brick red 0.53 3.25

Brick red 0.49 2.78

Red–purple brown 0.59 3.36

Reddish brown 0.41 2.86

Deep red brown 0.84 3.53

Green– grey 0.44 3.02

Green with red mottling 0.63 3.23

Red

0.64 2.97

Pale buff, speckled 0.28 2.48

Buff

Sorting (phi) Grain Size (phi)

Red brown 0.53 2.59

0.34 3.25

Pale green 0.49 2.85

Total quartz (Qt) Non-undulose extinction (Qmnu) Undulose extinction (Qmu) Polycrystalline quartz, <3 sub grains (Qp2–3) Polycrystalline quartz, >3 sub grains (Qp3+)

52.16 23.26 15.20 9.01

54.75 34.60 11.03 3.80

52.73 28.18 10.91 5.45

57.61 29.35 13.04 5.43

59.38 27.87 20.40 7.47

51.92 32.69 9.62 5.77

42.52 29.13 7.87 2.36

56.80 33.60 10.40 4.80

52.51 27.44 16.36 2.90

53.37 24.91 16.48 5.81

45.65 31.52 9.78 1.09

54.48 26.87 12.69 8.21

55.66 37.74 10.38 3.77

58.82 42.02 6.72 5.88

61.32 34.91 14.15 6.60

4.69

5.32

8.18

9.78

3.64

3.85

3.15

8.00

5.80

6.18

3.26

6.72

3.77

4.20

5.66

Total feldspars (Ft) Plagioclase Microcline Orthoclase Unidentified/weathered feldspars

9.38 2.81 1.69 3.00 1.88

4.56 2.28 0.38 1.14 0.76

8.18 2.73 0.00 4.55 0.91

8.70 2.17 1.09 4.35 1.09

3.83 0.91 0.55 0.91 1.46

7.69 1.92 0.00 2.88 2.88

4.72 0.00 0.79 0.79 3.15

3.20 1.60 0.00 0.00 1.60

8.44 2.37 1.06 2.11 2.90

7.87 2.25 1.12 2.43 2.06

6.52 2.17 0.00 1.09 3.26

4.48 1.49 2.24 0.75 0.00

4.72 1.89 0.94 0.94 0.94

4.20 0.84 0.00 2.52 0.84

3.77 1.89 0.94 0.94 0.00

Total lithics (Lt) Igneous Metmorphic Sedimentary Amophous silica Unidentified/weathered lithics

11.63 3.38 2.25 0.75 1.88 3.38

12.17 2.28 3.42 0.38 1.90 4.18

8.18 0.91 1.82 0.00 3.64 1.82

10.87 2.17 2.17 0.00 0.00 6.52

7.47 1.28 0.91 0.36 1.64 3.28

9.62 1.92 3.85 0.00 0.96 2.88

14.96 3.15 3.94 0.00 3.15 4.72

12.00 2.40 1.60 0.80 2.40 4.80

8.97 1.32 1.85 0.53 1.06 4.22

10.49 2.06 1.50 0.37 1.87 4.68

10.87 3.26 2.17 0.00 1.09 4.35

7.46 0.00 2.24 0.00 0.75 4.48

9.43 0.94 1.89 0.00 0.94 5.66

8.40 0.00 2.52 0.00 0.84 5.04

9.43 1.89 0.94 0.00 3.77 2.83

Oxides Amorphous iron oxides Detrital haematite Detrital limonite Detrital magnetite Detrital ilmenite/leucoxene

4.50 4.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19

7.60 6.84 0.38 0.00 0.38 0.00

0.91 0.91 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

2.17 1.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.09

5.83 3.28 1.64 0.36 0.36 0.18

1.92 0.96 0.96 0.00 0.00 0.00

7.09 4.72 0.79 0.00 0.00 1.57

6.40 4.80 0.00 1.60 0.00 0.00

6.86 5.01 1.58 0.00 0.26 0.00

6.55 3.56 1.50 0.75 0.56 0.19

14.13 11.96 1.09 0.00 1.09 0.00

0.75 0.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

1.89 1.89 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

6.72 5.88 0.00 0.00 0.84 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Mica Biotite (detrital) Muscovite (detrital)

