The role of ports in reduction of road transport pollution in port cities

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Green Cities 2018 Green Cities 2018

The role of ports in reduction of road transport pollution in port The role of ports in reductioncities of road transport pollution in port cities a a a

Izabela Kotowskaa*, Daria Kubowicza Izabela Kotowska *, Daria Kubowicz

Maritime University of Szczecin, Faculty of Economics and Transport Engeneering, Adress, H. Poboznego 11, Szczecin, Poland, [email protected] Maritime University of Szczecin, Faculty of Economics and Transport Engeneering, Adress, H. Poboznego 11, Szczecin, Poland, [email protected]

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Abstract Abstract Despite numerous actions taken by port authorities to enable modal shift, road transport has been playing a dominating role in serving the hinterland of many Millions of tonnes of cargoes areshift, carried bytransport heavy goods vehicles which due to the location Despite numerous actions takenports. by port authorities to enable modal road has been playing a dominating role in of ports the within conurbations have to join urbanoftraffic. traffic considerable external costs caused congestion, serving hinterland of many ports. Millions tonnesFreight of cargoes aregenerates carried by heavy goods vehicles which due by to the location accidents, noiseconurbations or pollutanthave emissions. This article aimedtraffic at identification and classification the caused tools applied by port of ports within to join urban traffic.isFreight generates considerable externalofcosts by congestion, authorities noise in order limit exhaust emissions congestion caused by heavy goods handled accidents, or topollutant emissions. Thisand article is aimed at identification and vehicles classification of intheports. tools applied by port authorities in order to limit exhaust emissions and congestion caused by heavy goods vehicles handled in ports. © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2018 The Authors. by Elsevier B.V. This is an open accessPublished article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and under responsibility of the the scientific scientific committee of Green Green Logistics Logistics for for Greener Greener Cities Cities 2018. 2018. This is an and openpeer-review access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licensecommittee (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection peer-review under responsibility of of Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Green Logistics for Greener Cities 2018. Keywords: port management; external costs of transport; road transport; sustainable transport development Keywords: port management; external costs of transport; road transport; sustainable transport development

1. Introduction 1. Introduction A seaport is a transport node that handles several modes of transport. In most universal ports, the hinterland A seaport is a transport nodetransport, that handles several modes of transport. In most in universal ports, the hinterland transport is dominated by road which results in large truck movements port cities (Rodrigue et al., transport is effect dominated road transport, which results truck movements cities (Rodrigue et al., 2006). The of thebyincreasing road carriage volumein islarge a considerable increasein inport congestion and transport2006). effect Moreover, of the increasing roadtocarriage volume is a considerable increase in congestion and transportrelated The pollution. according European Commission (2018) heavy-duty vehicles are responsible for related according to European heavy-duty vehicles are responsible for about a pollution. quarter of Moreover, CO2 emissions from road transport Commission in the EU and(2018) for some 6% of total EU emissions. (European about a quarter of CO2 emissions from road transport in the EU and for some 6% of total EU emissions. (European Commission (2018)) Commission As a result(2018)) of the city-forming function of ports, they are often located in the middle of conurbations, in the As a of result the city-forming function(Wiegmans of ports, they are often located in the2013). middleConsequently, of conurbations, the vicinity city of centres or housing estates and Louw, 2011, Pluciński, port incities vicinity of city centres or housing estates (Wiegmans and Louw, 2011, Pluciński, 2013). Consequently, port cities

* Corresponding author. Tel.: Tel.: +48 91 4809679 address:author. [email protected] * E-mail Corresponding Tel.: Tel.: +48 91 4809679 E-mail address: [email protected] 2352-1465 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) 2352-1465 © 2018 Thearticle Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection under responsibility of the scientific of Green Logistics for Greener Cities 2018. This is an and openpeer-review access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licensecommittee (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Green Logistics for Greener Cities 2018. 2352-1465  2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Green Logistics for Greener Cities 2018. 10.1016/j.trpro.2019.06.023

