- Email: [email protected]
THE STUDY GROUP IN TEACHING
412 candidates may be deterred from applying to a school which is using a rather exacting method of selection ; it is equally possible that others Will be encouraged to do so, and we cannot tell how many of those deterred or encouraged would be -desirable candidates. ------
-
when he visited the Johns Hopkins University. Bakmore, he found a slightly new slant on the English seminar method, and he saw the possibilities of dereloping these two methods of approach. This, then, was the the which study group has evolved background against in the school. In the- years immediately after the war, the D.P.H. students, in common with all others, came from back. grounds rather different from those of pre-war student. The difference was not only the outcome of war expenence. A small proportion of picked men and women had been offered Rockefeller or Nuffield fellowships.One year was to be spent as a student at the London School of Hygiene and a second year in some other approved activity, but still in association with the school. Thu., there was this small number of specially selected student whose reputation and ability were known to the teaching staff. In the first year of the experiment, 1946, the syllabus of the D.P.H. course was such that the formal lectureand practical work took up only a part of the time. Three of these senior students were invited to organie group activities for the students during.; the free- time. One group, for example, was asked to provide an exhibit for the museum; another was asked, to study some historical subject ; and a third to study the work of the health committees. The leader of the group was formally appointed, -but from that moment on he was left to gather together those members of the whole class who were interested in his subject. It was open to the group to modify its subject within the broad framework imposed on it. The characteristic of that year’s-student project work was the absence of any serious guidance from the teaching staff and the complete informality of the arrangements. When the leading students were later asked their opinions of this work, they agreed that purely factual information was obtained which was not otherwise provided by the course ; that working as a group had certain definite values which classroom teaching lacked; and that both the presenting of a report to other students and the receiving of a report from another group were informative and valuable. The same pattern was followed the next year. The selection of group leaders was made in the same way. and the subjects were decided by discussion between the leader and the professor.. There were that year about 15 students in each group, and some freedom was allowed to each student in his choice of group. The tradition was then started for one group to study some historical subject, and a senior member of the staff became personally involved in this and all the subsequent historical studies. Another group cooperated with the School of Planning in making a design for the occupational health services of a new town. A third group made a comprehensive study of socio-medical problems of an ageing population. The pattern was still one of hand-picked students running their own affairs with little or no interference from the staff. Again there was general agreement that the time was well spent and that the students got a lot of fun and value from their efforts, but there was in some quarters a feeling that time might have been saved and more ground covered more effectively had a member of the staff taken a direct part in the groups’ administration and in planning the work. The staff of the public-health department has kepti very careful watch on study-group work and has tried to improve the work from year to year. The point has now been reached in which a member of the staff is given the clear responsibility of tutor to each group. Some time in the second half of the summer term, these tutors meet together to discuss subjects which might lend themselves to their project method. One or two altt’rt1i’ tive suggestions are discussed, but no definite decisions In October the tutors meet again and make are made. ’
Summary An entrance examination which was used in the selection of medical students at College, London, in 1947-49 was found -to- give little indication of the performance of students in the 2nd M.B. examination. A method of selection was used in 1950-52 in which all applicants (about 700 each year) were screened for interview on the ratings given by two assessors of their application form and referee’s report. Those selected for interview (200-250 each year) were giventhree interviews, each conducted by a different pair of assessors : an individual interview assessing intellectual activity ; an individual interview assessing personality ; and a group interview. All the assessments were made on a five-point scale, and it is intended to investigate their predictive value by following up the candidates who were admitted. Preliminary results indicate that, as far as performance in 2nd M.B. is concerned, only the assessments of application form and referee’s report have good predictive value.