1.50 1.13 0.38

1.90 0.76 1.14

2.73 2.73 0.00

2.17 1.09 1.09

3.10 1.09 2.00

1.92 1.92 0.00

3.94 1.57 2.36

1.60 0.80 0.80

1.85 1.06 0.79

0.37 0.37 0.00

2.17 1.09 1.09

5.97 2.99 2.99

0.94 0.00 0.94

1.68 0.00 1.68

1.89 1.89 0.00

Matrix + porosity Clay and fine matrix Calcite cement Granular calcite Silica cement Biotite (authigenic) Muscovite (authigenic)

20.08 8.63 0.00 0.00 0.94 0.19 0.38

17.87 4.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.38

30.91 7.27 16.36 4.55 0.91 0.00 0.91

17.39 6.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

19.67 9.47 8.56 0.00 0.55 0.18 0.55

26.92 4.81 17.31 0.96 0.96 0.00 0.96

25.20 4.72 15.75 0.79 0.79 0.00 1.57

20.80 0.80 15.20 1.60 0.00 0.80 0.00

17.94 8.71 0.00 0.00 0.79 0.26 0.53

21.54 6.74 12.17 1.12 0.56 0.00 0.19

21.74 7.61 7.61 3.26 0.00 0.00 0.00

28.36 6.72 20.15 1.49 0.00 0.00 0.00

26.42 11.32 13.21 0.00 0.94 0.94 0.00

21.85 4.20 11.76 1.68 1.68 0.00 0.84

23.58 1.89 16.98 0.94 1.89 0.00 0.00

Porosity

9.94

12.55

0.91

10.87 0.36

1.92

1.57

2.40

7.65

0.75

3.26

0.00

0.00

1.68

1.89

Other N Total

0.56 1.14 533 263 99.81 100.00

0.00 110 103.64

0.00 0.36 92 549 98.91 99.64

0.96 104 100.96

2.36 127 100.79

0.00 125 100.80

1.32 379 97.89

0.94 534 101.12

1.09 92 102.17

0.00 134 101.49

0.00 106 99.06

0.00 0.00 119 106 101.68 100.00

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Sample ID

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Table 3 Grain size and modal percentages of minerals and lithic grains in thin sectioned samples, determined by petrographic point-counting.

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Table 4 Summary of key distinguishing criteria for quarries and buildings. Location

Quarries Clater Park Quarry Bromyard Downs Quarry Linton Tileworks Quarry Down House cellar (bedrock) Buildings Down House barn Union Lane cottages Old Cottage

No. samples

Distinguishing criteria Porosity

Calcite cement

Feldspars

Lithics

4 2 2 1

High Low Low High

None Pervasive Pervasive None

Abundant; fresh Moderate/variable; weathered Moderate/uncommon; weathered Abundant; weathered