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become urban agglomerations that carry out the traditional urban functions. Urban agglomerations are the places where the economic and social potentials of a given country concentrate, and their efficient functioning is decisive for the country development. (Iwan, S., & Kijewska, K. (2012). Therefore, transport congestion in port cities results not only from port-related cargo traffic, but also from the fast economic development of such cities. (Thompson, R. G., & Taniguchi, E. (2008). Combination of the two traffic flows results in considerable congestion and increased pollutant emissions. Therefore, it is very important for port authorities and municipalities to cooperate with regard to urban logistics and spatial planning (Wiegmans, & Louw, E., 2011; Daamen, T. A., & Vries, I. (2013), Viana et al., 2014, Mańkowska & Pluciński, 2011). 2. Literature overview Sustainable urban transport requires stakeholders to develope new solutions and tools to assess them (Behnke, M., & Kirschstein, T., 2017, Kotowska et al., 2018). In many cities, among others, distribution centers, unloading bays or restricted zones have been introduced (Bektaş et al., 2017). Municipal authorities practice numerous incentives to use more environmentally friendly vehicles, eg. they build a power station for electric vehicles or introduce exemptions from parking charges (Quak, 2018, Altenburg et al., 2017). At the same time, in port cities, a policy of reducing the harmful impact of seaport transport is gradually being introduced. All this makes freight transport in cities less and less onerous. From an environmental and social perspective, many ports have also developed corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies (Bergqvist, & Egels-Zandén, N. (2012), in which they address the problem of sustainable development (Chang & Wang, 2012; Sheu, Hu & Lin, 2013; Becker, 2018). More and more port authorities establish and consistently follow their “green strategies”. The research studies carried out by Aregall et al. (2018) have shown that such strategies are implemented by 76 out of 365 studied ports. Most often these strategies are focused on “modal shift” (Notteboom & Rodrigue, 2007, Wilmsmeier et al., 2011, Caris et al., 2014, Álvarez-SanJaime et al., 2015, Rodrigues et al., 2015, Ambrosino, 2018). Such measures involve reorganisation of the whole transport chain, consisting in shifting cargoes from roads to sea (Bernetti, 2002; Kotowska, 2016), and also in changing the hinterland transport structure via development of rail transport and inland shipping to replace the road transport (Franz & Freemont, 2010; Monios, 2016). Tao et al., 2018; Kotowska et. al. 2018, in press). The second group of measures taken by port authorities is aimed at limiting the pollutant emissions by vehicles, cargo handling facilities and other mechanic equipment used within the port, and strictly connected with transhipment operations. For example, ports offer reduced port fees for vessels producing less pollutant emissions or those which use fuels of better quality or reduce fuel consumption by decreasing the ship velocity. (Kotowska, 2016). The third kind of measures are those aimed at limiting the externalities that are generated directly by road transport. The article identifies and analyses the tools applied by selected seaports, focused on limiting the detrimental impacts of the road transport. Then, it attempts to systematise them according to the character and scope of the applied measures. 3. Methodology The purpose of the measures taken by port authorities is to even out the traffic intensity in ports, and to relieve the access roads to the cities. The tools applied in the selected ports located in Europe and beyond were classified in terms of the operation area: the organisational measures resulting from establishing the specified regulations; financial measures based on, inter alia, imposing of financial penalties; technical measures focused mainly on the infrastructure extension and upgrading; and measures based on transport innovations. The analysis comprised the actions taken by port authorities of 17 ports located within member states of OECD, out of which the 11 largest ones were selected, which promoted sustainable development strategies and implemented the aforementioned measures. The data contained in this article were derived from publications and information provided by the port authorities.

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4. Research results 4.1. Structure Port authorities being the bodies that supervise and control the port functioning take actions to implement the assumptions of the sustainable development strategy. The article details the measures taken by the selected ports in order to limit the congestion within the port premises and in its vicinity. The traffic in ports where the annual transhipment capacity exceeds 3 m TEU generates considerable traffic intensity on the access roads, and consequently congestion in the direct vicinity of the cities. For example, in the Rotterdam port over 67 m tonnes of cargoes are carried by road every year, including 4.5 m containers (TEU), which means that every day the port is entered by over 10,000 road vehicles that join the urban traffic as well. Table 1. Classification of measures taken by ports with regard to reduction of external costs of road transport. Kind of measures

Specific actions

Port

Regulatory measures

Regulation of vehicle handling time

Antwerp, Botany, Gdańsk, Hamburg, Felixtowe, Southampton, Rotterdam

Banning the vehicles with high exhaust emissions

PA New York & New Jersey, Barcelona, Long Beach

Extending the operation time of the terminal

Antwerp

Financial penalties for failing to comply with the vehicle handling time slots

Long Beach, Botany

Incentives for replacing the fleet

PA New York & New Jersey, Virginia

Car parks for road vehicles

Rotterdam, Valparaiso

Upgrading the infrastructure dedicated to road vehicles

Valparaiso

Support via ICT systems

Antwerp

Ensuring the working condition of vehicles

Rotterdam

Financial measures

Technical measures

Innovative measures

Supporting innovation in road transport

Rotterdam

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Measures taken by port authorities can be divided into four groups, focusing on the following aspects:    

