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Tomato pomace and safflower meal as ingredients in non-feed-removal molt diets
©2011 Poultry Science Association, Inc.
Tomato pomace and safflower meal as ingredients in non-feed-removal molt diets D. S. Patwardhan,* A. J. King,*1 and A. Mireles† *Department of Animal Science, One Shields Avenue, University of California, Davis 95616-8521; and †Foster Farms, 14519 Collier Road, Delhi, CA 95315 Primary Audience: Flock Supervisors, Practicing Nutritionists SUMMARY In California, where more than 90% of processed tomatoes in the United States are produced and 50% of the US production of safflower seeds is grown, there is an abundance of tomato pomace, a by-product of tomato processing, and safflower meal from decorticated safflower seeds. Diets with these 2 ingredients may produce molt and postmolt results comparable with a recommended no-added-salt non-feed-removal diet. Therefore, molt and postmolt measurements were compared in third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorn hens fed non-feed-removal diets containing 1) corn and soybean meal (CS8, control), 2) corn meal with no added salt (C-NS), 3) C-NS and safflower meal (C-NS-SM), 4) or C-NS and tomato pomace (C-NS-TP). During the molt, birds fed C-NS-TP consumed amounts of feed comparable with those of birds fed the other test diets; however, birds fed tomato pomace had lower BW and observably more diarrhea than other birds. Mortality did not differ among birds fed the treatment diets during the molt and postmolt periods. No differences were observed among treatment groups for postmolt BW, mortality, specific gravity of eggs, and eggshell thickness. Postmolt egg production was different among treatment groups, ranked as CS8 > C-NS > C-NS-SM > C-NS-TP. After molting, hens fed the C-NS-SM and C-NS-TP diets produced lower egg weights than did hens fed the CS8 and C-NS diets. The Haugh units for eggs from hens fed the C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP diets were higher than those for eggs from hens fed the CS8 diet. Overall, feeding safflower meal yielded results for feed consumption and BW comparable with those of feeding the no-salt diet during molt. However, except for egg production, postmolt measurements were equivalent among the C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP diets. We conclude that tomato pomace is useful in non-feed-removal molt diets. Key words: egg production, molting, non-feed-removal diet, safflower meal, tomato pomace 2011 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 20:291–302 doi:10.3382/japr.2010-00228
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM Feed Withdrawal Molting and Human Health In the United States during the 1990s, it was suggested that molting by feed withdrawal could lead to Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis 1
Corresponding author: [email protected]
infection in poultry [1–6]. Investigators linked the increased incidence of gastroenteritis caused by Salmonella Enteritidis in hens to contaminated eggs resulting from transovarian transmission after colonization of the intestinal tract [3]. Others reported that non-feed-removal diets
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292 reduced the occurrence of Salmonella Enteritidis as compared with fasting [7]. Ultimately, the United Egg Producers Scientific Advisory Committee, having dealt with the issue of feed withdrawal for molting since the early 1990s, amended the Animal Husbandry Guidelines for US Egg Laying Flocks to specify the use of nonfeed-withdrawal molt methods after January 1, 2006 [8]. Alternative Feeding Methods Scientists have developed an array of alternative molting techniques. Some diets have included 20,000 mg/kg of Zn as ZnO [9] and less than 0.3% Ca [10–13]. Also assessed have been Na-deficient diets [14–22] along with 2,500 to 5,000 mg/kg of I as KI [23], and supplementation with Al [24–26]. Additionally, diets containing high fiber and low protein have been evaluated. Vermaut et al. [27] demonstrated that jojoba meal, a by-product from the extraction of oil from jojoba seeds, was an ideal low-cost local feed source with no adverse effects. Anderson and Havenstein [28] investigated the use of low-protein, low-energy diets with minimal nutrients for body maintenance and livability during induced molting. Cottonseed meal, an easily available, inexpensive by-product of cottonseed, added at the rate of 20, 40, and 50%, was used in a molt diet to produce results similar to those of feed withdrawal, with the exception of low feed consumption [29]. Cessation of lay occurred on d 10. Biggs et al. [30] fed wheat middlings for 28 d and observed cessation of lay on d 8. Wheat middlings at 95% of the diet and various combinations, such as 71% wheat middlings and 23% corn, produced postmolt production values comparable with results for feed-withdrawal methods [30, 31]. Diets with grape pomace at 20 to 40% were as efficient as feed withdrawal. Moreover, they led to cessation of lay on d 7 and were low cost [32]. Contrary to United Egg Producers Guidelines [8], feeding grape pomace with thyroxin after 1 d of feed withdrawal was proposed as an alternative molt method [33]. Alternatively, induced molting was simulated by feeding hens during the morning of the first day and during the evening of the next day for 32 d. This pattern
