- Email: [email protected]
The Relationship Between Coping Strategies and Emotional Intelligence
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 30 (2011) 748 –00 751(2011) 000–000
Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
WCPCG-2011
The Relationship between Coping strategies and Emotional Intelligence Afsaneh Moradia *, Nooshin Pishvab, Hadi Bahrami Ehsana, Parvaneh Hadadia, Farzaneh pouladia a
Tehran University, Department of psychology, Tehran, Iran Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences,Kermanshah, Iran
b
Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and coping strategies. A total of 200 (96 females, 104 males) students from Razi university completed measures of emotional intelligence (TMMS) and Coping Responses Inventory (CRI). Data were analyzed using correlation coefficient and regression analysis. The results revealed significant relationship between emotional intelligence and each of the five items of coping strategies in CRI. In addition, regression analysis showed that, emotional intelligence can significantly predict each of these five coping strategies (problem-solving, social support seeking, cognitive evaluation, somatic inhibition and emotional inhibition).These results can be useful for prevention and treatment of behavioural and psychiatric disorder. © PublishedbybyElsevier Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the 2nd World Conference © 2011 2011 Published Ltd.
on Psychology, Counselling and Guidance.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, coping strategies, university students;
1. Introduction Coping strategies are defined as constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external or internal demands that are far beyond the existing resources of the person (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). In another words, coping includes those efforts to deal with the new occasions that are potentially threatening and challenging. The type of strategy adopted by each person to cope with stress is considered to be part of the vulnerable profile of that person. Studies conducted on stress, accentuate this point that quality of behavior is not only influenced by stress but also the only way to determine behavioral health is by appraisal methods of stress and methods adopted to cope with them (Toist, 1986). In another words, coping is “an individual variable” that is apparent in important occasions and is the medium of the previous stressful incidents and their consequences such as: anxiety, mental helplessness, and physical complaints (Moos & Billings, 1981; Pearlin & Schooler, 1987). On the other hand, Baron and Parleer (2000) believe that stress management and ability of adaptation are the major elements of emotional intelligence. In fact, emotional intelligence is the ability to create positive consequences in the relationships with oneself and others. According to Mayer and Salovey (1993), emotional intelligence is the ability to observe feelings and emotions, differentiate between feelings and emotions, and apply this information to conduct thoughts and activities. As a coping mechanism, emotional intelligence can facilitate the stress and can use an effective self* Afsane Moradi, Tel.: +09187219379; E-mail address: [email protected]
1877-0428 © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the 2nd World Conference on Psychology, Counselling and Guidance. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.146
Afsaneh Moradi et al./ Procedia / Procedia– -Social Socialand andBehavioral BehavioralSciences Sciences00 30(2011) (2011)000–000 748 – 751 Afsaneh Moradi
749
regulation system while encountering with stress (Salovey et al, 1999). in the study revealed that those individuals who have less ability in realizing their emotions, have lower level of social adaptation than those who can highly realize their emotions(Engleberg & Sjoberg, 2003). Similarly those persons who have lower ability in managing their emotions, are not able to acquire social support in stressful situations (Lopes et al. 2004). Consistent with these studies, another study showed that individuals with high emotional intelligence use more normal coping strategies and those with low emotional intelligence use more avoidance-oriented coping strategies (Furnham et al. 2002; Eskay, 2011). Considering that emotional intelligence and coping strategies play crucial roles in mental health, the study of the relationship between these two variables as important factors influencing mental health can be of great help in achieving a broader models in order to explain them. So, effective models can be determined to prevent and treat behavioral and mental disorders by recognizing the relationship between coping strategies and emotional intelligence precisely. Hence, the present study aims at investigating the relationship between emotional intelligence and its elements, coping strategies and that to what extent emotional intelligence can predict the coping strategies used in stressful situations. 2. Method 2.1. Sample The sample consisted of 200 students (96 females, 104 males) from Kermanshah University of Razi. The mean age of the males was 21.56±2.2 years. The mean age of the females was 20.80±1.93 years. Age range in both groups was 18-23 years. 2.2. Measures Coping Responses Inventory (CRI): Bellings and Moos (1981), designed a questionnaire that included 19 questions of Yes/No to investigate the coping strategies while encountering stressful incidents and was measuring three types of coping: active behavioral, active cognitive and social coping. In 1984, these two researchers increased the previous questionnaires items to 32 and used 4 degree Likert scale. They identified three types of coping strategies in their new questionnaire: cognitive- appraisal coping, problem-solving coping, and emotion-focused coping and the internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire were considered to be from 0.41 to 0.66 Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS): this scale has two forms of 30 and 48 items that the shorter form was used in the present study. This Scale is allocated to measuring the emotional intelligence by three factors of emotional attention (13 items), emotional Clarity (11 items), and emotional Repair (6 items). Salovey et al. (1995) and Ghorbani et al. (2002), showed that TMMS is a reliable and valid scale in assessing the emotional intelligence . 2.3. Statistical analysis Data was analyzed by performing Pearson correlations and liner regression. 2. Results Data was initially analyzed by performing Pearson’s correlation coefficients. Results revealed significant correlation between all of subscales of coping strategies and total emotional intelligence and most of its subscales. Results of Pearson’s correlation coefficients are presented in Table 1.