organizational - measures taken in order to regulate the vehicle handling time and to ban vehicles with high exhaust emissions from accessing the port premises; financial - measures consisting in imposing penalties on shippers who do not comply with the time slots for vehicle handling in the port, and offering incentives to invite carriers to replace their fleet with vehicles that meet higher standards for emissions; technical – measures aimed at upgrading the existing infrastructure or constructing new one, dedicated to road vehicles entering or leaving the port premises; construction of special car parks for road vehicles and supporting the shippers with regard to technical equipment of their vehicles; innovative - includes actions that support new solutions in transport.

Table 1 presents the classification of measures applied in the selected ports. Each of the aforementioned group of tools applied in order to avoid congestion can be applied in another port. This does not mean that any given measure is universal and may be applied in each port. Ports differ from each other in terms of location in relation to the city, accessibility of roads or possibilities of their extension. Therefore, different actions were taken in different ports, and they proved effective for both the port and the city. 4.2. Organisational measures Out of the enumerated kinds of measures, the most widely applied methods fall within the organisational group. The most often used tool, which functions in many ports in Europe and beyond, is the system for booking the time of collecting containers from the port (Vehicle Booking System). The system is successfully used in many container terminals, including the largest European ones. The differences between the systems in the individual ports pertain only to details, but the measure as such is identical for all the ports. The system consists in prior booking of the time (hours) when the carrier wishes to deposit or collect the container, via the special web-based platform. This is an effective way to avoid congestion in the port and on the access roads, and also to even out the traffic intensity. The system is applied, among others, in the ports of Hamburg, Antwerp, Rotterdam, Felixtowe, Southampon, Botany or Gdańsk. Due to the fact that the system is new and in the case of many ports it has been in place for a short time, there are no concrete figures available that would present the improvement in the traffic intensity as a result of its implementation. One of the ports which implemented the time slot booking system is Gdańsk. The e.BRAMA system applied in Gdańsk is used for prior notification of truck arrival and it is obligatory for all shippers who wish to deposit or collect a container. The notification is obligatory round the clock and it is possible upon prior registration in the system. In the case of the e.BRAMA system, it is not applied with regard to empty containers. Due to the system functioning, truck drivers decide themselves when they want to deposit or collect their cargo, by choosing a time slot. The system enables a proportional distribution of truck arrivals at the port, which is beneficial not only for the port and the city, but also for the driver who does not have to queue to enter the port premises. (DCT, 2018) The time slot booking system has also been functioning in the port of Hamburg since the last quarter of 2017. The purpose of the system implementation assumed by the port authorities was avoiding the bottlenecks. Due to the synchronisation of the truck arrivals at the port, the capacity of the terminal was increased. The booking process takes place via the TR02 data interface. The shipper or the driver logs in the system and books a concrete arrival time that is available. If any chosen time slot is not available, the system automatically suggests the next free time slot. A truck which arrives at the agreed time or 30 minutes before or after the agreed time will be served on a priority basis. However, if the driver arrives 60 minutes before or after the agreed time, they will be served provided that the slot is currently not taken and another truck is not being handled, upon prior amendment of the booking. It is not possible to arrive at the terminal earlier. Also, it is not allowed to wait for the booked time slot at the terminal premises or car park. What is more, in the case of delays exceeding 90 minutes the booking is lost and it is necessary to make another booking. However, it is not possible to book directly at the terminal. If drivers fail to abide by the agreed hours, this may lead to a failure of the system implementation due to ensuing queues. (source: https://hhla.de/en/truck-info/slot-booking/introduction.html)