Abundant, rare perthitic grains Moderate/variable Very abundant Abundant

2 2 2

Low Low Low

Pervasive Pervasive Pervasive

Abundant; weathered Uncommon; fresh Uncommon; fresh

Abundant Uncommon Uncommon

overall red colour have total oxides >5%, with the exception of one sample with a very pale red colour. Intermediate values of 5–2% correspond to a buff colouring while values of 0–2% give a pale green colouring. Other than a broad negative correlation between oxides and calcite cement, there is no clear relationship between colour and any other textural or mineralogical data. 5.4. Discriminating between quarries Clater Quarry is clearly the most distinctive; characterised by high porosity, lack of calcite cement, abundant and generally less weathered feldspar, and igneous lithics. Linton Tileworks also appears to have a distinctive signature, with the highest proportion of total lithics combined with moderate feldspar contents and more alteration to those feldspars. Bromyard Downs Quarry cannot be satisfactorily characterised on the basis of the two samples available which are markedly different in most respects. The most consistent feature, based on fieldwork rather than the petrography, is its red colouring. Nonetheless its petrography does overall show lower abundances of feldspars and lithics than Clater Park Quarry. On the basis of the evidence as it stands, there does seem to be a greater affinity of the samples from Old Cottage and Union Lane to those of the Bromyard Downs quarry. The samples from Down House Barn in contrast are generally more similar to the bedrock from the cellar under the house and to Clater Park Quarry. However, at present these conclusions are somewhat tentative. 6. Archival research Five stone buildings were chosen as case studies for archival research, principally on the basis that they had served a public function and thus were more likely to have records regarding their construction and development. These were, St. Peter’s Church, the Congregational Chapel on Sherford Street, Jackson Almshouses on Cruxwell Street, Bromyard Grammar School, and the Jackson School, Frog Lane, all within Bromyard. The results of each study are summarised below. St. Peters Church has many records associated with it. However, Hereford Record Office acts as the official Diocesan archives, and while it is shut accessing these has not been possible. Pearson (1993, p. 57) states that Mr Phipps of Buckenhill Estate, just outside Bromyard, paid for repair work carried out in 1898 and 1906. Crosskey (2004) specifies that the repair work to the church was carried out by masons provided by Mr Phipps. On the 1st Edition 25-in. County Series map (Ordnance Survey, 1886b) there are three active quarries mapped within the Buckenhill Estate and by the 1st revision (Ordnance Survey, 1904b) there is still one open at Instone (Fig. 10). Williams (1987, p. 15) states that the church's former lychgate is said to have been moved circa 1800 and now forms the gateway to Tower House.

The former Congregational Chapel, Sherford Street, was built in around 1701. Stevens (1930) in his history of the chapel states that it is “built of flaky sandstone common to the locality, supposed, indeed to have been quarried from the neighbouring Bromyard Downs” although no documentary evidence from this early time period has been found. The main subscriber providing both money and land for the chapel was Grimbald Pauncefoot Esq. of Clater Park, which contains several old quarries, the largest of them being Clater Park Quarry (see above). Despite their continued existence and their Grade II listed status, there is no information regarding the construction and maintenance of the Jackson Almshouses since their foundation in 1656, within the Bromyard and District Local History Society archives. The archive material for the Bromyard Grammar School, founded in 1566, contains information on much of the Victorian and later work including details of quotations by builders (Kempson, 1894) and minutes of the board relating to building work being undertaken (Anon., 1908). However, the original specifications, possibly containing information on stone types, do not appear to have survived, nor does any documentation regarding work during the earlier stages of the building’s history. Aside from the details originally stipulated within the will of Phineas Jackson, its benefactor (Jackson, 1682) which specified that it was to be “built of stone” there is little information about the building The Jackson School in Frog Lane or any subsequent alterations. Archival research has linked quarry-owning benefactors to both St. Peter’s Church and the Congregational Chapel. Personal connections such as this are often significant in determining where stone was brought from. There are documented examples of such connections determining the source of stone of two parish churches in Worcestershire (Worcester Journal, 1869; Oliver, 2015). The complete lack of information on several of the buildings studied may be indicative of the local character of building stone use in the area. 7. Discussion 7.1. Stone provenance A schematic map of our best understanding of the various sources of stone is presented in Fig. 14. The combined evidence from the above results is discussed in detail below. 7.1.1. Sandstones (Group A) The abundant use of poor quality rubble stone, the age of the buildings involved, the parochial nature of Bromyard and the consistent character of the sandstone indicates beyond any reasonable doubt the stone has all been derived from the local area.

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Fig. 13. Mineralogical graphs colour coded by quarry or building area (see key, top left) A—QFL ternary plot of total quartz (Qt), total feldspars (Ft) and total lithics (Lt). Inset—un-zoomed plot showing the location of the points in QFL space. B— Weathered feldspar (FU) against plagioclase feldspar (FP). C—Total oxides against calcite cement. Inset—Colour coded by hand specimen colour.