2
750
AfsanehMoradi Moradi/ et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 30 (2011) 748 – 751 Afsaneh Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 00 (2011) 000–000
Table 1. Pearson’s correlation coefficients between emotional intelligence and coping strategies (n=200) variables
Attention
problem-solving
-0.06
Clarity 0.24
cognitive evaluation social support
0.49 0.26
0.56 0.02
emotional inhibition
0.47
0/50
Somatic inhibition
0.02
-0.21
Repair
total
Attention
0.31
0.34 0.09
0.70 0.21
0.49 0.26
0.56
0.73
0.47
- 0.20
0.18
-0.06
-0.16
0.02
Note: ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05
Linear regression was used to find which emotional intelligence provided the best predictive validity for subscales of coping strategies. The results of the linear regression conducted, considering emotional intelligence as the independent variable and all subscales of coping strategies as predictors. The results can be viewed in Table 2. Emotional intelligence accounted 2.7%, 49%, 4.1, 53% and 0.2 of the variance for problem-solving, cognitive evaluation, social support, emotional inhibition and Somatic inhibition. However, emotional intelligence significantly predicted problem-solving (β= 0.178), cognitive evaluation (β= 0.704), social support (β= 0.214), emotional inhibition (β= 0.733) and Somatic inhibition (β= - 0.158). Table 2. Results of linear regression analysis with emotional intelligence std. error β 0.009 0.178 0.012 0.704 0.012 0.214 0.017 0.733 0.007 -0.158 Note: R=.178, adjusted R=.027, std. Error=1.61 for problem-solving R=.704, adjusted R=.49, std. error=2.16 for cognitive evaluation R=.214, adjusted R=.041, std. error=2.16 for social support R=.733, adjusted R=.53, std. error=3.17 for emotional inhibition R=.158, adjusted R=.020, std. error=1.32 for Somatic inhibition variables problem-solving cognitive evaluation social support emotional inhibition Somatic inhibition
B 0.023 0.165 0.036 0.264 -0/016
t 2.54 13.93 3.08 15.18 -2.25
P value 0.012 0.000 0.002 0/000 0.026
4. Discussion In general, findings of the present study showed that emotional intelligence had positive relationship with problem-solving coping strategies, social support, cognitive appraisal, and emotional inhibition of positive relationship and has negative significant relationship with physical control coping strategies. The positive relationship of emotional intelligence elements such as problem-solving, cognitive appraisal, social support and the negative relationship of emotional intelligence with non-effective coping strategies of somatic inhibition are consistent with findings of some studies (Mohammadi et al., 2009; Engleberg & Sjoberg, 2003; Lopes et al., 2004; Furnham et al., 2002). Coping process includes those procedures that one can manage his emotions by applying them, think in an organized way, conduct and organize his behaviours, control his automatic arousals, and act in social and non-social environments towards changing or decreasing stressors (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). On the other hand, Mayer and Sullivan (1997) believe that emotional intelligence and regulating skills or controlling emotions are related with high level of coping. So, these emotions organize processes that can facilitate effects in decreasing the frequency and intensity of stressors and even in enduring stressful situations. Riley and Schutte (2003), considered the emotional intelligence as a coping mechanism that leads to useful self-regulation in order to achieve the desired goals. As the findings of this study showed, there is a positive significant relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional inhibition (emotion-focused) coping strategies. However, this finding is in contrast with our expectations and is not consistent with findings of most of the studies conducted in the field of positive relationship between emotional intelligence and effective coping styles and negative relationship of 3
Afsaneh Moradi et al./ Procedia / Procedia– -Social Socialand andBehavioral BehavioralSciences Sciences00 30(2011) (2011)000–000 748 – 751 Afsaneh Moradi
751