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Similar systems function in the ports of Felixtowe, Southampton, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Botany. Additionally, Port Botany has introduced financial penalties for failing to appear at the agreed time for handling the truck (NSW, 2010). The port of Antwerp, in turn, apart from introducing the vehicle handling time booking system, has extended the terminal operation time, which resulted in a shorter time of waiting for being served at the terminal and in a decrease in traffic in peak hours. This also enabled the carriers to plan their journeys more effectively. Another tool to limit the external costs of road transport is prohibiting the vehicles with high exhaust emissions from entering the port premises. Ports, being vast industrial premises, emit large amounts of exhaust gases. These come mainly from the means of internal transport and from the handled vehicles and vessels. Striving to implement their sustainable development strategies, ports prohibit the vehicles that do not meet the current requirements and standards from entering the port premises. For example, the port in Barcelona takes up a number of measures to limit the exhaust emissions. Under the “Project RE-Port Mobilitat Eco”, actions are taken with regard to (RePort Project, 2018):  imposing the environmental requirements on the truck fleet used in container transport,  promoting alternative fuels as well as efficient and economic driving, moreover, imposing the above mentioned requirements with regard to the means of internal transport. The port of Barcelona aims at creating a sustainable transport sector. Also in American ports there are restrictions regarding vehicles. The Port of Long Beach has implemented a program for reducing exhaust emissions, which has been successfully functioning and bringing significant benefits. (Strategic Plan, 2016) The aim of the program is banning any trucks that do not meet the emissions standards from entering the port premises. As early as in 2008, the port authorities introduced a traffic regulation, according to which any vehicles manufactured before 1989 were not allowed to enter the port premises. In 2012 the ban was extended – from then on, only the vehicles which were manufactured after 2007 could enter the port premises. It was found that due to implementing the program the exhaust emissions caused by trucks was reduced by 90%, and 50% of all the vehicles handled in the port were manufactured after 2010. In the New York & New Jersey port complex, the port authorities concentrated on reducing the exhaust emissions produced by all the vehicles operating in the port. The Clean Truck Program was launched, which is mainly aimed at phasing out the oldest trucks which contribute the most to the environmental pollution. Moreover, the program is aimed at reducing the emissions produced by forklift trucks operating at the terminals. Since 2016, the port premises may only be entered by the vehicles which meet the specified requirements and standards stipulated by the Federal Environmental Protection Agency and which are registered in the Port Truck Pass system. (Port Truck Pass, 2018) 4.3. Financial measures The second group of measures taken by ports comprises the actions that focus on the financial aspects, mainly consisting in imposing financial penalties on carriers who fail to abide by the specified handling hours and introducing incentives for upgrading the fleet to meet higher standards of emissions. Among the American ports, the Port of Virginia was the first to voluntarily introduce the truck replacement program. The Green Operator Program was the initiative of the port authorities that decided it was necessary to upgrade the truck fleet. What is more, the program would contribute to reducing the costs of fuel and maintenance incurred by the truck owners. The aim of the program was to incentivize the carriers to replace the older truck models with newer ones equipped with the clean-diesel technology. The program was considered the most effective among the ones applied in ports all over the USA. Up to now, over 400 trucks have been replaced or upgraded thanks to the program. This contributed to reducing the exhaust and solid particles emissions by even 25%. Owners of the trucks handled in the Port of Virginia may apply to receive up to USD 30,000. The amount may be used to purchase a truck manufactured after 2010. The fleet replacement program was also applied by the New York & New Jersey port complex, which was dedicated to owners of trucks manufactured in the years 1996-2003 and visiting the port at least 150 times a year. Moreover, when the carrier receives a new vehicle under the program, they are obliged to continue serving the port for five subsequent years. In accordance with the program requirements, new trucks must be equipped with a motor of 2011 or later, certified in compliance with emissions standards. The old

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truck must be disposed. The subsidising program comprises financial support for purchasing maximum two vehicles for one applicant. The funds comes from two organisations: the federal Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) Program and the Diesel Emission Reduction Program (DERA). The applicant receives USD 25,000 or an amount equivalent to half the price of a new vehicle, whichever is less. (Green Operator Program, 2018). The financial measures include not only incentives in the form of money amounts to be granted, but also financial penalties imposed on carriers for failing to abide by specified principles of truck handling that are in place in the port. For example, the ports of Los Angeles – Long Beach have been running the PierPass program which must be followed by all operators of container terminals and consists in charging extra fees amounting to USD 50.00 if a driver appears in the port in peak hours. Revenues from the penalties are used by the terminals that work on 24/7 basis, including public holidays. Within 6 months from the introduction of the PierPass program, 35% of the containers were served in night hours. Also Port Botany introduced this kind of penalty, along with implementing the Port Botany Landside Improvement Strategy. The Strategy consists in imposing a duty to book the vehicle handling time slot and financial penalties imposed on carriers in the case they do not arrive at the agreed time. As a result of simultaneous introduction of these measures, vehicle handling at the terminal was evened out, and vehicle handling time was reduced from 50 to 30 minutes. Figure 1 presents the distribution of road vehicle handling in port Botany compared to the port of Southampton. The main effect of the program implementation in port Botany is the disappearance of congestion in the port. (PBLIS, 2013).

Fig. 1. Distribution of road vehicle handling in port Botany (orange) and the port of Southampton (green).