resulted in rejuvenation of the reproductive tract similar to that of a traditional molt [34]. Tomato Pomace and Safflower Meal in Non-Feed-Removal Diets Two ingredients for possible inclusion in molt diets for laying hens in California are tomato pomace and safflower meal. In California, where more than 90% of the processed tomatoes in the United States are produced, there is an abundance of tomato pomace, an agricultural by-product that is a mixture of cores, culls, trimmings, seeds, peels, liquor, and unprocessed green tomatoes picked by harvest machinery [35]. Selected values for tomato pomace, as analyzed in our laboratory [36–38], are shown in Table 1. Because tomato pomace is high in fiber and relatively low in digestible nutrients (Table 1), it may be useful for short-term consumption to induce molting [36, 37, 39–41]. Other investigators showed that compared with feed deprivation, dried tomato pomace produced less BW loss during molting and comparable egg quality and production after molting [42]. Agriculturalists in California grow 50% of the US production of safflower seeds [43]. Decorticated safflower meal is high in protein and fiber (Table 1) [44] and is suitable as an ingredient in poultry feed when there is management of extra metabolizable calories and addition of methionine and lysine [45]. Chicks and layers have been fed properly balanced diets with partially dehulled safflower meal [46–49]. Except for BW gain and the specific gravity of eggs, no significant differences in performance and egg quality measurements were noted when laying hens received a basal corn and soybean meal
Table 1. Content of selected nutrients in tomato pomace and safflower meal Nutrient
Tomato pomace, %
Safflower meal, %
Protein Crude fat CF Moisture Ash
26.9 11.9 26.3 5.1 3.5
24.5 1.4 30.0 9.0 3.5
Patwardhan et al.: TOMATO POMACE AND SAFFLOWER MEAL diet with substitutions of 0, 4, 7, and 10% safflower meal [50]. On the basis of previous results for tomato pomace [41, 42] and safflower meal [50] obtained in other regions of the world, measurements from hens fed diets with these ingredients may compare favorably with those fed a noadded-salt non-feed-removal diet [51]. Thus, the objective of the present work was to determine several molt and postmolt production measurements of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorn hens receiving ad libitum quantities of either a cracked corn- and soybean meal-based control diet, a cracked corn meal-based diet with no added salt (low salt), a low-salt diet with safflower meal, or a low-salt diet with tomato pomace.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Design The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the University of California, Davis approved the experimental protocol as 28 d for premolt and molt, followed by 56 d for postmolt [52]. A flock of Single Comb White Leghorns (104 wk old) received ad libitum feed and water throughout the experiment (Table 2). Initially, hens were acclimated for a period of 4 wk, with a daily photoperiod of 16 h, and were fed a commercial layer ration [53]. At the end of this period, hens producing fewer than 4 eggs/wk were culled. Hens were placed in individual commercial layer cages (45.7 × 45.7 × 53.3 cm) under an experimental design of 5 diets × 6 blocks (pens) × 2 replications. Sixty birds were allotted randomly to each group, with a mean BW of 1.56 ± 0.2 kg. Blocks within each replicate group were placed throughout the house in a completely randomized design so that birds within groups were exposed to as many microclimates within the house as possible. The computer program Agri-Data, Concept 5 was used for diet formulation [54]. During the molt phase, the experimental groups received the following ad libitum diets with 8 h of light (Table 2): 1) a cracked corn and soybean meal control diet (CS8), 2) a cracked corn diet with no added salt (C-NS) [51], 3)