University
The statistical work was done by Miss H. Lang Brown, of the department of eugenics, University College, London, to whom we express our thanks. We are grateful to various members of the selection board for criticisms of the
manuscript. REFERENCES D. (1951) Lancet, ii, 1047. Conference of the Home Universities (1947, 1948, 1951). Report of Proceedings. London. Edholm, O. G., Gibson, Q. H. (1944) Lancet, ii, 294. Eysenck, H. J. (1947) Brit. J. educ. Psychol. 17, 20. Finlayson. D. S. (1951) Ibid, 21, 126. Fleming, C. M. (1945) Cumulative Records. London. Gibson, Q. H. (1948) Lancet, ii, 323. Harris, A. D. (1948) Ibid, p. 317. Himmelweit, H. T. (1950) I. Brit. J. Sociol. 1, 328. Summerfeld, A. (1951) Ibid, 2, 59, 340. Johnson, M. L. (1952) Lancet (in the press). Lewis-Faning, E. (1950) Report on the examination performance of medical students, 1933-48. Welsh National School of Medicine, Cardiff. Moss, F. A. (1941) J. Ass. Amer. med. Coll. 16, 234. Penrose, L. S. (1946) Brit. J. med. Psych. 20, 339. Petrie, A. (1948) Lancet, ii, 325. myth, D. H. (1946) Brit. med. J. ii, 357. Stalnaker, J. M. (1950) J. Ass. Amer. med. Coll. 25, 428. Stuit, D. B. (1948) Ibid, 23, 157. Universities Quarterly. August, 1948 ; November, 1950; November, 1951; February, 1952. University Grants Committee (1948) University development from 1935-1947. London. Warbiuton, F. W. (1952) The Selection of University Students. Manchester. Wiseman, S. (1949) Brit. J. educ. Psychol. 19, 200.
Brinton,
-
THE
STUDY GROUP IN TEACHING H. G. MAULE Camb., Ph.D. Lond.
M.A. LEC TURER IN
PSYCHOLOGY,
LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND
TROPICAL MEDICINE
SINCE the late war the London School of Hygiene and Medicine has been making a number of experiments in its methods of teaching in the course given for the diploma in public health (D.P.11.). At a time when there is considerable interest in such methods, it is perhaps appropriate to describe what has been done and what lessons have been learnt. This article describes the " study group " work which now plays an important part in this course.
Tropical
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE
METHOD
made in the year after the experiments war. their from ideas that Dr. J. M took roots Thev Mackintosh had developed when he was professor of public health in Glasgow. He had arranged mock health committees for students as a method of teaching. Later, The first
were
,
413 Six to eight subjects are notice is put up informing the students of the subjects and giving a brief indication of what these are likely to involve. The students are invited to state which particular group interests them most. The tutors then meet again and arrange the students into the most suitable groups, so that as many as possible study a subject of their choice. This is not always easy, for there are several principles to be observed and sometimes these tend to be in conflict. Most of the students can be divided into four clear groups-those serving in the Armed Forces, those in the Colonial Medical Service, students from overseas who are unfamiliar with the English scene, and those students who are in, or going The into, the public-health service in this country. remainder cannot be put into any single category. Some senior health visitors and other nurses of sister-tutor grade join selected parts of the D.P.H. course. In general the aim is to ensure that each of the main student groups is represented in each study group, and that the special interests declared by the students are evenly distributed. With this background it is possible to gain a better picture from a description of a typical year’s programme, and for this purpose the 1950-51 session has been chosen. more
precise suggestions.