emotional intelligence and non-effective coping styles but the study conducted by Mohammadi et al., (2008), showed that students with higher emotional intelligence use both effective and non-effective coping strategies while encountering with stressful situations though they use effective coping strategies more than non-effective ones. To explain this, we can say that some other factors besides emotional intelligence are involved in adopting coping strategies. These factors are as follows: demographic characteristics (gender and age), personality factors (self-efficacy, internal or external control resource, being introverted or extroverted, level of self-confidence, etc.), environmental factors (family resources such as social support), and stressful situations’ characteristics (type, intensity, and predictability of the situation). For example, different studies showed that the higher the selfefficacy, the internal control resource, and social support, the more constructive coping strategies are used. So, we should consider the mutual relationships of so many factors while judging the application of coping strategies. However, in the present study, just one effective variable, namely, emotional intelligence impact the application of different coping strategies was investigated. There may be intervening and moderator variables that influence the emotional intelligence impact on accepting different coping strategies. So, other effective factors besides emotional intelligence in accepting different coping strategies should be investigated or controlled in the future studies. References Bar-on, R., & Parleer, D. (2000). The handbook of emotion intelligence. San Francesco: Jossy-Bass Books. Billings, A. G., & Moos, R. H. (1981). The role of coping responses and social resources in attenuating the stress of life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 139–157. Billings, A. G., & Moos, R. H. (1984). Coping, stress, and social resources among adults with unipolar depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 877–891. Engleberg, E., & Sjoberg, L. ( 2003). Emotional intelligence, affect intensity and Social adjustment. Personality & Individual Differences, 37, 533-542
Eskay, M. (2011). Harmonizing educational differences from an international perspective. Cypriot Journal Of Educational Sciences, 6(1), 30-36.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219–232. Furnham, A., Pertrides, K., & Spencer-Bowdage, S. (2002). The effects of different types of social desirability on the identification of repressors. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 119-130. Ghorbni, N., Bing, M. N., Watson, P. J, Davision, H. K., & Mack, D. A. (2002). Self-reported emotional intelligence: Construct similarity and functional dissimilarity of higher order processing in Iran and the United States. International Journal of Psychology, 37, 297-308. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer. Lopes, P. N., Brackett, M. A., Nezlek, J. B., Schutz, A., Sellin, I., & Salovey, P. ( 2004). Emotional intelligence and social interaction. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1018-1034. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993).The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17, 433-442. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. J. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications, (pp. 3–31). New York: Basic Books. Mohammadi, C. D., Torabi, C. A., & Ghorabi, B. (2009). The relation between coping styles and emotional intelligence of students. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology of Iran, 14, 176-183. Pearlin, L.I., & Schooler, C. (1978).The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19, 2–21. Riley, H., & Schutte, N. (2003). Low emotional intelligence as a predictor of substance-use problems. Journal of drug Education, 33, 391-398. Rogers, P., Qualter, Phelps., & Gardner, K. (2006). Belife in the paranormal, coping and emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differenes, 41, 1089-1105. Salovey, P., Bedell, B. T., Detweiler, J., & Mayer, J. D. (1999). Coping Intelligently: Emotional intelligence and the coping process. In C. R. Sndyer (Ed), Coping: The psychology of what work. New York: Oxford University Perss. Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., Goldman, S., Turvey, C., & Palfai, T. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta–Mood Scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure, and health (pp. 125–154). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Toist, P. A. (1986). Social support as coping assistance. Journal of Conselling and Clinical Psychology, 54, 419-423.