Clearly the red and green stones are related and gradational with one another. However, there are broad differences in the relative proportions of each, both in their geographical distribution in buildings and in the outcrop exposed in quarries. The overwhelming predominance and consistent lithology of red sandstones used in buildings within a fairly wide radius of the Bromyard Downs Quarry (Fig. 4A) indicates fairly conclusively that almost all the houses in the surrounding area were built wholly or partially from the stone in that quarry, likely supplemented at

various times by other smaller pits (Fig. 14). It also strongly suggests that much of the green stone in Bromyard cannot be from that quarry. In addition, there is also some evidence that buildings may have utilised some stone from thin sandstone bands on site. Down House has cellars cut into the bedrock and the petrology of the stone in the barn is, overall, more consistent with it having been sourced on site than from the quarry. Several houses on the Downs are known to be built on bedrock foundations, the digging of which would produce stone which would have to be used or else taken off-site to be disposed of. Apart from red sandstones, the only other lithology that occurs on the Downs, is thick squared blocks of green sandstone (Group A2). Its pattern of use is generally biased to the south end which lies nearest the Clater Park Quarry. Furthermore, most of the buildings in which it occurs are associated with the Brockhampton Estate which, in turn, had strong familial links with the neighbouring Clater Park Estate. In the case of stone for the Congregational Chapel, if as Stevens (1930) suggests it was quarried on the Downs, the above lithological arguments largely preclude it being from the Bromyard Downs Quarry. Additionally, the owner of Clater Park was the chapel’s main benefactor. Whist not offering a direct link, taken together, this all suggests that the source for some of the Group A2 green sandstones, both on the Downs and in Bromyard, is Clater Park Quarry. Petrography has revealed a distinctive lithic signature to the stone in Clater Park Quarry (Table 4) and so this is a hypothesis easily tested if relevant samples become available. Another notable feature is the scale of the industry at Clater Park Quarry. Its great size and depth (Fig. 10C) suggest either there was a large amount of good stone or that, to extract the thick massively-bedded horizon exposed near the base of the face (Fig. 11), it was worth removing substantial overburden. Murchison’s (1839) account supports the latter view, referring to a cap of “flaggy incoherent beds” over a 6 foot thick sandstone. The petrography of samples from the quarry also appear to be of markedly higher suitability for building than most of the samples analysed (Table 3). They are low in clays and amorphous iron oxide cements and, though relatively porous, show welded grain contacts. Another possibility is that the large quarry near Warren Farm exploited a similar horizon to that at Clater (1 km to the southeast) and may have been an equally important source for better quality stone. The two occupy similar topographic positions at the head of the ridge which is suggestive of some lithological continuity, controlling both landscape and quarry position (Fig. 2). Given the apparently small number of buildings built from local stone in Bromyard in the latter part of the 19th century, the apparently vigorous industry in existence from 1885 to 1905 raises the possibility that stone may have been exported for wider use. There is an unsubstantiated suggestion that the 1819 Shire Hall in Hereford used stone from the Bromyard Downs (McCall, 2010). The sidings on the railway at nearby Linton Tileworks would have made transport easy, from 1874 onwards. 7.1.2. Intraformational conglomerate (Group B) In Bromyard itself, the question of the origin of the cornstone building stones is an important one. It is clear from the field evidence that this lithology always occurs in association with sandstones, often in graded channelised deposits (Figs. 11 and 12). This association is also seen in the buildings. If the source of this distinctive lithology can be established, then it stands to reason that much of the associated rough sandstone rubble also used in the building may well be from the same source. The poor quality of the cornstone, its abundant use in boundary walls (Fig. 8) and apparent ad hoc alterations and, particularly, the

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Fig. 14. Schematic map of quarries overlain with schematic representation of the movement of stone. Solid line indicates conclusions with some confidence. Dashed lines indicate more conjectural possibilities.

restriction of that use to Bromyard itself (Fig. 4), is strongly suggestive of a very local source within the town. Although it is most abundant around Tower Hill, there is no marked localisation to the material within Bromyard (Fig. 8). This may reflect that the three known quarries (Fig. 10) all exploited some beds of cornstone. Alternatively, the material may be dominantly from one quarry and the short distances involved were not a barrier to its use across the town. It is also probable that some of the cornstone was from the excavation of cellars and that some was a by-product of lime-burning operations. 7.1.3. Coarse pebbly sandstones (Group C) The combined evidence, particularly the abundance of this lithology in local cottages (Fig. 4B), indicates conclusively that it was quarried on Bringsty Common. It is notable that, elsewhere, this stone is used, with a very few exceptions, only in St. Peter’s Church, Bromyard (Fig. 3). The only examples outside the church are the gates to Tower House, a 20th Century wall in Market Square and occasional blocks in buildings in the immediate vicinity of the church. The gates originally formed the lych-gate to the church were relocated to Tower House following their replacement (Pearson, 1993). The rare blocks used in buildings near the church are likely to have been recycled following alterations or to have used excess stone brought for work on the church.