fixed, and
a
A TYPICAL
YEAR’S
PROGRAMME
In the 1950-51 session we had eight study groups varying in size from six to ten students. One tutor had in a previous year made a study of juvenile delinquency, and he proposed to make a study of the remand home. Another group was asked to prepare an exhibit entitled " A hundred years of public health " to form the school’s contribution to the Festival of Britain. A third made a study of the training of sanitary inspectors, a subject which was topical at the time. In fact, during the period of study the Minister of Health announced his intention of setting up a Working Party to consider this very problem. The historical group chose the borough of Tottenham in which to survey the development of a local public-health service between the years 1850 and 1872. The school has a close affiliation with Tottenham, and it was after a discussion with the medical officer of health that this subject was selected. Dr. Mackintosh suggested that another group should study the social problems associated with living in large blocks of flats. Another group undertook an examination of the causes of absence from school at a This study was an Middlesex secondary modern school. attempt to reproduce in miniature the conditions of the field survey which may often be used by a medical officer of health as a method of finding facts to answer some medical, social, or administrative problem. A seventh group did a follow-up of fifty recently notified cases of tuberculosis to determine the quality and amount of service that these patients had received. The last group made a survey of rehabilitation services in
England. CHOOSING A SUBJECT
When selecting in mind :
a
topic
for
study
we
try
to bear four
things
(t) The tutor himself should be interested in the subject. (2) The subject must be such that field work can be undertaken without travelling far from the school. (3) Whenever possible subjects of current topical significance should take precedence over others. (4) Where possible the findings of the group should be of interest other than as a means of teaching the students. Someone somewhere should be interested enough to say : II should like to see your report." The subject must lend itself to team-work. We do not believe that the value of the work is measured in terms
of the scientific importance of its findings. The significance of the study group lies in its teaching value, not in the importance of its conclusions. Nevertheless, if a group can bring out any new principles or discover new facts, "o much the better. There ii no rigid rule which determines the subject for studv. Some are in effect a miniature field survey and a discipline in iiiethodoloot. Some require the eon"tructton and use of a written questionnaire ;3 and some
gain their data by direct interviews. The work is somea study of literature and documents, times carried out institutions and seeing what is sometimes by The way in which the study is made will taking place. and in part depend in part on the nature of the on the method chosen by the tutor and the group. The groups meet on four afternoons in the autumn term and again on four or five afternoons in the second term. Some time in April or May they present their findings to the entire class. At the first meeting of each group it is customary for the tutor to put forward his proposals and to explain his own ideas on the subject. Some time during the first or second meeting he usually invites the group to elect a chairman and, if necessary, a secretary. The role of leader then falls upon the chairman, and all the complexities of human relations set to work to determine whether the group will be autocratic or democratic,
by visiting
work,
integrated
or
formless, hardworking
or
indolent.
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
At the end of its studies the group to the rest of the class and writes
a
presents report.
its
findings
The method of
presentation is decided by the group variety of different devices has been used. The most familiar pattern is for the chairman to introduce the subject and then call upon different members of his. group to report on different aspects of the study. There has been a number of dramatised presentations in which the school stage was used. Films have been borrowed to itself ; and
a
add interest, and much other visual material is often presented. One most successful idea was the television or radio " focus " technique in which the chairman interviewed his colleagues who played the parts of the various people concerned. Sometimes each member of the group takes part in the presentation ; sometimes one or two members do it all with their colleagues in the
background. In recent years, students have taken enormous trouble ensure that their presentation is a success, and in the days immediately before the presentation the lecturetheatre is in great demand for rehearsals and practice. Many visitors come along ; for it has become usual for each group to invite to their presentation those people who have helped them in their work or given them facilities for seeing the working of an institution, research to
organisation, voluntary body, or government department. THE VALUE OF THE METHOD
final estimate to be made of the value of the There can be no single criterion of success. One student from Africa said : "I did not begin to feel at home in England until we formed the study groups and I got to know a small circle of students more intimately." Thus the study-group can make a valuable contribution to the social and welfare side of the school. Reports have been published and articles written on the basis of a study group, which have added to current knowledge. The Ministry of Health’s Housing Advisory the report of one study group Committee in its publication Living in Flats. These theu have been successful by another standard. The value of all kinds of therapy may lie not in what the patient does but in what happens to him while he does it. This same principle can often be seen in operation in a study group at work. Old prejudices-often based on inadequate knowledgemay be broken down, and new understanding may be built up. In a field survey, mistakes may be made and
How is
a
study group ?
acknowledged
data may be
badly
handled,
but before
the presentation
these mistakes are generally recognised and remedied, and the lesson remembered. Lastly, the great majority of students appreciate this more active type of There is a limit to the capacity of the postgraduate student to endure the classroom lecture, and the studv group can make an interesting variation in the routine.
study.