4
Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
WCPCG-2011
The Relationship between Coping strategies and Emotional Intelligence Afsaneh Moradia *, Nooshin Pishvab, Hadi Bahrami Ehsana, Parvaneh Hadadia, Farzaneh pouladia a
Tehran University, Department of psychology, Tehran, Iran Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences,Kermanshah, Iran
b
Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and coping strategies. A total of 200 (96 females, 104 males) students from Razi university completed measures of emotional intelligence (TMMS) and Coping Responses Inventory (CRI). Data were analyzed using correlation coefficient and regression analysis. The results revealed significant relationship between emotional intelligence and each of the five items of coping strategies in CRI. In addition, regression analysis showed that, emotional intelligence can significantly predict each of these five coping strategies (problem-solving, social support seeking, cognitive evaluation, somatic inhibition and emotional inhibition).These results can be useful for prevention and treatment of behavioural and psychiatric disorder. © PublishedbybyElsevier Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the 2nd World Conference © 2011 2011 Published Ltd.
on Psychology, Counselling and Guidance.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, coping strategies, university students;
1. Introduction Coping strategies are defined as constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external or internal demands that are far beyond the existing resources of the person (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). In another words, coping includes those efforts to deal with the new occasions that are potentially threatening and challenging. The type of strategy adopted by each person to cope with stress is considered to be part of the vulnerable profile of that person. Studies conducted on stress, accentuate this point that quality of behavior is not only influenced by stress but also the only way to determine behavioral health is by appraisal methods of stress and methods adopted to cope with them (Toist, 1986). In another words, coping is “an individual variable” that is apparent in important occasions and is the medium of the previous stressful incidents and their consequences such as: anxiety, mental helplessness, and physical complaints (Moos & Billings, 1981; Pearlin & Schooler, 1987). On the other hand, Baron and Parleer (2000) believe that stress management and ability of adaptation are the major elements of emotional intelligence. In fact, emotional intelligence is the ability to create positive consequences in the relationships with oneself and others. According to Mayer and Salovey (1993), emotional intelligence is the ability to observe feelings and emotions, differentiate between feelings and emotions, and apply this information to conduct thoughts and activities. As a coping mechanism, emotional intelligence can facilitate the stress and can use an effective self* Afsane Moradi, Tel.: +09187219379; E-mail address: [email protected]
1877-0428 © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the 2nd World Conference on Psychology, Counselling and Guidance. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.146
Afsaneh Moradi et al./ Procedia / Procedia– -Social Socialand andBehavioral BehavioralSciences Sciences00 30(2011) (2011)000–000 748 – 751 Afsaneh Moradi
749
regulation system while encountering with stress (Salovey et al, 1999). in the study revealed that those individuals who have less ability in realizing their emotions, have lower level of social adaptation than those who can highly realize their emotions(Engleberg & Sjoberg, 2003). Similarly those persons who have lower ability in managing their emotions, are not able to acquire social support in stressful situations (Lopes et al. 2004). Consistent with these studies, another study showed that individuals with high emotional intelligence use more normal coping strategies and those with low emotional intelligence use more avoidance-oriented coping strategies (Furnham et al. 2002; Eskay, 2011). Considering that emotional intelligence and coping strategies play crucial roles in mental health, the study of the relationship between these two variables as important factors influencing mental health can be of great help in achieving a broader models in order to explain them. So, effective models can be determined to prevent and treat behavioral and mental disorders by recognizing the relationship between coping strategies and emotional intelligence precisely. Hence, the present study aims at investigating the relationship between emotional intelligence and its elements, coping strategies and that to what extent emotional intelligence can predict the coping strategies used in stressful situations. 2. Method 2.1. Sample The sample consisted of 200 students (96 females, 104 males) from Kermanshah University of Razi. The mean age of the males was 21.56±2.2 years. The mean age of the females was 20.80±1.93 years. Age range in both groups was 18-23 years. 2.2. Measures Coping Responses Inventory (CRI): Bellings and Moos (1981), designed a questionnaire that included 19 questions of Yes/No to investigate the coping strategies while encountering stressful incidents and was measuring three types of coping: active behavioral, active cognitive and social coping. In 1984, these two researchers increased the previous questionnaires items to 32 and used 4 degree Likert scale. They identified three types of coping strategies in their new questionnaire: cognitive- appraisal coping, problem-solving coping, and emotion-focused coping and the internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire were considered to be from 0.41 to 0.66 Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS): this scale has two forms of 30 and 48 items that the shorter form was used in the present study. This Scale is allocated to measuring the emotional intelligence by three factors of emotional attention (13 items), emotional Clarity (11 items), and emotional Repair (6 items). Salovey et al. (1995) and Ghorbani et al. (2002), showed that TMMS is a reliable and valid scale in assessing the emotional intelligence . 2.3. Statistical analysis Data was analyzed by performing Pearson correlations and liner regression. 2. Results Data was initially analyzed by performing Pearson’s correlation coefficients. Results revealed significant correlation between all of subscales of coping strategies and total emotional intelligence and most of its subscales. Results of Pearson’s correlation coefficients are presented in Table 1.
