Timings and causes of glacial advances across the PEP-II transect (East-Asia to Antarctica) during the last glaciation cycle

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Quaternary International 118–119 (2004) 55–68

Timings and causes of glacial advances across the PEP-II transect (East-Asia to Antarctica) during the last glaciation cycle Yugo Onoa,*, James Shulmeisterb, Frank Lehmkuhlc, Katsuhiko Asahia, Tatsuto Aokid a

Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Hokkaido, Japan Department of Geological Science, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand c Department of Geography, Aachen University, Aachen, Germany d Department of Geography, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-cho, Kanazawa 920-1192, Ishikawa, Japan

b

Abstract A comparison of glacial advances through the last glacial cycle between Northern and Southern Hemispheres in the PEP 2 transect (East Asia and Australasia) revealed (1) a relatively good synchrony of glacial advances during the LGM across the whole transect except Antarctica, (2) a rough synchrony in glacial advances in the Karakorums, Himalayas, Japan, and New Zealand during Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 3 and 4, although the age control is still poor, and (3) a greater glacial extent in MIS 3 and 4 than in MIS 2. The LGM advances are driven by Northern Hemisphere temperature forcing, but the MIS 3 and/or MIS 4 advances appear to be dominantly controlled by the effects of moisture availability or lack of thereof. In mainland Australia and Antarctica glaciers advanced only in the most humid phases. In Himalaya and Karakorum, where the moisture is supplied both by a summer monsoon and the westerlies, timings of glacier advance coincide with both summer monsoon enhancement and westerly intensification. In Japan the glacier extent is controlled by monsoon changes, sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) in the Japan Sea (moisture source) and by zonal shifts in westerly circulation. In New Zealand, either insolation changes or changes in the intensity of westerly circulation are invoked, as the main track of the westerlies did not change greatly during glacial times. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The PEP II transect includes extensive mountainous areas, notably the ranges along the Western Pacific rim, from Kamchatka to the Trans-Antarctic Mountains and the inland high mountains from Siberia to the Karakorum-Himalaya (Fig. 1). This paper attempts to synthesize the last glaciation history of the high mountains of the Pacific Rim, especially from Japan, Taiwan and New Zealand, and those of the Himalaya and Karakorum ranges. Detailed glacial chronologies based on Cosmogenic Radionuclides (CRN), Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL), and tephrochronology have been established only in Japan, the Karakorums, the Himalayas, New Zealand and Australia, but are incomplete even in these. Consequently, this paper aims to (1) summarise the timing of glacial advances in these regions since about 90 ka, and (2) synthesise Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) distributions across the PEP II transect in order to consider the role of forcing *Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Ono).

mechanisms for glacial expansion. The global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) at between 25 and 18 ka was chosen as a key time slice for analyzing ELA distributions, as glaciation is best constrained at that period. The forcing mechanism of glaciations across the PEP 2 transect is then discussed with special reference to the changes of monsoon intensity, and changes in the zonal latitude and intensity of the westerlies.

2. Synchrony of glacial advances in global Last Glacial Maximum (gLGM) The major glacial advances in the Karakorum and Himalaya ranges, Japan, and New Zealand are shown in Fig. 2. The dotted line shows the time interval of the global Last Glacial Maximum (gLGM). We adopt the term gLGM to highlight the fact that the last glaciation maximum did not occur during MIS2 across much of the PEP-II transect. Nevertheless, there were widespread advances during the gLGM and these were at least roughly synchronous.

1040-6182/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(03)00130-7

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Fig. 1. Major mountains and mountain ranges glaciated during the last glacial period in PEP 2 transect between 50 North and 50 South. Star: Mountain and mountain ranges where the timing of glaciation and ELAs are discussed in this paper (cf. Table 1). Frame: area covered by Figs. 3–6 in this paper.

The gLGM is well represented in Japan where it corresponds to the maximum advances of the Tottabetsu and Karasawa glacial stages. In the Hidaka Range, Hokkaido (Fig. 3a), small cirque glaciers are identified as occurring during MIS 2 and are called the Tottabetsu Glaciation (Ono and Hirakawa, 1975). MIS 2 is divided into five substages (Iwasaki et al., 2000a, b) called the Tottabetsu Maximum, and Tottabetsu I–IV (Fig. 2). The Tottabetsu Maximum occurred just before the fall of the En-a tephra of the Eniwa Volcano, which has been dated to 18 ka by 14C (Umetsu, 1986), while Tottabetsu I–IV all post-date the fall of this tephra (Iwasaki et al., 2000a). In the Japanese Alps (Fig. 3b), the Karasawa Glaciation in the Yari-Hotaka Range, the Tateyama Glaciation and the Nakagosho III glaciation in the Central Japanese Alps all correspond to glacial advances at this time interval (Ono et al., 2003). In Fig. 2, only the Karasawa stage is shown for convenience. It is divided into three substages: Yari I–III (Ito and Masaki, 1989). Around Mt. Kasa, in the same range, six glacial advances are recognized (Hasegawa, 1992; Aoki and