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C-NS plus safflower meal (C-NS-SM), and 4) C-NS plus tomato pomace (C-NS-TP). All hens were housed in 1 house. An environmental control treatment (CS16) was used, in which hens received 16 h of light and were fed a corn and soybean meal diet, to detect factors other than low light and diets that could produce a molt. During the additional 8 h of light provided for hens fed CS16, doors and partitions separated them from the others. The C-NS diet represented a conventional, practical low-salt molting diet. The C-NS-TP and C-NS-SM diets, therefore, were formulated to be isocaloric and isonitrogenous, with similar Na levels. With the exception of chloride, crude fat, and CF levels, which are not known to affect molting patterns, components were the same for the C-NS-TP and C-NS-SM diets (Table 2). Although safflower and tomato pomace have similar values for fiber (Table 1), C-NS-TP was considered the high-fiber diet because pomace was fed at 70% of the diet whereas safflower meal was fed at 43.51%. At the beginning of the molt, the photoperiod for the CS8, C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP groups was reduced by 2 h each day from 16 to 8 h. This procedure was used to provide a gradual reduction in light as hens became accustomed to the test diets and was similar to that used at the beginning of the postmolt period [27]. Light (8 h) was provided throughout the remainder of the molt. At the beginning of postmolt, an equivalent pattern for increasing light to 16 h was used [27]. Production Measurements Body weight was measured weekly. Feed consumption was calculated for the premolt and molt phases. Accurate determination of feed consumption was not made during postmolt. Mortality was recorded daily so that feed consumption could be adjusted based on the number of birds remaining in each pen. Analyses to determine the cause of death of hens were conducted at the California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory at the University of California, Davis. Egg production was recorded daily. Specific gravity [55], Haugh units (HU) [56], and eggshell thickness were measured twice weekly. After removal of the shell membranes,
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Table 2. Composition of control and non-feed-removal molt diets1 fed to third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns Item Ingredient, % Corn Safflower meal Tomato pomace Soybean meal Fat (corn oil) Calcium carbonate (limestone) dl-Methionine (99%) l-Lysine hydrochloride Dicalcium phosphate Vitamin premix2 Salt Mineral premix3 Choline chloride, dry (60%) Mold inhibitor Total Calculated analysis4 ME, kcal/kg CP, % Lysine, % Methionine + cysteine, % Ca, % Available P, % Na, % Chloride, % Crude fat, % CF, % Moisture, %
CS16 and CS8
C-NS
C-NS-SM
C-NS-TP
68.91 — — 20.35 0.60 8.60 0.10 — 0.81 0.07 0.32 0.06 0.07 0.10 100.00
97.02 — — — — 1.25 — — 1.50 0.07 — 0.06 — 0.10 100.00
51.00 43.51 — — 0.19 3.12 0.04 0.43 1.25 0.07 — 0.06 0.23 0.10 100.00
9.78 — 70.00 5.45 9.95 3.16 0.04 0.08 1.08 0.07 — 0.06 0.23 0.10 100.00
2,867 15.00 0.74 0.58 3.25 0.25 0.15 0.25 3.23 2.44 12.08
3,243 7.28 0.19 0.28 0.76 0.36 0.02 0.05 3.30 2.43 14.30
2,336 14.91 0.73 0.45 1.44 0.36 0.01 0.06 2.53 14.33 11.35
2,336 14.65 0.73 0.45 1.44 0.36 0.01 0.16 16.47 28.44 5.95
1
CS16 = control diet fed under a 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = control diet fed under an 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = corn diet [52]; C-NS-SM = safflower meal diet; C-NS-TP = tomato pomace diet. 2 Provided the following per kilogram of diet: vitamin A from vitamin A acetate, 4,400 IU; cholecalciferol, 1,000 IU; vitamin E from α-tocopheryl acetate, 11 IU; vitamin B12, 0.011 mg; riboflavin, 4.4 mg; d-pantothenic acid, 10 mg; niacin, 22 mg; menadione sodium bisulfite complex, 2.33 mg. 3 Provided the following per kilogram of diet: manganese, 75 mg from manganese oxide; iron, 75 mg from iron sulfate; zinc, 75 mg from zinc oxide; copper, 5 mg from copper sulfate; iodine, 0.75 mg from ethylene diamine dihydroiodide; selenium, 0.1 mg from sodium selenite. 4 Calculated values met NRC [44] requirements for poultry.
shells were air-dried at 22°C for 24 h to determine shell thickness, with micrometer [57] measurements (mm) taken near the broken equatorial edge and at the rounded end of the shell. Statistical Analysis All data were analyzed in the Statistical Laboratory of the University of California, Davis. All analyses were carried out using SAS, version 9.1 [58]. The significance of means was determined at P ≤ 0.05. Egg production data were analyzed using a mixed-model Poisson regression model, in which all replication-related effects were treated as random effects (SAS,
PROC GLIMMIX). Bird mortality data were analyzed using a Cox proportional hazards model (SAS, PROC PHREG). Bird BW and egg quality variables were analyzed using mixed model ANOVA methods (SAS, PROC MIXED). Because of issues with the normality and constant variance assumptions for these models, data were winsorized [58] as necessary to minimize the effect of outliers, and then a weighted least squares analysis was used to address problems with the constant variance assumption. Correlations among the egg quality variables were calculated within the premolt, molt, and postmolt periods by using Spearman correlations (SAS, PROC CORR).