2
750
AfsanehMoradi Moradi/ et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 30 (2011) 748 – 751 Afsaneh Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 00 (2011) 000–000
Table 1. Pearson’s correlation coefficients between emotional intelligence and coping strategies (n=200) variables
Attention
problem-solving
-0.06
Clarity 0.24
cognitive evaluation social support
0.49 0.26
0.56 0.02
emotional inhibition
0.47
0/50
Somatic inhibition
0.02
-0.21
Repair
total
Attention
0.31
0.34 0.09
0.70 0.21
0.49 0.26
0.56
0.73
0.47
- 0.20
0.18
-0.06
-0.16
0.02
Note: ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05
Linear regression was used to find which emotional intelligence provided the best predictive validity for subscales of coping strategies. The results of the linear regression conducted, considering emotional intelligence as the independent variable and all subscales of coping strategies as predictors. The results can be viewed in Table 2. Emotional intelligence accounted 2.7%, 49%, 4.1, 53% and 0.2 of the variance for problem-solving, cognitive evaluation, social support, emotional inhibition and Somatic inhibition. However, emotional intelligence significantly predicted problem-solving (β= 0.178), cognitive evaluation (β= 0.704), social support (β= 0.214), emotional inhibition (β= 0.733) and Somatic inhibition (β= - 0.158). Table 2. Results of linear regression analysis with emotional intelligence std. error β 0.009 0.178 0.012 0.704 0.012 0.214 0.017 0.733 0.007 -0.158 Note: R=.178, adjusted R=.027, std. Error=1.61 for problem-solving R=.704, adjusted R=.49, std. error=2.16 for cognitive evaluation R=.214, adjusted R=.041, std. error=2.16 for social support R=.733, adjusted R=.53, std. error=3.17 for emotional inhibition R=.158, adjusted R=.020, std. error=1.32 for Somatic inhibition variables problem-solving cognitive evaluation social support emotional inhibition Somatic inhibition
B 0.023 0.165 0.036 0.264 -0/016
t 2.54 13.93 3.08 15.18 -2.25
P value 0.012 0.000 0.002 0/000 0.026
4. Discussion In general, findings of the present study showed that emotional intelligence had positive relationship with problem-solving coping strategies, social support, cognitive appraisal, and emotional inhibition of positive relationship and has negative significant relationship with physical control coping strategies. The positive relationship of emotional intelligence elements such as problem-solving, cognitive appraisal, social support and the negative relationship of emotional intelligence with non-effective coping strategies of somatic inhibition are consistent with findings of some studies (Mohammadi et al., 2009; Engleberg & Sjoberg, 2003; Lopes et al., 2004; Furnham et al., 2002). Coping process includes those procedures that one can manage his emotions by applying them, think in an organized way, conduct and organize his behaviours, control his automatic arousals, and act in social and non-social environments towards changing or decreasing stressors (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). On the other hand, Mayer and Sullivan (1997) believe that emotional intelligence and regulating skills or controlling emotions are related with high level of coping. So, these emotions organize processes that can facilitate effects in decreasing the frequency and intensity of stressors and even in enduring stressful situations. Riley and Schutte (2003), considered the emotional intelligence as a coping mechanism that leads to useful self-regulation in order to achieve the desired goals. As the findings of this study showed, there is a positive significant relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional inhibition (emotion-focused) coping strategies. However, this finding is in contrast with our expectations and is not consistent with findings of most of the studies conducted in the field of positive relationship between emotional intelligence and effective coping styles and negative relationship of 3
Afsaneh Moradi et al./ Procedia / Procedia– -Social Socialand andBehavioral BehavioralSciences Sciences00 30(2011) (2011)000–000 748 – 751 Afsaneh Moradi
751