Hasegawa, 2003). Ground moraine formed during the Kasagatake II stage is geomorphologically correlated to Yari I, and is directly covered by tephra of the Aira Volcano, dated to 25.4–26 ka (Aoki and Arai, 2000). On the other hand, terminal moraines on the Senjojiki and Nogaike cirques at Kiso-Komagatake, in the Central Japanese Alps are dated 16–18 ka by the 10Be CRN technique (Aoki, 2000b). Moraines correlated with them by the weathering rind thickness method are widely recognized through the Central Japanese Alps (Aoki, 1994, 2000a) but until they are directly dated these correlations remain speculative. In Taiwan (Fig. 3c), Yang (2001) and Cui et al. (2002) reported two glacial stages in the cirque of Mt. Xueshan (Shesan). The younger moraine corresponds to MIS 2, with TL dates of 18 ka. In contrast to Japan and Taiwan, there are no gLGM advances confirmed in the Hinduksh, Zanskar and Garwal Himalaya (Fig. 4) (Owen et al., 2002a; Taylor and Mitchell, 2000; Sharma and Owen, 1996). Work remains to be done in these ranges and there are candidates for gLGM moraines. For example, Sharma

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Fig. 2. Comparison of glacial advances in NH and SH in PEP 2 transect, correlated to the organic carbon content fluctuation and dark- and lightlayer changes in the Japan Sea core (Tada et al., 1999). Data source of glacial advances is listed in the lowest column of Fig. 2, however, all 14C dates for Japan are converted to calendar ages by Aoki and Arai (2000), and those in New Zealand are converted to calendar ages using the OXCAL programme and are mid-point estimates only. Glacial advances in Hidaka Range and Northern Japanese Alps are compiled from various papers: Aoki, 1994, 2000a–c, 2002, 2003; Aoki and Hasegawa, 2003; Arai et al., 1981; Hasegawa, 1992, 1996; Higuchi et al., 1979; Higuchi, 1990; Ito and Masaki, 1987, 1989; Iwasaki et al., 2000a, b, 2001; Iwata and Koaze, 2001; Kariya, 2002; Koaze et al., 1974; Koaze and Okazawa, 1983; Liu and Ono, 1997; Ono, 1980, 1984, 1988, 1991; Ono and Hirakawa, 1975; Ono and Naruse, 1997; Ono et al., 2003. Solid line: certain stage boundary; Dashed: uncertain stage boundary; Question mark in stage: stage whose chronological position is re-interpreted by this study; Hatched: LGM, time span between 25 and 18 ka.

Fig. 3. Location of mountain ranges listed in Fig. 2 and Table 1: (a) Hidaka Range, Hokkaido; (b) NJA: Northern Japanese Alps, CJA: Central Japanese Alps and SJA: Southern Japanese Alps; (c) Mountains in Taiwan.

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Fig. 4. Location of mountain ranges listed in Fig. 2.

and Owen (1996) proposed only one glacial advance, termed the Bharirathi, in Garwal Himalaya which they dated at 63 ka, using OSL. They concluded that the main valley was ice-filled until 5 ka and that a long lateral moraine system was formed. However, the lateral moraine system connected to the dated terminal moraine seems to be formed by at least two separate advances. This implies a glacier advance in Garwal Himalaya after 63 ka and the need for a detailed analysis of glacial landforms to support the numerical dating campaign as emphasized by Taylor and Mitchell (2002). In Lahul Himalaya, Owen et al. (2001) revised the age of the Kulti Glacial stage using CRN at 10.6–11.4 ka. They also revised the age of the Batal II Glacial stage and gave the age of 12–15.5 ka using cosmogenic dating. Both these records, especially the latter, could represent deglaciation from a gLGM advance. The Batal II advance incorporates at least two moraine systems (Owen et al., 1997). Although Owen et al. (2001) did not mention these two moraines in their new chronology; the older moraine of Batal stage could correspond to a glacial advance at the gLGM (tentatively called Batal IIa, see Fig. 2). Glacial advances occurred between 25 and 18 ka in the Middle Indus (Richards et al., 2000a) and Hunza Valley (Owen et al., 2002b) in the Karakorums and in Khunbu (Richards et al., 2000b) and Kanchenjunga valleys (Tsukamoto et al., 2002) in the Eastern Himalayas. These data strongly support the idea of widespread glacier cover over much of the Karakorum and Himalaya in this time interval. In the eastern part of the Russian Altai and the Mongolian Altai, Lehmkuhl and Lang (2001) published a luminescence age of 21 ka for a sand deposit overlaying the terrace which is related to the Last Glacial ice margin in the Khangay Mountains. In the Tibetan Plateau, the maximum ice extent occurs during MIS 2 Close to the Qaidam Basin (Lehmkuhl and Haselein, 2000). In the surrounding areas north of the Nyainq#entanglha Shan, Lehmkuhl et al. (2000, 2002)

show clear evidence that the extent of ice during the Late Pleistocene was rather limited. Two main glacial stages of Late Quaternary mountain glaciations can be observed; the range of these stages is similar as their terminal moraines are close together. Luminescence dates on aeolian silt on top of the oldest terminal moraines on the northern slope of the Nyainq#entanglha Shan indicate an older glacier advance of the penultimate glaciation. The youngest one seems to be equivalent to MIS 2 (Lehmkuhl et al., 2002). In New Zealand, the classic glacial sequence comes from the Kumara-Moana area in North Westland (Fig. 5). The gLGM was identified with the Kumara22 advance at ca. 23 to 21.5 ka (Fig. 2) (Suggate, 1990), but recently Suggate and Almond (2003) have suggested a double peak to the gLGM advances in Westland with an earlier maximum at ca. 26.5 ka separated from the traditional Kumara-22 advance by a short inter-stadial. The Kumara-22 is probably the correlate of the Aurora 3 advance in Fiordland (Williams, 1996), though that advance reached its maximum extent somewhat earlier, and either the Bayfield 2 or the Bayfield 3 advance in the Rakaia Valley in Canterbury. In fact most New Zealand

Fig. 5. Glacier extension in the last glacial period in New Zealand and location of sites discussed in this paper.