98.96 ± 4.13 1,556.30 ± 31.02 3.00 0.53 67.51 ± 0.65 1.075 ± 1.34 0.33 ± 0.01 67.07 ± 1.74
a
128.5 ± 3.81 1,545.59 ± 34.21a 2.00 0.65a 67.86 ± 0.87a 1.073 ± 1.24 0.33 ± 0.00a 71.70 ± 1.74a
CS16 a
127.71 ± 3.61 1,574.20 ± 34.27ab 3.30 0.55a 65.58 ± 0.87ab 1.074 ± 1.24 0.33 ± 0.00a 70.61 ± 1.75a
CS8 ab
102.92 ± 3.81 1,446.30 ± 33.96bc 1.70 0.19b 60.94 ± 1.51c 1.071 ± 1.34 0.26 ± 0.01b 71.61 ± 2.99ab
C-NS
Molt phase
ab
90.79 ± 3.55 1,393.43 ± 33.90c 3.30 0.12b 64.23 ± 1.20b 1.075 ± 1.46 0.33 ± 0.01a 76.81 ± 2.62ab
C-NS-SM
73.12 ± 3.38b 1,156.73 ± 33.78d 4.60 0.03c 62.47 ± 2.07b 1.072 ± 1.89 0.27 ± 0.01b 80.94 ± 4.09b
C-NS-TP
1,545.90 ± 31.06 4.40 0.67 (0.59–0.75)a 67.87 ± 0.85a 1.073 ± 1.16 0.35 ± 0.0 65.34 ± 1.65a
CS16 1,599.17 ± 30.96 3.40 0.55 (0.49–0.62)a 67.08 ± 0.83a 1.075 ± 1.16 0.36 ± 0.0 64.13 ± 1.61a
CS8
1,568.41 ± 31.00 0 0.32 (0.29–0.37)b 66.45 ± 0.94a 1.076 ± 1.16 0.36 ± 0.0 70.74 ± 1.86b
C-NS
1,542.74 ± 30.77 0 0.22 (0.19–0.25)c 63.12 ± 0.98b 1.074 ± 1.34 0.34 ± 0.0 72.84 ± 2.06b
C-NS-SM
1,484.44 ± 30.67 8.10 0.14 (0.12–0.16)d 63.06 ± 0.95b 1.074 ± 1.46 0.34 ± 0.01 75.15 ± 2.06b
C-NS-TP
1
Means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05). CS16 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = cracked corn (97.02%) with no added salt [52], 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-SM = cracked corn (51.00%) with no added salt plus safflower meal (43.51%), 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-TP = cracked corn (9.78%) with no added salt plus tomato pomace (70%), 8-h photoperiod.
a–d
BW, g Mortality, % Egg production, eggs/hen per day Egg weight, g Specific gravity, g/cm3 Shell thickness, mm Egg Haugh units
Measurement
Postmolt phase
Table 4. Eight-week postmolt production measurements for third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns fed non-feed-removal diets1 during a 4-wk molt
1
Means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05). CS16 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = cracked corn (97.02%) with no added salt [52], 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-SM = cracked corn (51.00%) with no added salt plus safflower meal (43.51%), 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-TP = cracked corn (9.78%) with no added salt plus tomato pomace (70%), 8-h photoperiod.
a–d
Feed, g/bird per day BW, g Mortality, % Egg production, eggs/hen per day Egg weight, g Specific gravity, g/cm3 Eggshell thickness, mm Egg Haugh units
Measurement
Premolt phase
Table 3. Production measurements for third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns fed control and non-feed-removal diets1 during a 4-wk molt
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Historically in the US table egg industry, hens have been maintained in production from 80 to 110 wk, with some birds in production at 140 wk [59]. Although economic considerations may cause most producers to choose replacement flocks after the second laying cycle, industry personnel note that presently, hens with high levels of production are maintained up to 116 wk [60]. Older hens (104 d old) were fed various test diets in the present study. Although the Leghorns were no longer at peak performance, their egg production was constant and was adequate for examining the efficacy of various non-feedremoval molt diets. Moreover, results from the study will be useful to egg producers when feeding second- or third-cycle flocks where tomato pomace and safflower meal are low-cost ingredients. The hens fed the CS16 diet continued to produce eggs throughout the molt; therefore, no other conditions in the laying house induced molting. Values for measurements from the hens fed the CS16 diet are shown in Tables 3 and 4 and Figure 1a to 1f. Because the CS16 group experienced no other effects from induced molting, primary comparisons are discussed for the experimental groups CS8, C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP. Feed Consumption Mean feed consumption for all hens during premolt was 98.96 ± 4.13 g/bird per day (Table 3). During the molt phase, birds in the CS8, C-NS, and C-NS-SM groups had similar consumption, whereas consumption for hens in the C-NS-TP group was lower than that of hens in the CS8 group (P ≤ 0.05). Potentially, high fiber levels coupled with hens’ lack of familiarity with the feed and the palatability of the feed [61] may have contributed to reduced consumption of C-NS-TP [61, 62]. Investigators reported that smell, taste, color, particle size, familiarity with the feed, and brightness of light affected consumption [61]. We observed that hens fed the C-NS-TP diet produced the greatest volume of fecal matter because of greater fecal cone width and height. The observed rapid emptying of the gastrointestinal tract by hens fed C-NS-TP was likely due
to high fiber. Presumably, extending the postmolt trial phase would have resulted in similar consumption for all hens as the effects of diarrhea and lack of feed palatability subsided. BW During the Molt To follow animal care guidelines, BW loss was monitored weekly by comparing the BW of hens in the C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP groups with the BW of those in the CS8 group. Based on results of the statistical analysis, when we observed that mean BW loss of hens fed the C-NS-TP diet was more than 20% greater than that of hens fed the CS8 diet (P ≤ 0.05), the molt phase was discontinued during the fourth week. Body weight loss of hens in the C-NS-TP group continued to decrease into the first week postmolt (Figure 1a). During the molt phase, hens fed the C-NSSM and the C-NS-TP diets had the lowest BW, whereas the BW of those fed the CS8 and C-NS diets were intermediate (Table 3 and Figure 1a). The BW loss for hens fed the C-NS-TP diet was 26.5% compared with that of hens fed the CS8 diet (Table 3). These values exceeded those of researchers who have recommended no more than 20% BW loss [63, 64]. Thus, we suggest that caution be used when testing various nonfeed-removal diets for induced molting of hens. Although, in earlier reports on induced molting, it was noted that a 25% BW reduction by feed removal optimized postmolt production performance [65–68], researchers now suggest a BW reduction of 15% or lower, which was observed for the C-NS-TP diet during wk 2 of the molt (Figure 1a) [69]. We suggest, based on a reduction of 15% BW during wk 2 of the 28-d molt for hens on the C-N-TP diet, that it should be fed for 2 wk, followed by the C-NS diet for the final 2 wk. This feeding regimen would possibly 1) reduce cost because, presently, tomato pomace is a no-cost agricultural by-product; 2) mitigate the effects of BW loss, diarrhea, and mortality; and 3) promote normal postmolt egg production. During postmolt, hens gained BW rapidly (Table 4 and Figure 1a). Hens previously fed the C-NS-TP diet gained BW similarly (P ≤ 0.05) to that of all treatment groups fed during the molt (Table 4 and Figure 1a).