-
when he visited the Johns Hopkins University. Bakmore, he found a slightly new slant on the English seminar method, and he saw the possibilities of dereloping these two methods of approach. This, then, was the the which study group has evolved background against in the school. In the- years immediately after the war, the D.P.H. students, in common with all others, came from back. grounds rather different from those of pre-war student. The difference was not only the outcome of war expenence. A small proportion of picked men and women had been offered Rockefeller or Nuffield fellowships.One year was to be spent as a student at the London School of Hygiene and a second year in some other approved activity, but still in association with the school. Thu., there was this small number of specially selected student whose reputation and ability were known to the teaching staff. In the first year of the experiment, 1946, the syllabus of the D.P.H. course was such that the formal lectureand practical work took up only a part of the time. Three of these senior students were invited to organie group activities for the students during.; the free- time. One group, for example, was asked to provide an exhibit for the museum; another was asked, to study some historical subject ; and a third to study the work of the health committees. The leader of the group was formally appointed, -but from that moment on he was left to gather together those members of the whole class who were interested in his subject. It was open to the group to modify its subject within the broad framework imposed on it. The characteristic of that year’s-student project work was the absence of any serious guidance from the teaching staff and the complete informality of the arrangements. When the leading students were later asked their opinions of this work, they agreed that purely factual information was obtained which was not otherwise provided by the course ; that working as a group had certain definite values which classroom teaching lacked; and that both the presenting of a report to other students and the receiving of a report from another group were informative and valuable. The same pattern was followed the next year. The selection of group leaders was made in the same way. and the subjects were decided by discussion between the leader and the professor.. There were that year about 15 students in each group, and some freedom was allowed to each student in his choice of group. The tradition was then started for one group to study some historical subject, and a senior member of the staff became personally involved in this and all the subsequent historical studies. Another group cooperated with the School of Planning in making a design for the occupational health services of a new town. A third group made a comprehensive study of socio-medical problems of an ageing population. The pattern was still one of hand-picked students running their own affairs with little or no interference from the staff. Again there was general agreement that the time was well spent and that the students got a lot of fun and value from their efforts, but there was in some quarters a feeling that time might have been saved and more ground covered more effectively had a member of the staff taken a direct part in the groups’ administration and in planning the work. The staff of the public-health department has kepti very careful watch on study-group work and has tried to improve the work from year to year. The point has now been reached in which a member of the staff is given the clear responsibility of tutor to each group. Some time in the second half of the summer term, these tutors meet together to discuss subjects which might lend themselves to their project method. One or two altt’rt1i’ tive suggestions are discussed, but no definite decisions In October the tutors meet again and make are made. ’
Summary An entrance examination which was used in the selection of medical students at College, London, in 1947-49 was found -to- give little indication of the performance of students in the 2nd M.B. examination. A method of selection was used in 1950-52 in which all applicants (about 700 each year) were screened for interview on the ratings given by two assessors of their application form and referee’s report. Those selected for interview (200-250 each year) were giventhree interviews, each conducted by a different pair of assessors : an individual interview assessing intellectual activity ; an individual interview assessing personality ; and a group interview. All the assessments were made on a five-point scale, and it is intended to investigate their predictive value by following up the candidates who were admitted. Preliminary results indicate that, as far as performance in 2nd M.B. is concerned, only the assessments of application form and referee’s report have good predictive value.