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glacial systems contain advances that can be correlated with the gLGM. It is clear that glaciers advanced across much of the PEP 2 transect during the gLGM but there are strong local differences in both the precise timings of the advances and in the numbers of advances recorded. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to infer a Northern Hemisphere thermal driver for these advances, albeit modified by local factors.

3. Rough synchrony of MIS 3 and 4 glaciations Recent progress in OSL and CRN dating of glacigenic sediments and landforms revealed that glacier advances occurred in MIS 3 and 4 in many regions of the PEP 2 transect, although the glacial advances are constrained by poorer age control than in MIS 2. As shown in Fig. 2, MIS 4 glaciations are documented for the Middle Indus (Grabal 2 Stage; 77–60 ka: Richards et al., 2000a), in Hunza (Borit Jheal Stage; 70–65 ka: Owen et al., 2002b), and in the Garwal Himalaya (Bharirathi Stage: >63 ka: Sharma and Owen, 1996). A later part of the Batal Stage (dated 78 ka: Taylor and Mitchell, 2000) in Zanskar can also be assigned to MIS 4. In Japan, MIS 4 has been regarded as including the most extensive glacial activity during the last glaciation (Ono and Hirakawa, 1975; Machida and Arai, 1979; Yanagimachi, 1983; Ito and Masaki, 1989). The Nakagosho moraine at Mt. Kiso-Komagatake in the Central Japanese Alps is directly covered by On-Mt tephra of the Ontake Volcano and is dated from 50 to 65 ka (Ono and Shimizu, 1982; Yanagimachi, 1983). In the Hidaka Range, tephra layers intercalated in till from the early part of the Poroshiri Stage suggest that the glaciers there also advanced during MIS 4 (Iwasaki et al., 2000a). In the Northern Japanese Alps there are also MIS 4 advances (75–60 ka: Yokoo Stage: Ono et al., 2003). The Ichinomata moraine, the lowermost moraine of the Yokoo glaciation, in the Yari-Hotaka Range of the Northern Japanese Alps, is directly covered by Tt-E tephra of the Tateyama Volcano with a fission tack age of between 60 and 75 ka (Ito and Masaki, 1989). At Tateyama Volcano the till of the Murodo glaciation is partly mixed with Tt-E tephra (Machida and Arai, 1979). In New Zealand, MIS 4 is traditionally regarded as a major phase of glacial activity (e.g. Suggate, 1990; Fitzsimons, 1997) but until recently no advances had actually been chronologically constrained to this stage. In particular, the Kumara-21 advance in Westland is normally attributed to this stage, largely on the basis of it predating the gLGM because till materials were clearly more weathered than gLGM material, and they were then ‘dated’ by correlation to the isotope record. In the last few years a number of MIS 3 advances have

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been identified and until proper age control is ascribed to the Kumara-21 advance, its attribution to MIS 4 can only be regarded as tentative. There is still only one securely dated MIS 4 advance. This is the Aurora 6 advance from Aurora cave in Fiordland (Williams, 1996). It is now provisionally dated to ca. 65 ka (Williams and Fink, 2002). MIS 3 is another important glacial stage in the PEP 2 transect. Glacier advances are noted between 50 and 35 ka in many regions, as indicated in Fig. 1. Owen et al. (2002c) emphasized that glacier advances in MIS 3 occurred only in the Karakorums and the western part of the Himalayas because no ages older than gLGM have been derived from glacigeneic deposits in central and eastern Himalaya. For example, the moraine of Thyangboche Stage in the Khumbu Valley was tentatively assigned to MIS 3 or 4 by Iwata (1976) but was dated to no older than 22 ka by OSL (Richards et al., 2000b). However, in the Kanchenjunga Valley, in the easternmost Nepal Himalaya, a till was dated by OSL to 36–38 ka (Tsukamoto et al., 2002), though the sample was inferred to be incompletely bleached (Stage V? in Fig. 1). This till, which is overlain by younger till, is located upstream of the LGM moraine. However, there is also a terminal moraine which can be correlated to stage 3/4, near the terminal moraine of gLGM. (Asahi, 1999) in Kanchenjunga Valley. These lines of evidence suggest that MIS-3 advances existed, but had a similar ice extent as in MIS 2 in this region. In the eastern part of the Russian Altai and the Mongolian Altai there is evidence for two to three major Pleistocene glaciations (Devjatkin, 1981; Florenzov and Korzhnev, 1982). The range of two main stages is similar as the terminal moraines are close together (Lehmkuhl, 1998b; Klinge, 2001). From luminescence dating of overlying aeolian cover beds, huge alluvial fans, and lake level variations, Grunert et al. (2000) support the view that these two stages correspond to MIS 2 and 4. Therefore, glacial extent is also similar in these two stages in the Altai. Up to now there are only a few absolute dates available for the northern and central part of the Tibetan Plateau. In the Chinese literature the last glaciation is often divided into two main stages (approximately equivalent to MIS 2 and 4). These were interrupted by an interstadial that lasted from about 55–32 ka (e.g. Li and Pan, 1989; Thompson et al., 1989, 1997; Zhang et al., 1991). In addition, the cosmogenic radionuclide (CRN) surface exposure ages presented by Sch.afer (2000) and Sch.afer et al. (2002) in the Tanggula Shan provide evidence for a slightly larger extent of ice during the penultimate Glaciation, but their data showed that there was no Late or Middle Pleistocene ice cap in this region. In the Hidaka Range, Hokkaido, the Poroshiri glaciation, which predates the Tottabetsu glaciation