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Figure 1. Panel a) Body weight for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel b) Egg production for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel c) Egg weights for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel d) Specific gravity of eggs for treatment during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel e) Eggshell thickness for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel f) Egg Haugh units for treatments of premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Singe Comb White Leghorns. The disconnected lines in panels c, d, e, and f indicate insufficient data during the time period. CS16 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = cracked corn (97.02%) with no added salt [52], 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-SM = cracked corn (51.00%) with no added salt plus safflower meal (43.51%), 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-TP = cracked corn (9.78%) with no added salt plus tomato pomace (70%), 8-h photoperiod.
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Figure 1 (Continued). Panel a) Body weight for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel b) Egg production for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel c) Egg weights for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel d) Specific gravity of eggs for treatment during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel e) Eggshell thickness for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel f) Egg Haugh units for treatments of premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Singe Comb White Leghorns. The disconnected lines in panels c, d, e, and f indicate insufficient data during the time period. CS16 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = cracked corn (97.02%) with no added salt [52], 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-SM = cracked corn (51.00%) with no added salt plus safflower meal (43.51%), 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-TP = cracked corn (9.78%) with no added salt plus tomato pomace (70%), 8-h photoperiod.
Patwardhan et al.: TOMATO POMACE AND SAFFLOWER MEAL Mortality No statistical differences in mortality were observed for all treatment groups during molt and postmolt (P > 0.05; Tables 3 and 4). As noted above, hens fed the C-NS-TP diet had extensive diarrhea during the molt phase. This continued for 1 wk during postmolt, as did BW loss; these conditions plus the age of hens most likely contributed to their mortality. During premolt, when 1 bird in a block (pen) with 4 cages died, if necessary, 1 of the remaining birds was moved to fill the empty space to promote communal feeding and accommodate the addition of a smaller, compact quantity of feed to the trough. This practice was stopped at the end of the premolt when we observed that birds placed in new cages (across all diets) after acclimation sometimes stopped consuming feed and water. The cause of death for birds who stopped consuming feed because of placement in new cages as well as hens who were not moved was diagnosed as renal failure. Additionally, lesions indicative of Marek’s disease were observed in 2 birds fed the CS16 diet. As expected, Salmonella Enteritidis was not detected. A total of 29 birds died during the experiment. Production Performance Egg Production. Weekly egg production during premolt, molt, and postmolt is shown in Figure 1b. Mean egg production of all hens during premolt was 0.53 eggs/hen per day (Table 3), compared with a high of 0.89 eggs/hen per day reported for commercial layers during their first laying cycle at 21 to 65 wk [59]. The overall low egg production rate was most likely due to the age of the layers [70, 71]. During molt, the mean egg production of all hens fed non-feedremoval diets was significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than that of hens in the CS8 group (Table 3 and Figure 1b). The production for hens in the C-NS and C-NS-SM groups was similar and was significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) than that of hens in the C-NS-TP group (Table 3). Hens in the C-NSTP group slowly ceased production but did not completely cease lay until the end of the molt (wk 4), whereas hens in the C-NS-SM group never ceased lay during the molt. As observed by Bell and Kuney [51], hens in the C-NS group never completely ceased production (Figure 1b).