University
The statistical work was done by Miss H. Lang Brown, of the department of eugenics, University College, London, to whom we express our thanks. We are grateful to various members of the selection board for criticisms of the
manuscript. REFERENCES D. (1951) Lancet, ii, 1047. Conference of the Home Universities (1947, 1948, 1951). Report of Proceedings. London. Edholm, O. G., Gibson, Q. H. (1944) Lancet, ii, 294. Eysenck, H. J. (1947) Brit. J. educ. Psychol. 17, 20. Finlayson. D. S. (1951) Ibid, 21, 126. Fleming, C. M. (1945) Cumulative Records. London. Gibson, Q. H. (1948) Lancet, ii, 323. Harris, A. D. (1948) Ibid, p. 317. Himmelweit, H. T. (1950) I. Brit. J. Sociol. 1, 328. Summerfeld, A. (1951) Ibid, 2, 59, 340. Johnson, M. L. (1952) Lancet (in the press). Lewis-Faning, E. (1950) Report on the examination performance of medical students, 1933-48. Welsh National School of Medicine, Cardiff. Moss, F. A. (1941) J. Ass. Amer. med. Coll. 16, 234. Penrose, L. S. (1946) Brit. J. med. Psych. 20, 339. Petrie, A. (1948) Lancet, ii, 325. myth, D. H. (1946) Brit. med. J. ii, 357. Stalnaker, J. M. (1950) J. Ass. Amer. med. Coll. 25, 428. Stuit, D. B. (1948) Ibid, 23, 157. Universities Quarterly. August, 1948 ; November, 1950; November, 1951; February, 1952. University Grants Committee (1948) University development from 1935-1947. London. Warbiuton, F. W. (1952) The Selection of University Students. Manchester. Wiseman, S. (1949) Brit. J. educ. Psychol. 19, 200.
Brinton,
-
THE
STUDY GROUP IN TEACHING H. G. MAULE Camb., Ph.D. Lond.
M.A. LEC TURER IN
PSYCHOLOGY,
LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND
TROPICAL MEDICINE
SINCE the late war the London School of Hygiene and Medicine has been making a number of experiments in its methods of teaching in the course given for the diploma in public health (D.P.11.). At a time when there is considerable interest in such methods, it is perhaps appropriate to describe what has been done and what lessons have been learnt. This article describes the " study group " work which now plays an important part in this course.
Tropical
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE
METHOD
made in the year after the experiments war. their from ideas that Dr. J. M took roots Thev Mackintosh had developed when he was professor of public health in Glasgow. He had arranged mock health committees for students as a method of teaching. Later, The first
were
,
413 Six to eight subjects are notice is put up informing the students of the subjects and giving a brief indication of what these are likely to involve. The students are invited to state which particular group interests them most. The tutors then meet again and arrange the students into the most suitable groups, so that as many as possible study a subject of their choice. This is not always easy, for there are several principles to be observed and sometimes these tend to be in conflict. Most of the students can be divided into four clear groups-those serving in the Armed Forces, those in the Colonial Medical Service, students from overseas who are unfamiliar with the English scene, and those students who are in, or going The into, the public-health service in this country. remainder cannot be put into any single category. Some senior health visitors and other nurses of sister-tutor grade join selected parts of the D.P.H. course. In general the aim is to ensure that each of the main student groups is represented in each study group, and that the special interests declared by the students are evenly distributed. With this background it is possible to gain a better picture from a description of a typical year’s programme, and for this purpose the 1950-51 session has been chosen. more
precise suggestions.