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corresponding to the LGM, has been regarded as an MIS 4 glaciation (Ono and Hirakawa, 1975). However, recent studies show that this glaciation culminated at 42 ka when the pumice of Spfa 1 fell (Iwasaki et al., 2000a, b, 2001), although the glaciation began after the fall of the RP 3 tephra (75 ka) and continued during the fall of Kt-3 (50 ka) (Iwasaki et al., 2000). This is the first proof that a MIS 3 period glaciation was more extensive than in MIS 4 in any region of Japan. IRSL (Infra Red Stimulated Luminescence) dating of the glacigenic deposits of the Iwatake glaciation on Mt. Shiouma (Koaze et al., 1974) constrains its age to between 53 and 45 ka (Kariya, 2002). This supports the idea that major ice advances in the Northern Japanese Alps also occurred in MIS 3. In Taiwan, Yang (2001) and Cui et al. (2002) reported a TL date of 44 ka for the older moraine in the lower part of the cirque of Mt. Xueshan. Therefore, the MIS 3 glaciation is also much larger than MIS 2 in Taiwan. Two well-dated MIS 3 advances are recorded from the Aurora Cave site in Fiordland, New Zealand. These date to 49–44 ka and 40–37 ka (Aurora 5 and 4; Williams, 1996; Williams and Fink, 2002). At least one advance in South Westland, termed the M4a advance (Almond et al., 2001), probably correlates with the Aurora 5 advance.

4. Larger glacial extent in MIS 3/4 than MIS 2 Across the PEP 2 transect, glacier extent in MIS 3 and 4 is consistently larger than those in MIS 2, except in the eastern Himalaya, Altai and northern Tibet. When there are glacial stages from both MIS 3 and 4 recorded, glacial extent in MIS 4 was larger than in MIS 3 except in the Hidaka Range, Hokkaido. There is a general trend of declining glacier size as the last glaciation progressed. Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) is the altitude where the accumulation and ablation of the glacier is balanced. This is generally regarded as the snowline altitude and therefore, it is a good indicator of glaciation. Where modern glaciers exist, the depression of ELA can be used as a high resolution proxy of air temperature and precipitation changes. Fig. 6 illustrates a distribution of ELAs in the gLGM in the Northern Hemisphere PEP 2 transect, and Table 1 shows present and last glacial ELAs for several mountains in Japan, Taiwan and the Khumbu Himalaya. ELAs in these mountains are generally 200–300 m lower in MIS 3/4 than in MIS 2, except in the Khumbu Himalaya. The present ELAs of mountains in Japan and Taiwan, where no glaciers exist, are calculated by a modified Ohmura’s method (Ono et al., 2003). Calculation was attempted only for several mountains where the air temperature in the ablation season and accumulation

Fig. 6. Distribution of ELAs in global LGM (25–18 ka) in the Northern Hemisphere PEP 2 transect. White arrow Kuroshio current: dotted: sea ice extension in global LGM: gray: emerged sea bottom in global LGM ( 100 m).

data can be obtained by meteorological measurement at the site or in nearby stations. ELAs in Nepal Himalaya (Fig. 7) were measured by air-photo interpretation by Asahi (1999), and ELAs in the gLGM were determined by the highest lateral moraine altitude. Figs. 6–8 indicate a very steep gradient in ELAs around the margin of Tibetan Plateau and Himalayan Range. This reflects the increase of dryness towards the inner part of the Tibetan Plateau. Similar steep gradients of ELAs appear in Japan where the ELA is much lower on the Japan Sea side where there is a winter moisture source, than on the Pacific side. These features demonstrates that the ELAs across the PEP 2 transect are controlled by precipitation more than the air temperature. Exceptionally lower ELAs in Mts. Shirouma and Kashimayari, in Table 1 reflect the avalanche effects where excessive snow accumulation at the valley bottom by avalanches favors glacier development at lower altitude. New Zealand equilibrium line altitudes display strong west–east and only moderate south–north gradients. The modern ELA rises from ca. 1570 m on Caroline Peak in Fiordland to 2140 m on Mount Ella near the northern limit of the main Southern Alps (Chinn, 1996) or apparently about 570 m in about 5 of latitude. The east–west gradient is much stronger. In the main ranges of the central Southern Alps modern ELAs rise from ca. 1600 m on the western slopes (e.g. Browning Range) to over 2250 m east of Mount Cook. Further north and east, the ELA for the Kaikoura Range is over 2500 m (all data from Chinn, 1996). In fact, there is no permanent glaciation on the Inland Kaikoura Range, which rises to 2885 m. There is widespread evidence for lowered ELAs in New Zealand during the last glacial cycle. A summary of some of the more comprehensive regional estimates is provided below (Table 2).