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As observed in Table 4, during postmolt, overall egg production was significantly different among hens previously fed various diets, with CS > C-NS > C-NS-SM > C-NS-TP (P ≤ 0.05). Hens in the C-NS-SM group ceased lay during wk 2 postmolt and returned to production during wk 3 (Figure 1b). Hens in the C-NSTP group returned to lay during wk 5 postmolt. Other investigators attributed postmolt enhancement of egg production and egg quality to BW loss, subsequent BW gain, and reproductive tract rejuvenation [71]. Although hens in our study lost BW during the molt and regained it during postmolt, examination of the reproductive tracts was not performed. Mansoori et al. [42] reported that feeding hens dried tomato pomace resulted in postmolt egg quality and egg production comparable with feed removal. The hens used in our study were most likely too old to show the type of enhanced production observed with the younger layers used by Mansoori et al. [42]. Egg Weight, Specific Gravity, and Eggshell Thickness. During the molt phase, egg weights for hens in the C-NS-SM and C-NS-TP groups were greater than the weights of eggs from hens in the C-NS group (Table 3 and Figure 1c; P ≤ 0.05). The egg weights (Table 4 and Figure 1c) during postmolt were lower for hens in the CNS-SM and C-NS-TP groups than for hens in the CS8 and C-NS groups (P ≤ 0.05). Bell and Kuney [51] reported comparable postmolt results for eggs from hens fed the C-NS diet and their control diet. Egg specific gravity was similar among all treatments groups during molt and postmolt (Tables 3 and 4, Figure 1d). Shell thickness is a crucial parameter in judging external egg quality, especially for commercial eggs, which need to be at least 0.33 mm in thickness to survive the rigors of travel to markets [72]. In our study, the shell thickness of all eggs during postmolt was comparable with the required thickness pre- and postmolt. The correlation (R2 = 0.78) between specific gravity and shell thickness is well established [72]. Our correlation coefficient for these values was approximately 0.58 (data not shown). Keshavarz and Quimby [33] also reported a positive correlation (correlation coefficient not provided) between these values. No other correlations above 0.50 between measurements were found in our statistical analysis.
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300 During molt, hens in the C-NS and C-NSTP groups produced statistically similar results for eggshell thickness, which were significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than those for other groups (Table 3 and Figure 1e). When comparing dietary contents of Ca, chloride, available P, and Na provided, chloride was low for the C-NS and C-NS-TP diets (Table 1). The Na:chloride ratio is important for eggshell strength [73]. Eggshell strength is correlated positively with specific gravity and eggshell thickness [72]. The much lower CP, lysine, methionine, cysteine, and Ca levels of the C-NS diet (Table 2) may have caused greater complications in reference to eggshell thickness for the C-NS-TP group than for the C-NS-SM group. This observation may also be related to the significantly lower comparable bone density for hens fed the C-NS-TP diet noted in a related study [74]. Eggshell thickness was similar (P > 0.05) across all treatment groups during the postmolt period (Table 4 and Figure 1e). HU. Our results support the findings of others who reported that molted hens produce eggs with higher HU than do unmolted ones [42]. Mean premolt egg HU of 67.07 ± 1.74 increased for all treatment groups during the molt phase (Table 3 and Figure 1f). The egg HU from hens fed the C-NS and C-NS-SM diets were similar to the egg HU from hens fed the CS8 diet during the molt. Hens fed the C-NS-TP diet produced eggs with a significantly higher HU value than those from hens fed all other diets (P ≤ 0.05). More important, postmolt egg HU for hens in the C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP groups were higher than those from hens in the CS8 group (P ≤ 0.05; Table 4 and Figure 1e). Therefore, the C-NS-TP diet may have value as a molt diet if palatability can be enhanced or if it can be fed for 2 wk before a low-salt diet.
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
1. Feeding the C-NS-SM diet resulted in feed consumption and BW comparable with feeding the C-NS diet. 2. Hens fed the C-NS-TP diet exhibited more diarrhea and lost a greater percentage of BW than did hens fed the other diets.
3. Egg production from hens fed all 3 diets (C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP) was lower than that of hens fed the CS8 diet. 4. Except for egg production, measurements for hens in the C-NS-TP and CNS-SM groups were comparable with those of hens in the C-NS group. 5. Hens in the C-NS-TP group produced a significantly higher egg HU value than did hens in the CS8, C-NS, and C-NSSM groups (P ≤ 0.05). 6. Feeding C-NS-TP at less than 70% of the diet or for only 2 wk when BW is lower than recommended, followed by feeding of the C-NS diet for 2 wk, should be investigated.