4.4. Technical measures Another group of measures taken by port authorities are technical measures aimed at improving the condition of the infrastructure by constructing new facilities or modernising the existing ones, and also supporting the road traffic by means of various ICT systems. These include, among other things, construction of car parks for road vehicles by the ports of Rotterdam and Valparaiso. The Rotterdam port authorities have completed the construction of as many as five yards dedicated for parking the trucks. The largest of them may receive 350 vehicles. Thanks to the truck parks, exhaust emissions are reduced, as vehicles may be handled outside peak hours, they also facilitate journey planning. One of the ports that implement a wide range of technical measures is the Port of Valparaiso. The measures aimed at reducing the congestion are taken by both the port and the local authorities. The regulation introduced by

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the municipal authorities prohibits trucks from moving around the city in specified hours. In Valparaiso, traffic of trucks exceeding 10 tonnes is prohibited from 5:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m. Within the premises of the Valparaiso port, a special zone called ZEAL (Zona de Extension de Apoyo Logistico) was designated as the zone for logistic support. It was established as a joint initiative of enterprises from the private sector, the regional government and the public shipyard sector. The ZEAL zone is divided into two subzones: ZAO (Obligatory Activities Zone) that enables e.g. parking the vehicles, and ZSE (Special Service Zone) where additional services are offered regarding the vehicle handling. The ZEAL zone is aimed at streamlining the port operations by offering services regarding inspection and auditing the cargoes. It is located 14 km away from the port and south of the city, and it is connected with the port by the city ring road, which enables smooth traffic. At the place where it was necessary to enter the city and use the city roads to get to the port, a highway tunnel was built, dedicated to trucks, thus the through traffic to the port was moved out of the urban area. The main reason for building the tunnel was to connect the ZEAL zone with the port. In this way the port traffic is not constrained by any regulations imposed by the administration with regard to truck traffic. (ZEAL, 2018) The Port of Antwerp, in turn, makes use of ICT systems to streamline the vehicle traffic. The “truck guiding system” was implemented, it is used by truck drivers making their way to the Port of Antwerp. The system helps the drivers to plan their route by sending information pertaining to the road congestion, any accidents, blocked roads and alternative routes, and any other helpful information to make the journey as short and efficient as possible. (Sustainability Report, 2017). Another tool in the technical group of measures comprises the actions addressed directly to road carriers, aimed at ensuring the working condition of heavy goods vehicles. These innovative measures are applied by e.g. the Port of Rotterdam. Such actions include free-of-charge checking the tyre pressure of the trucks leaving the terminal. The tyre pressure is checked by means of the sensors installed in the road course when the truck is driven across them. On completion of the measuring, the results are displayed on the special monitor in a graphic form. These measures are aimed at reducing the congestion, as according to a research study every 24h in the vicinity of Rotterdam at least two trucks have to stop as a result of a technical failure caused by too low tyre pressure or tyre puncture. This is the reason for as many as 40% of all technical failures on the roads. A direct outcome of technical failures or accidents is congestion – highly undesirable especially on the highways leading to ports and cities. 4.5. Innovation The last group of measures comprises state-of-the-art, innovative solutions, mainly consisting in supporting road transport innovations. Interesting innovative solutions are applied by e.g. the Port of Rotterdam. The port is engaged in researching the idea of “car platooning”. “Car platooning” consists in movement of three trucks along a highway while keeping very small distances between one another. Minimising the distances between the trucks leads to reducing the aerodynamic drag and consequently a smaller fuel consumption and lower emissions. The Port of Rotterdam is the leader among the European ports in terms of applying intelligent mobility measures in logistics. (source: https://www.portofrotterdam.com/en/news-and-press-releases/truck-platooning-challenge-to-rotterdam) 5. Conclusions Measures taken by ports as part of the green port philosophy are becoming the major element of global port strategies. Ports take up a number of actions to achieve the green port status. Based on case studies, the authors have identified and classified the measures taken by selected universal ports from various parts of the world, aimed at reducing the congestion and pollution caused by the means of road transport. The classification reflected the nature of the measures, and they were divided into four groups: organisational, financial, technical, and R&D. The organizational activities are the most frequently used. The most often used tool is Vehicle Booking System. This tool effectively reduces the time of vehicle service in the port and reduces congestion on access roads. Financial activities are no less effective. The programs that encourage the replacement of the vehicles fleet, which are widely used in US ports, bring particularly good results. From the user's point of view, the most valuable are technical activities, in particular the construction of parkings with driver facilities. Innovative activities are the

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