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Table 1 ELAs of several high mountains in the northern hemisphere PEPII transect at present, MIS 2 and MIS 3/4 Mountain range

Hidaka range, Japan Mt. Tottabetsu Mt. Poroshiri Mt. Esaoman-Tottabetsu Northern Japanese Alps Mt. Shirouma Mt. Kashima-Yari Mt. Tateyama Mt. Kasagatake Mts. Yari-Hotaka Central Japanese Alps Mt. Kisokoma Southern Japanese Alps Mt. Senjo Mt. Ainodake Mt. Akaishi Taiwan Yui Shan Xue Shan Nanhu Ta-Shan Khumbu Himalb Khumbu (Nangazon) (Pangboche E) (Tangboche E) Kanchenjunga Himal Kanchenjunga a

Lat.

Long. Summit ELA (m asl) altitude (m asl) Present MIS 2

MIS 3/4

ELA Dating method estimation method

Glacier type References

42.75 142.70 1960 42.72 142.70 1575 42.68 142.78 1902

2750a 2680a NE

1500 1650 1450

1325 1350 1300

AAR, MD Tephra, AAR, MD Tephra, AAR, MD Tephra,

36.75 36.62 36.57 36.32 36.33

2932 2320 2992 2897 3175

NE NE 2970a NE NE

(1900) (2100) 2490 2640 2370

(1600) (1850) 1900 2000 2200

AAR AAR AAR AAR AAR, MD

Tephra, 14C, OSL COR Tephra, 14C Tephra, CRN Tephra

35.78 137.82 2931

3900a

2690

2360

AAR

CRN,

35.72 138.19 3032 35.64 138.24 3190 35.46 138.16 3120

NE 4130a NE

2760 2850 2985

NE NE NE

AAR AAR AAR

GC GC GC

C+V C+V C+V

6, 21 1, 6, 21 6, 21

23.49 120.96 3997 24.38 121.22 3884 24.37 121.43 3740

4350a NE NE

3700750 3400750 CF 3600750 3300750 CF 3500750 3200750 CF

GC TL, GC GC

C+V C+V C+V

1, 22 1, 23, 24 1, 23, 25

28.00 27.90 27.85 27.83

86.83 86.53 86.80 86.78

8848 5500 4949 4720

5800 5600 5600 5600

5440 4940 4520 —

— — — 4040

MELM MELM MELM MELM

OSL, OSL, OSL, OSL,

V C C C

26 26 26 26

27.78

88.13 8586

5900

4850

—

THAR

OSL, GC

C+V

27, 28

137.75 137.75 137.62 137.57 137.65

14

C, COR C+V C, COR C+V 14 C, COR C+V 14

C+AV C+AV C+V C+V C+V

14

C, Tephra C+V

GC GC GC GC

1, 2, 3, 4, 5 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6, 7, 8, 9 10 1, 6, 11 6, 11, 12, 13, 14 1, 6, 11, 15 6, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20

b

Present ELA: Calculated by modified Ohmura’s method (Ono et al., 2003), Determined by the highest lateral moraine altitude (Asahi, 1999), NE: not estimated. ELA Estimation Method: AAR Accumulation Area Ratio, MD Maximum Discharge (Liu and Ono, 1997), CF: Cirque Floor Altitude, MELM: Maximum Elevation of Lateral Moraines, THAR: Toe-to-Headwall Altitude Ratio (0.50). Dating Method: OSL Optically Stimulated Luminescence, CRN Cosmogenic Radio Nuclides, COR Correlation to Ocean Record, GC: Geomorphic Correlation, TL: Thermal Luminescence. Glacier Type: C+V Cirque and Valley Glacier, C+AV Cirque and Avalanche-fed Valley Glacier, V: Valley Glacier, C: Cirque Glacier. References: 1. Ono et al. (2003), 2. Iwasaki et al. (2000a), 3. Iwasaki et al. (2000b), 4. Iwasaki et al. (2001), 5. Liu and Ono (1997), 6. Aoki and Hasegawa (2003), 7. Kariya (2002), 8. Koaze et al. (1974), 9. Kondo et al. (2002), 10. Ito and Masaki (1987), 11. Aoki (2002), 12. Hasegawa (1992), 13. Hasegawa (1996), 14. Aoki (2003), 15. Ito and Masaki (1989), 16. Aoki (1994), 17. Aoki (2000a), 18. Aoki (2000b), 19. Yanagimachi (1983), 20. Ono and Shimizu (1982), 21. Aoki (2000c), 22. Wang et al. (2000), 23. Yang (2001), 24. Boese and Hebenstreit (2001), 25. Cui et al. (2002), 26. Asahi original data, 27. Tsukamoto et al., 2002, 28. Asahi and Watanabe, 2000.

Fig. 7. Present ELAs of glaciers in Nepal Himalaya and three ELAs in global LGM determined by the highest lateral moraine altitude.