7.2. Stone use through time Fieldwork and the use of local history and archival resources has provided either firm dates of construction or a well-reasoned estimate of age for a selection of buildings within Bromyard (Table 5). These have been compiled as a histogram to examine variation in stone use with time (Fig. 15). A fairly broad range of buildings, of varying status, are included in the data so, while the number of data points are not enough for us to make quantitative measurements of the proportions of different lithologies used in each building, they do give us some idea of broad trends. The most obvious point to draw from this is that all the buildings using non-local stones were built after 1850. Furthermore, only one such building was built before the arrival of the railway in 1874; the Wesleyan Chapel on New Road with carved detailing in oolitic limestone. The trends in the sandstones do not show the same clarity. We can see that the peak of stone building here was in the 18th Century and that both red and green rubble unsurprisingly have been used in every century going back to 1500. The first dated use of the thicker squared or ashlar green sandstone is in the 17th Century. However, the lack of data means we cannot reliably assume that there was no use before 1600. This pattern of post-medieval stone use, peaking in the 18th Century is consistent with the results of previous archaeological assessment of the town (Dalwood, 1995).

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Table 5 Dates and their sources for buildings used to populate histogram in Fig. 15. Building

Date

Source of date

Stone

South Wing, Old Grammar School, Church St. 23–27 High St. Tower House Almshouses, Cruxwell St. 22 Broad St. The Falcon Hotel, Broad St. 3 Broad St. Former Congregational Chapel, Sherford St. 24 Broad St. 26 Broad St. 30 Broad St. 16 Broad St. 6 Broad St. Old Vicarage Extension to Old Vicarage Primitive Methodist Chapel, 4 & 5 Nunwell St. North Wing, Old Grammar School, Church St. Old Gaol, Sherford St. Methodist Chapel, New Rd. Train Bridge, Church St. 40–44 Sherford St. Midland Bank, High St. Chapel, Pump St. Post Office, Church St. Extension to St Peter's Church

1566 c.C16th 1630 c.1656 c.1681 late C17th late C17th 1701 late C17th–early C18th late C17th–early C18th late C17th–early C18th C18th late C18th c.1800 1822 1835 1835 1845 1857 c.1874 1870–1880 late C19th 1899 1911 1989

Forsyth-Moser (2003) James (2009) Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (1932) Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (1932) Jackson (1682) James (2009) James (2009) Stevens (1930) James (2009) James (2009) James (2009) James (2009) James (2009) Dalwood (1995) Pearson (1993) Hillaby and Pearson (1970) Governors of Bromyard Grammar School (1844) Blue plaque on building Hillaby and Pearson (1970) Around the date of arrival of the railway Personal communication from occupant Examination of architecture Date stone Waller (1979) Pearson (1993)

Red rubble Mixed rubble Mixed rubble Red rubble with green ashlar Mixed rubble with green ashlar Red sandstone Green sandstone Green ashlar Green rubble Green rubble Green rubble Green rubble Mixed rubble Mixed rubble Green ashlar Green rubble Red rubble Red rubble with green ashlar Oolitic limestone Other non-local Green ashlar Oolitic limestone Oolitic limestone Oolitic limestone Other non-local

The pattern of use of the coarse pebbly sandstones (Group C; not included in Fig. 15) appears to show a transition from high to lower status stone over the course of several centuries. Its use for the architectural zenith of the Norman Church contrast markedly with its use in blocking up a demolition scar in the early 20th Century. Much of this likely related to the ease of motor transport compared to ox-drawn carts. 7.3. Relationships between building stone and facies Both Brandon (1989) and Barclay et al. (1997) note that largescale trough and low-angle cross stratification are common in the Freshwater West Formation (St Maughans Formation) sandstones

of the area, however, they are all but absent in the building stones and quarries surveyed. In addition, the Group A sandstones analysed in thin section (Table 3) show a fairly narrow range of median grain diameters: 0.09–0.18 mm (3.4–2.4 phi). For reasonable flow depths of 0.25–0.4 m and velocities of about 0.9m/s, models of flow regimes (Ashley, 1990) indicate that high velocity laminar flow would be stable for a correspondingly narrow range of grains size. Observations that rippled sandstones pass quickly up into fine grained silts and of parting lineations on bedding surfaces strongly support the notion that the majority of the parallel bedding was formed under high rather than low flow velocities. This suggests that there has been a selection bias in both building