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32. McKeen, W. D. 1984. Feeding grape pomace to Leghorn hens as an alternative to starvation to induce a molt. Poult. Sci. 63(Suppl. 1):148–149. 33. Keshavarz, K., and F. W. Quimby. 2002. An investigation of different molting techniques with an emphasis on animal welfare. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 11:54–67. 34. Ruszler, P., and C. Novak. 2006. Feeding hens during alternating a.m. and p.m. time blocks to induce zero egg production during the molt. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 15:525–530. 35. UC Vegetable Research and Information Center. 2006. Ingredients101.com. Tomato pomace, dried. Accessed July 2011. http://www.ingredients101.com/tompom.htm. 36. King, A. J., and G. Zeidler. 2004. Tomato pomace may be a good source of vitamin E in broiler diets. Calif. Agric. 58:59–62. 37. Assi, J. A., and A. J. King. 2008. Manganese amendment and Pleurotus ostreatus treatment to convert tomato pomace for inclusion in poultry diets. Poult. Sci. 87:1889– 1896. 38. Daily processed tomato pomace was provided by Campbell Soup Company (Dixon, CA) in 18.93-L covered containers. It was dried at 60°C in a Harvest Saver Tray Dehydrator (serial no. HS156, Commercial Dehydrator System Inc., Eugene, OR.) or under similar conditions in an Indoco Oven (serial no. 5662, Industrial Oven and Equipment Co., San Gabriel, CA) for 24 h. Dried pomace, in double plastic bags inside cardboard containers, was stored at 4°C until incorporated into feed. 39. Dotas, D., S. Zamandis, and J. Balios. 1999. Effect of dried tomato pulp on the performance and egg traits of laying hens. Br. Poult. Sci. 40:695–697. 40. Persia, M. E., C. M. Parsons, M. Schang, and J. Azcona. 2003. Nutritional evaluation of dried tomato seeds. Poult. Sci. 82:141–146. 41. Al-Betawi, N. A. 2005. Preliminary study of tomato pomace as unusual feedstuff in broiler diets. Pak. J. Nutr. 4:57–63. 42. Mansoori, B., M. Modirsanei, M. Farkhoy, M.-M. Kiaei, and J. Honarzad. 2007. The influence of different single dietary sources on moult induction in laying hens. J. Sci. Food Agric. 87:2555–2559. 43. Boland, M. 2009. Agriculture marketing resource center. Accessed Feb. 2009. http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/safflower.cfm. 44. NRC. 1994. Nutrient Requirement of Poultry. 9th ed. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, DC. 45. Kohler, G.O., D. D. Kuzmicky, R. Palter, J. Guggolz, and V. V. Herring. 1966. Safflower meal. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 43:413–415. 46. Young, R. D., and H. R. Halloran. 1962. Decorticated safflower meal in chick rations. Poult. Sci. 41:1696–1697. 47. Shoji, K., M. Tajima, K. Totsuka, and H. Iwai. 1966. Feeding value of safflower meal. Jpn. Poult. Sci. 3:63–68. 48. Kuzmicky, D. D., and G. O. Kohler. 1968. Safflower meal—Utilization as a protein source for broiler rations. Poult. Sci. 47:1266–1270. 49. Raj, A. G., P. Kothandaraman, and R. Kadirvel. 1981. Safflower seed meal: A source of vegetable protein for poultry. Ind. Poult. Gaz. 12:13–17. 50. Vashan, S. J. H., N. Afzali, M. Mallekaneh, M. A. Nasseri, and A. Allahresani. 2008. The effect of different concentrations of safflower seed on laying hen’s performance, yolk and blood cholesterol and immune system. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 7:470–473.
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302 51. Bell, D. D., and D. R. Kuney. 2004. Farm evaluation of alternative molting procedures. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 13:673–679. 52. IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee). 2007. Protocol 13099—Use of tomato pomace as an alternative to feed removal during molting of laying hens. University of California, Davis. 53. Layena, Purina Mills, Sacramento, CA. 54. Creative Formulation Concepts LLC, Annapolis, MD. 55. Loeffler, A, 1987. Specific gravity test for monitoring egg shell quality. Technical Newsletter for Egg Producers. Ontario Egg Producers Marketing Board, Mississauga, Canada. 56. Haugh, R .R. 1937. The Haugh unit for measuring egg quality. US Egg Poult. Mag. 43:552–555, 572–573. 57. Serial No. 043162221, Murray Industrial Supply, Sacramento CA. 58. SAS Institute. 2002. SAS/STAT User’s Guide. Version 8.2. SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC. 59. Bell, D. D. 2003. Historical and current molting practices in the U.S. table egg industry. Poult. Sci. 82:965–970. 60. Silva, T. 2011. J. S. West Milling Company, Modesto, CA. Personal communication. 61. Appleby, M. C., J. A. Mench, and B. O. Hughes. 2004. Maintenance. Pages 52– 53 in Poultry Behavior and Welfare. M. C. Apple, J. A. Mench, and B. O. Hughes, ed. Cromwell Press, Cambridge, UK. 62. Elliott, J., E. Mulvihill, C. Dumcan, R. Forsythe, and D. Kritchevsky. 1981. Effect of tomato pomace and mixed vegetable pomace on serum and liver cholesterol in rats. J. Nutr. 111:2203–2211. 63. IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee). 2009. Humane endpoint policy. University of California, Davis. Accessed Feb. 2009. http://safetyservices.ucdavis.edu/IACUC/policies/humane-endpoints. 64. Scheideler, S. E., and M. M. Beck. 2002. G02-1482 Guidelines for a Non-Fasting Feeding Program for the Molting of Laying Hens. Accessed July 2011. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/extensionhist/1811/. 65. Baker, M., J. Brake, and G. R. McDaniel. 1983. The relationship between body weight loss during an induced