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Pleistocene ELA s

1.Profile

2500

30

00

350

0

400

G o b i

0

450 0 Takla Makan

2. Pr of ile

a Hu

ts ang shajiang (Y Jin

m

Sea

Lhasa a

l a y a

o

i

East Ch in a

T i b e t

H

he

e)

5000

ng

n Ts a

gp

South Ch in a Sea

B ay of B engal

1.Profil: Altai - Khangay [m asl]

Chinese Altai

W

4000

Mongolian Altai

E

Khangay Mountains Otgon Tenger

Present ELA Pleistocene ELA

3000

2000

Legend 1000

Present glaciation Local last glacial maximum

0

0 91˚ E

200

400

600

800

98˚ E

1200 [km]

1000

2. Profile: Khangay - Nyainqentanglha (North) [m asl]

NE

Qilian Shan

SW

5000

Present ELA

Gobi Altai Khangay

4000

Pleistocene ELA 3000

Qaidam 2000

Orog Nur

1000

Sogun Nur Gashun Nur

Legend Present glaciation Local last glacial maximum

0 0

200

400

600

800

1200 [km]

1000

2. Profile: Khangay - Nyainqentanglha (South) 7000

Nyainqentanglha Shan Damxung Basin

NE Kunlun Shan

Tanggula Shan

S

6000

A Present EL Pleistocene ELA 5000

Nam Co

4000

3000 Qaidam 2000 1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400 [km]

Fig. 8. Two profiles of present and LGM ELAs from Mongolian Altai to Himalayan Range. Date sources: Lehmkuhl, 1998a,b; Lehmkuhl and Haselein, 2000; Lehmkuhl and Lang, 2001; Lehmkuhl et al. 1998, 2000, 2002.

ARTICLE IN PRESS Y. Ono et al. / Quaternary International 118–119 (2004) 55–68 Table 2 Summary depression of ELAs in New Zealand at various time intervals Time period Little Ice Age (150–500 years ago) Deglaciation (ca. 15–11 ka years ago) Last Glacial Maximum Oxygen Isotope Stage 4a

Tasman (m)

Waimakariri (m)

Kaikouras (m)

140

200

154

500

650

452

875 1050

750 970a

738 830a

Tasman are data from Central Alps in Tasman Glacier sector (Porter, 1975); Waimakariri are estimates from Ricker et al. (1993) in the Craigieburn Range and Kaikouras are data from a study by Bacon et al. (2001) on the Inland Kaikouras. a No age control available and these ELAs may alternatively be from Oxygen Isotope Stage 3, rather than OIS 4 to which Ricker et al. and Bacon et al. assign them. They could also be older, but this is less likely.

5. Discussion Glacier advances in each of the regions are driven by local factors, most notably changes in westerly and monsoon circulation. 5.1. The Karakorums and Himalaya In the Karakorums and the western ranges of the Himalayas, most snow is supplied to the glaciers by upper level westerlies flowing over the high mountain regions. Snowfall from these westerlies occurs particularly when cyclonic systems sourced from the Mediterranean and Caspian Seas, termed ‘‘western disturbances’’, pass over these regions (Yasunari and Fujii, 1983). The Karakorums and the western Himalaya take the brunt of this moisture source. The contribution from the westerlies abates in the eastern Himalayas, which receive most of their snowfall directly from the Indian summer monsoon. In the Langtang Himalayas, located in central Nepal, two thirds of the snowfall was supplied by the summer monsoon and one third by ‘western disturbances’ over the 1989–1990 period (Shiraiwa, 1993). Westerly derived snowfall occurs predominantly in winter and early spring, but snowfall from the summer monsoon occurs, as the name implies, in the summer. Under colder climates during the last glaciation it might be expected that snowfall accumulation would increase as ELAs declined. However, Arabian Sea data indicates a weakening and even a possible loss of the Indian summer monsoon during part of the glaciation cycle, especially during the LGM (e.g. Sirocko, 1996; Prell and Kutzbach, 1992). These inferences led Benn and Owen (1998) and Owen et al. (2002c) to conclude that the glacial advance in MIS