10 9 8 7

Red Rubble

6

Green Rubble

5 4

Green Ashlar

3

Non-local

2 1

Oolite

0 1500-99

1600-99

1700-99

1800-49

1850-99

1900-49

1950-99

Fig. 15. Stacked histograms showing the number of buildings using lithologies in various time periods. Note the pebbly sandstones are not included in the above graph as most usage is in the church, at least two centuries before the next earliest building.

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stones and building stone quarries towards parallel bedded units which, in turn, dictates the restricted grain sizes seen. There also appears to be a relationship between the building stones and the anatomy of the sedimentary cycles in the rock from which they were quarried. Cycles logged in Clater Park Quarry (Fig. 11) and Bromyard Downs Quarry (Barclay and Jackson, 1984) have multiple intraformational conglomerates resting on erosional surfaces, mostly without mud or silt capping units. Such interrupted patterns of cyclicity have been suggested as being more indicative of multiple channel re-activation in a braided stream system (Brandon, 1989) than of simple fining upwards cycles interpreted as the deposits of wandering river channels by Allen (1964, 1974). The frequency of channel reactivation is even more pronounced in the limited outcrop in the Bromyard road cutting (Fig. 12). Compared with Clater Park Quarry, there is an approximate three-fold increase in the proportion of intraformational conglomerate and repeated channelization is both shallow and intense. If the above arguments for the very local derivation of intraformational conglomerate in Bromyard buildings are accepted, then their abundance in the town does support a heightened proportion in the local bedrock. It is thus suggested that the degree of rapid channel abandonment and reactivation (taken to be indicative of more proximal, braided fluvial morphology) varies not only across the Freshwater West Formation (St Maughans Formation) as a whole (Allen, 1974; cf. Barclay and Jackson, 1984) but, to some extent, across the smaller area in question. These changes, it is argued, appear to be reflected in very local variations in building stones lithologies (Fig. 4). 8. Conclusions If there is one conclusion to draw from the present work it is that there are few easy solutions to the problem of determining source quarries for buildings in the Old Red Sandstone. With thorough field surveying however, it has been possible to recognise three distinct groups of building stones and assign quite precise and geographically restricted origins to two of these (Fig. 14). Intraformational conglomerates (Group B) used in Bromyard have been shown to be sourced from within or very near to Bromyard itself while pebbly quartzose sandstones (Group C) originate on Bringsty Common and were used outside their immediate area of origin only by St Peter's Church, Bromyard, in historic times. The third and most widely used group, consisting of green and red fine grained sandstones (Group A), are much harder to trace with confidence. In isolation, the results of any one aspect of this study are generally only suggestive rather than conclusive. Taken together, however, a coherent picture begins to emerge. Archival sources have revealed quarries in Bromyard while surveys of buildings show markedly higher proportions of green stone in the town compared to Bromyard Downs. In addition, logging outcrops, surveying cellars and synthesis with existing mapping indicated an extensive association of sandstones, intraformational conglomerates and channel reactivation surfaces outcropping around and probably under Bromyard. In combination these independent lines of enquiry give strong evidence that much of the rubble sandstone in Bromyard was quarried very locally and likely transported not much more than half a mile. The higher quality, massively-bedded, green sandstones (Group A2) appear to have been at least partly sourced from Clater Park Quarry. As elsewhere, a combined approach yielded multiple strands of evidence including lithological similarity, historical accounts and ownership, distribution of nearby green sandstone buildings and the scale of working; all of which point to Clater having provided such stone. Petrography shows a distinctive, immature clastic provenance which in three out of four samples