fixed, and
a
A TYPICAL
YEAR’S
PROGRAMME
In the 1950-51 session we had eight study groups varying in size from six to ten students. One tutor had in a previous year made a study of juvenile delinquency, and he proposed to make a study of the remand home. Another group was asked to prepare an exhibit entitled " A hundred years of public health " to form the school’s contribution to the Festival of Britain. A third made a study of the training of sanitary inspectors, a subject which was topical at the time. In fact, during the period of study the Minister of Health announced his intention of setting up a Working Party to consider this very problem. The historical group chose the borough of Tottenham in which to survey the development of a local public-health service between the years 1850 and 1872. The school has a close affiliation with Tottenham, and it was after a discussion with the medical officer of health that this subject was selected. Dr. Mackintosh suggested that another group should study the social problems associated with living in large blocks of flats. Another group undertook an examination of the causes of absence from school at a This study was an Middlesex secondary modern school. attempt to reproduce in miniature the conditions of the field survey which may often be used by a medical officer of health as a method of finding facts to answer some medical, social, or administrative problem. A seventh group did a follow-up of fifty recently notified cases of tuberculosis to determine the quality and amount of service that these patients had received. The last group made a survey of rehabilitation services in
England. CHOOSING A SUBJECT
When selecting in mind :
a
topic
for
study
we
try
to bear four
things
(t) The tutor himself should be interested in the subject. (2) The subject must be such that field work can be undertaken without travelling far from the school. (3) Whenever possible subjects of current topical significance should take precedence over others. (4) Where possible the findings of the group should be of interest other than as a means of teaching the students. Someone somewhere should be interested enough to say : II should like to see your report." The subject must lend itself to team-work. We do not believe that the value of the work is measured in terms
of the scientific importance of its findings. The significance of the study group lies in its teaching value, not in the importance of its conclusions. Nevertheless, if a group can bring out any new principles or discover new facts, "o much the better. There ii no rigid rule which determines the subject for studv. Some are in effect a miniature field survey and a discipline in iiiethodoloot. Some require the eon"tructton and use of a written questionnaire ;3 and some
gain their data by direct interviews. The work is somea study of literature and documents, times carried out institutions and seeing what is sometimes by The way in which the study is made will taking place. and in part depend in part on the nature of the on the method chosen by the tutor and the group. The groups meet on four afternoons in the autumn term and again on four or five afternoons in the second term. Some time in April or May they present their findings to the entire class. At the first meeting of each group it is customary for the tutor to put forward his proposals and to explain his own ideas on the subject. Some time during the first or second meeting he usually invites the group to elect a chairman and, if necessary, a secretary. The role of leader then falls upon the chairman, and all the complexities of human relations set to work to determine whether the group will be autocratic or democratic,
by visiting
work,
integrated
or
formless, hardworking
or
indolent.
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
At the end of its studies the group to the rest of the class and writes
a
presents report.
its
findings
The method of
presentation is decided by the group variety of different devices has been used. The most familiar pattern is for the chairman to introduce the subject and then call upon different members of his. group to report on different aspects of the study. There has been a number of dramatised presentations in which the school stage was used. Films have been borrowed to itself ; and
a
add interest, and much other visual material is often presented. One most successful idea was the television or radio " focus " technique in which the chairman interviewed his colleagues who played the parts of the various people concerned. Sometimes each member of the group takes part in the presentation ; sometimes one or two members do it all with their colleagues in the
background. In recent years, students have taken enormous trouble ensure that their presentation is a success, and in the days immediately before the presentation the lecturetheatre is in great demand for rehearsals and practice. Many visitors come along ; for it has become usual for each group to invite to their presentation those people who have helped them in their work or given them facilities for seeing the working of an institution, research to
organisation, voluntary body, or government department. THE VALUE OF THE METHOD
final estimate to be made of the value of the There can be no single criterion of success. One student from Africa said : "I did not begin to feel at home in England until we formed the study groups and I got to know a small circle of students more intimately." Thus the study-group can make a valuable contribution to the social and welfare side of the school. Reports have been published and articles written on the basis of a study group, which have added to current knowledge. The Ministry of Health’s Housing Advisory the report of one study group Committee in its publication Living in Flats. These theu have been successful by another standard. The value of all kinds of therapy may lie not in what the patient does but in what happens to him while he does it. This same principle can often be seen in operation in a study group at work. Old prejudices-often based on inadequate knowledgemay be broken down, and new understanding may be built up. In a field survey, mistakes may be made and
How is
a
study group ?
acknowledged
data may be
badly
handled,
but before
the presentation
these mistakes are generally recognised and remedied, and the lesson remembered. Lastly, the great majority of students appreciate this more active type of There is a limit to the capacity of the postgraduate student to endure the classroom lecture, and the studv group can make an interesting variation in the routine.
study.