emotional intelligence and non-effective coping styles but the study conducted by Mohammadi et al., (2008), showed that students with higher emotional intelligence use both effective and non-effective coping strategies while encountering with stressful situations though they use effective coping strategies more than non-effective ones. To explain this, we can say that some other factors besides emotional intelligence are involved in adopting coping strategies. These factors are as follows: demographic characteristics (gender and age), personality factors (self-efficacy, internal or external control resource, being introverted or extroverted, level of self-confidence, etc.), environmental factors (family resources such as social support), and stressful situations’ characteristics (type, intensity, and predictability of the situation). For example, different studies showed that the higher the selfefficacy, the internal control resource, and social support, the more constructive coping strategies are used. So, we should consider the mutual relationships of so many factors while judging the application of coping strategies. However, in the present study, just one effective variable, namely, emotional intelligence impact the application of different coping strategies was investigated. There may be intervening and moderator variables that influence the emotional intelligence impact on accepting different coping strategies. So, other effective factors besides emotional intelligence in accepting different coping strategies should be investigated or controlled in the future studies. References Bar-on, R., & Parleer, D. (2000). The handbook of emotion intelligence. San Francesco: Jossy-Bass Books. Billings, A. G., & Moos, R. H. (1981). The role of coping responses and social resources in attenuating the stress of life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 139–157. Billings, A. G., & Moos, R. H. (1984). Coping, stress, and social resources among adults with unipolar depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 877–891. Engleberg, E., & Sjoberg, L. ( 2003). Emotional intelligence, affect intensity and Social adjustment. Personality & Individual Differences, 37, 533-542
Eskay, M. (2011). Harmonizing educational differences from an international perspective. Cypriot Journal Of Educational Sciences, 6(1), 30-36.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219–232. Furnham, A., Pertrides, K., & Spencer-Bowdage, S. (2002). The effects of different types of social desirability on the identification of repressors. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 119-130. Ghorbni, N., Bing, M. N., Watson, P. J, Davision, H. K., & Mack, D. A. (2002). Self-reported emotional intelligence: Construct similarity and functional dissimilarity of higher order processing in Iran and the United States. International Journal of Psychology, 37, 297-308. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer. Lopes, P. N., Brackett, M. A., Nezlek, J. B., Schutz, A., Sellin, I., & Salovey, P. ( 2004). Emotional intelligence and social interaction. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1018-1034. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993).The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17, 433-442. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. J. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications, (pp. 3–31). New York: Basic Books. Mohammadi, C. D., Torabi, C. A., & Ghorabi, B. (2009). The relation between coping styles and emotional intelligence of students. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology of Iran, 14, 176-183. Pearlin, L.I., & Schooler, C. (1978).The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19, 2–21. Riley, H., & Schutte, N. (2003). Low emotional intelligence as a predictor of substance-use problems. Journal of drug Education, 33, 391-398. Rogers, P., Qualter, Phelps., & Gardner, K. (2006). Belife in the paranormal, coping and emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differenes, 41, 1089-1105. Salovey, P., Bedell, B. T., Detweiler, J., & Mayer, J. D. (1999). Coping Intelligently: Emotional intelligence and the coping process. In C. R. Sndyer (Ed), Coping: The psychology of what work. New York: Oxford University Perss. Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., Goldman, S., Turvey, C., & Palfai, T. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta–Mood Scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure, and health (pp. 125–154). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Toist, P. A. (1986). Social support as coping assistance. Journal of Conselling and Clinical Psychology, 54, 419-423.
4