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analysed (Table 4). This provides a basis against which samples of buildings might be judged in the future, with appropriate caution in respect of the large variety which single samples can show. Several lost and degraded quarries across the study area (Fig. 10) must be accepted as an unknown quantity and, inevitably, will have contributed further complexity to the patterns of stone use. Bromyard shows much higher diversity of stone use than the largely mono-lithological building stones on Bromyard Downs and Bringsty Common (Fig. 4). Much of this is likely due to money and influence which draw stone from further afield than most buildings in the surrounding parishes, although still on a very local scale. However, it is suggested that there is also a component of this complexity arising from local facies variation. The degree of channelization and proportion of associated intraformational lag deposits is much higher in rocks exposed in Bromyard than on the Downs. These are interpreted as being reflective of deposition in a more braided stream architecture. These differences are mirrored in the building stones seen and it is argued that rough rubble stone constructions are reflective of underlying variations in fluvial processes. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to Jana Horak and an anonymous reviewer whose helpful comments have improved the text immeasurably, Logan Gregory for his help in describing thin sections, Charles Clark and the volunteers of the Bromyard Local History Centre, Dick Bryant and John Payne for their helpful comments and, above all, to the many homeowners who kindly provided us with samples of their buildings. We are very grateful to the Heritage Lottery Fund (grant reference HG-1007636) for the generous funding which made the present work possible. References Allen, J.R., Williams, B.P.J., 1979. Interfluvial drainage on Siluro-Devonian alluvial plains in Wales and the Welsh Borders. Journal of the Geological Society of London 136, 361–366. Allen, J.R., 1960. Cornstone. Geological Magazine 98 (1), 43–48. Allen, J.R., 1964. Studies in fluviatile sedimentation: six cyclothems from the Lower Old Red Sandstone, Anglo-Welsh Basin. Sedimentology 3, 163–198. Allen, J.R., 1974. Sedimentology of the Old Red Sandstone (Siluro-Devonian) in the Clee Hills area Shropshire, England. Sedimentary Geology 12, 73–167. Anon, 1908. Agreement re: building a classroom [letter]. B68/1/12. Bromyard and District Local History Society Archives, Bromyard. Anon, 2008. Frome Valley Geology & Landscape Discovery Guide [Leaflet]. Herefordshire and Worcestershire Earth Heritage Trust, Worcester, pp. 24. Ashley, G.M., 1990. Classification of large-scale subaqueous bedforms: a new look at an old problem—SEPM bedforms and bedding structures. Journal of Sedimentary Research 60 (1), 160–172. Barclay, W.J., Jackson, A.A., 1984. Geological Notes and Local Details for 1:10000 Sheets: SO65NE (Tedstone Delamare). British Geological Survey, Keyworth. Barclay, W.J., Ambrose, K., Chadwick, R.A., Pharaoh, T.C., 1997. Geology of the Country Around Worcester. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 199 (England and Wales). British Geological Survey, Keyworth. Barclay, W.J., Davies, J.R., Hillier, R.D., Waters, R.A., 2015. Lithostratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Successions of the Anglo-Welsh Basin. British Geological Survey Research Report, RR/14/02. British Geological Survey, Keyworth. Brandon, A., 1989. Geology of the Country Between Hereford and Leominster. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 198 (England and Wales). British Geological Survey, Keyworth. British Geological Survey, 1984a. 1:10,000 Geological Map Series, Sheet SO65NW. 1:10,000. British Geological Survey, Keyworth. British Geological Survey, 1984b. 1:10,000 Geological Map Series, Sheet SO65SW. 1:10,000. British Geological Survey, Keyworth. British Geological Survey, 1984c. 1:10,000 Geological Map Series, Sheet SO65NE. 1:10,000. British Geological Survey, Keyworth. British Geological Survey, 1990. 1:10,000 Geological Map Series, Sheet SO65SE. 1:10,000 Scale. British Geological Survey, Keyworth. British Geological Survey, 1993. Worcester, England and Wales Sheet 199. Solid and Drift Geology. 1:50,000. British Geological Survey, Keyworth.

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Please cite this article in press as: E.J. Carter, et al., The provenance, petrology and sedimentology of building stone in Bromyard, Herefordshire, UK, Proc. Geol. Assoc. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2016.11.007