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3 in the Karakorums was due to an enhancement of the summer monsoon in MIS 3, which brought an increase of precipitation in Tibetan Plateau, and higher lake levels in Qidam Basins (Shi, 2002). If this inference were correct we might expect that glaciers would have advanced in the Khumbu and Kanchenjunga Himalayas, but no MIS 3 moraines have been identified in these regions despite intensive fieldwork (Richards et al., 2000b; Tsukamoto et al., 2002). In addition, if the forcing of glacial advances in these regions is due to an increase of snowfall by an enhancement of the summer monsoon (Benn and Owen, 1998; Owen et al., 2000a, b; Richards et al., 2000b), it is difficult to account for the lack glacial advances in the eastern Himalaya at this time, since that region receives a greater proportion of its snowfall from the summer monsoon. Consequently we suggest that the forcing of glacier advances in the Karakorums and the western Himalayas is more likely the product of enhanced westerlies during MIS 3. Summer monsoon enhancement provides additional moisture but not the main snowfall. On the other hand, in the eastern Himalayas where the summer monsoon is the main source of the snowfall, the enhancement of the summer monsoon alone is not capable of forcing glacier advances. During the gLGM, the summer monsoon was at its weakest, but the glaciers were most extensive. In the modern NH winter, the westerlies are located south of the Plateau and the SAPFZ (South Asian Polar Frontal Zone) lies along the mountain front (see Figs. 9a and b). The critical factor appears to be that the Northern Hemisphere (NH) westerlies did not move north of the Tibetan Plateau during summer (Ono and Irino, 2003) during the gLGM, as they do now. This would have blocked the summer monsoon penetrating into this area. It is unlikely the westerlies carried much moisture by the time they reached the eastern Himalayas but with a significant reduction in ELAs, and consequent reduced ablation, the gLGM was characterized by glacial expansion in this region. Restoration of the monsoon during MIS 1 likely raised the ELAs to a point where glacier accumulation zones were critically reduced. Fang et al. (1999) recognized a vary rapid pedogenesis just after the deposition of loess in the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, during MIS 3, and explained this by a switching of summer westerlies north of the Tibetan Plateau at this time. A strong summer monsoon during MIS 3 would have ‘turned down’ the eastern Himalayan glaciers. In contrast, in the Karakorums, westerly precipitation is critical to glacial advances and increased aridity in the westerly moisture source areas (Mediterranean/Caspian Sea) during MIS 2 curtailed advances in these ranges during the gLGM. Under less arid conditions in MIS 3 these glaciers advanced. In the Altai and northern Tibet,

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Fig. 9. Location of westerlies and synoptic climatic situation in July (NH summer/SH winter) (a) and in January (NH winter/SH summer) (b) at LGM. Solid lines: major axis of westerlies. Dashed lines: monsoon and wind system at surface level. Shadowed: major frontal zones reconstructed by Urushibara-Yoshino and Yoshino (1997). (a) Ho: Okhotsk High, Hs: Subtropical High in the Western Pacific in Northern Hemisphere and in Australia in Southern Hemisphere; NITCZ: Northern Intertropical Convergence Zone; SITCZ: Southern Intertropical Convergence Zone; PPFZ: Pacific Polar Frontal Zone. (b) H: Siberian High, L: Aleutian Low in Northern Hemisphere and Low inland Australia in Southern Hemisphere; SAPFZ: South Asian Polar Frontal Zone.

the dating control seems to be still insufficient to discuss the glacial extent of MIS 2 and 3. 5.2. Japan In Japan, the westerlies shifted south between 4 and 6 of latitude during gLGM (Ono and Irino, this volume). This played an important role in glacial advances since it extended southward the impact of cold air mass incursions from the Siberian and Okhotsk Anticyclone (Ho) over Japan. This was accompanied by a weakening of the East Asia Summer Monsoon (EASM) and a southern shift of the Pacific Polar Frontal Zone (PPFZ) (Fig. 2a). In winter, snow was supplied by an enhanced East Asia Winter Monsoon (EAWM) flow from a strengthened Siberian High (H) (Fig. 2b). Although the air mass of EAWM is very cold and dry, it is modified by passage over the Sea of Japan. The resultant increase in humidity and consequent availability of moisture for snowfall is a function of the temperature difference between the sea surface and the air mass (Ono and Naruse, 1997). The greater the temperature contrast, the greater the uptake of moisture, and in this the absolute sea-surface temperature is also critical. The Tsushima Warm Current (TWC), a tributary of the Kuroshio Current, which currently flows through the Sea of Japan, did not exist during MIS 2 because of a lowering of sea-level which changed the Tsushima 

Strait between Korea and Japan into a very narrow channel. Tada et al. (1999) found an alternation of dark and light layers in a core from the Sea of Japan. The dark layers indicate a euxinic or suboxic bottom condition while a light layer represents a more oxic one (Fig. 1). Between 26 and 16 ka, the Sea of Japan was nearly isolated from the Pacific Ocean by a sea-level lowering of more than 90 m, and the sea bottom conditions became euxinic, rather like the Black Sea today. A thick dark layer poor in organic carbon (less than 2 wt%) was deposited on the sea floor. In MIS 3 and 4, when the sea level was higher than in MIS 2, both East China Sea Coastal Water (ECSCW) and the TWC flowed into the Sea of Japan. When ECSCW dominated, dark layer deposition with somewhat higher organic carbon content (less than 3 wt% with a sea-level lowering between 90 and 60 m, and 3–5 wt% between 60 and 20 m) occurred. On the other hand, when TWC dominated, a light layer was deposited on the sea floor. Tada et al. (1999) regarded the dark and light layers as proxies of the summer monsoon. Excluding MIS 2, where the whole basin is isolated, increases in ECSCW led to the deposition of dark layers, which Tada et al. (1999) related to warm and wet interstadial conditions when summer monsoon derived precipitation increased in East Asia. The relatively low aeolian dust content in the dark layers supports this idea. On the other hand, the light layers with relatively higher dust content

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suggest cold and dry stadials conditions. According to the age model established by dating of tephra horizons in the core, Tada et al. (1999) pointed out that the sudden change from the light layer to the dark one corresponds to a lagged response to Dansgaard-Oeschger (D-O) cycles in the summer monsoon variability. The sharp boundaries at the base of the dark layers supports the idea that the switching of TWC and ECSCW occurred suddenly following the sea level changes which was synchronized with D-O cycles. Bond et al. (1993) showed that a rapid warming and cooling in the D-O cycle is connected with iceberg flushing into the North Atlantic Ocean, and is known a Heinrich event (corresponding to the minimum temperature spike in the D-O cycle). Since the Heinrich event is a melting of huge amounts of ice from the ice sheet, it induces a sea-level elevation. In the Sea of Japan story it corresponds to a switching from ECSCW to TWC. Therefore, it is possible that a Heinrich event increases the inflow of TWC into the Sea of Japan. This suggests a triggering of a glacial advance by an increase in snowfall in the Japanese mountains was caused by an enlargement of the temperature difference between the cold air mass and warmed sea surface water by TWC. Unfortunately, chronological constraints are not sufficient to argue for the synchrony of glacial advances and Heinrich events, but larger glacial advances in MIS 3 and 4 in Japan (Yokoo, Iwatake and Poroshiri Stages) can be explained by a frequent inflow of TWC into the Sea of Japan. 5.3. Taiwan As shown in Figs. 9a and b, the Pacific Polar Frontal Zone (PPFZ) shifted south to the latitude of Taiwan at the gLGM. A strengthened East Asia Winter Monsoon (EAWM) also enhanced snowfall in Taiwan. This situation in the global LGM also occurred in stadials in MIS 3 and 4. If the sea surface temperature was higher in MIS 3 and 4 than in the LGM, then higher snowfall might also be expected, resulting in glacial advances in these periods. Recent TL dating of moraines in Mt. Xue-Shan (Cui et al., 2002) support this idea (Table 1). 5.4. New Zealand Dust records from the Tasman Sea (reviewed in Hesse et al., this volume) demonstrate a small (ca. 150 km) northward shift in spring/summer in the zonal westerlies at the gLGM. A winter track for the sub-tropical jet similar to, but slightly equator-ward of, the modern track with a zero or one node planetary long wave (see Shulmeister et al., this volume for review) would generate the Tasman dust plume observed by many workers (e.g. Thiede, 1979; Hesse, 1994; Kawahata, 2002). At the present day, the main ranges of the

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Southern Alps have a winter precipitation minimum under relatively anticylonic conditions, as the main track of the westerlies passes to their north. The precipitation maximum occurs when the sub-tropical jet moves poleward in summer and develops ridging. Under modern conditions, the number 3 wave shows preferential ridging over the Tasman Sea (Sturman and Tapper, 1996) because of interactions with the high pressure cell over continental Australia. The maintenance of a modern pattern would explain the gLGM pattern quite adequately. Under gLGM conditions, summer monsoonal circulation was turned down or shut off over northern Australia but the effect of this on the subtropical high is uncertain. A simplistic view might be that weakening or northwestward displacement of the summer monsoon would be associated with a weakening or northward displacement of the subtropical high. It is equally feasible, however, that any lost low level monsoonal circulation would have been replaced by an enhanced Hadley circulation, creating a strong summer high pressure cell over southern Australia. Certainly, there is no suggestion of a hemisphere wide reduction in zonal mean wind speeds that a weakened subtropical high might imply. In short, the modern westerly circulation with a modest winter displacement northwards and no shift in summer would explain the ELA patterns in New Zealand at the gLGM. The fact that MIS 3/4 advances is larger in New Zealand tags the importance of moisture in the New Zealand record. Clearly this is not a cooling signal and unlike the Northern Hemisphere sites, zonal displacement of the westerlies is not the key to the record. Instead, variability in westerly flow is likely to be the key factor. Under modern conditions New Zealand West Coast glaciers have positive mass balances in years of enhanced southwesterly flow and negative balances in years of enhanced summer anti-cyclones (e.g. Hooker et al., 1999). Periods of southwesterly flow enhancement could result from either a quasi-stable ridging pattern in the Southern Hemisphere subtropical jet, directing surface fronts onto New Zealand, and/or from increased zonal wind speeds in the Westerly belt. At this stage we cannot resolve which is the likely cause, but there is some suggestion that New Zealand glacial advances are tied to precessional maxima (Shulmeister et al., this volume), which may relate to intensified westerly flow.

6. Conclusion Comparison of timing of glacial advances in NH and SH across the PEP 2 transect reveals that they are roughly synchronized at the gLGM. In the Karakorums, Japan and New Zealand, where glaciers are fed by westerly sourced moisture, maximum glacial extents were achieved in MIS 3 or 4 rather than in MIS 2. In

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contrast, in the eastern Himalayas where the moisture is sourced primarily from the Indian Summer Monsoon, the greatest advances were at the gLGM and were probably thermally controlled. Despite the similarities in timing of advances of westerly fed areas, local effects are critical. For example, zonal displacement of the westerly belt appears important for Japan, whereas the evidence suggests that modulation of the westerly pattern rather than a zonal shift, is the key for New Zealand. Moisture status in the Mediterranean and Caspian Sea regions are probably critical for glacier mass balance in the Karakorums and, to a lesser extent, the western Himalayas. However, it should be noted that the Asian monsoon is controlled by insolation (e.g. Shi, 2000), while New Zealand glacial advances could not occur without ELA lowering. The PEP II transect is geographically remote from the major continental ice-sheets (except Antarctica) and the signals of glaciation are a function of the global thermal signal modulated through the local climate systems. In most of the climate systems of PEP II, moisture effects overwhelm the global signal.

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