molt and postmolt, postmolt egg production, egg weight, and shell quality in caged layers. Poult. Sci. 62:409–413. 66. Brake, J., M. Baker, and J. G. Mannix. 1981. Weight loss characteristics of the body, liver, ovary, oviduct and uterine lipid during a forced molt and their relationship to postmolt performance. Poult. Sci. 60:1628. (Abstr.) 67. Brake, J., and G. R. McDaniel. 1981. Factors affecting broiler breeder performance. Relationship of body weight during fasting to postmolt performance. Poult. Sci. 60:726–730. 68. Brake, J., and P. Thaxton. 1979. Physiological changes in caged layers during a forced molt: 2. Gross changes in organs. Poult. Sci. 58:707–716. 69. Mench, J. A. 2009. Univ. California, Davis. Personal communication. 70. McCormick, C. C., and D. L. Cunningham. 1984. High dietary zinc and fasting as methods of forced resting: A performance comparison. Poult. Sci. 63:1201–1206. 71. McCormick, C. C., and D. I. Cunningham. 1987. Performance and physiological profiles of high dietary zinc and fasting as methods of inducing a forced rest: A direct comparison. Poult. Sci. 66:1007–1013. 72. Stadelman, W. J., and O. J. Cotterrill. 1986. Quality identification of shell eggs. Pages 37−62 in Egg Science and Technology. W. J. Stadelman and O. J. Cotterill, ed. AVI Publ. Co. Inc., Westport, CT. 73. Cohen, I., S. Hurwitz, and A. Bar. 1972. Acid-base balance and sodium-to-chloride ratio in diets of laying hens. J. Nutr. 102:1–8. 74. Patwardhan, D. S., A. J. King, A. M. Oberbauer, and T. B. Holland. 2011. Bone measurements of molted layers fed low-salt corn and soybean meal diets containing safflower meal or tomato pomace. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 20:190–196.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the personnel at the Campbell Soup Company (Dixon, CA); Animal Science Feed Mill, Cole Facility, and Poultry Facility (University of California, Davis); and the undergraduates Michelle Sanborn, Tanya Pardo, Sarah El Mossalamy, and San Lui (University of California, Davis) for their assistance. Additionally, we thank the J. S. West Company (Delhi, CA) for the Single Comb White Leghorns.
Tomato pomace and safflower meal as ingredients in non-feed-removal molt diets D. S. Patwardhan,* A. J. King,*1 and A. Mireles† *Department of Animal Science, One Shields Avenue, University of California, Davis 95616-8521; and †Foster Farms, 14519 Collier Road, Delhi, CA 95315 Primary Audience: Flock Supervisors, Practicing Nutritionists SUMMARY In California, where more than 90% of processed tomatoes in the United States are produced and 50% of the US production of safflower seeds is grown, there is an abundance of tomato pomace, a by-product of tomato processing, and safflower meal from decorticated safflower seeds. Diets with these 2 ingredients may produce molt and postmolt results comparable with a recommended no-added-salt non-feed-removal diet. Therefore, molt and postmolt measurements were compared in third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorn hens fed non-feed-removal diets containing 1) corn and soybean meal (CS8, control), 2) corn meal with no added salt (C-NS), 3) C-NS and safflower meal (C-NS-SM), 4) or C-NS and tomato pomace (C-NS-TP). During the molt, birds fed C-NS-TP consumed amounts of feed comparable with those of birds fed the other test diets; however, birds fed tomato pomace had lower BW and observably more diarrhea than other birds. Mortality did not differ among birds fed the treatment diets during the molt and postmolt periods. No differences were observed among treatment groups for postmolt BW, mortality, specific gravity of eggs, and eggshell thickness. Postmolt egg production was different among treatment groups, ranked as CS8 > C-NS > C-NS-SM > C-NS-TP. After molting, hens fed the C-NS-SM and C-NS-TP diets produced lower egg weights than did hens fed the CS8 and C-NS diets. The Haugh units for eggs from hens fed the C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP diets were higher than those for eggs from hens fed the CS8 diet. Overall, feeding safflower meal yielded results for feed consumption and BW comparable with those of feeding the no-salt diet during molt. However, except for egg production, postmolt measurements were equivalent among the C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP diets. We conclude that tomato pomace is useful in non-feed-removal molt diets. Key words: egg production, molting, non-feed-removal diet, safflower meal, tomato pomace 2011 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 20:291–302 doi:10.3382/japr.2010-00228
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM Feed Withdrawal Molting and Human Health In the United States during the 1990s, it was suggested that molting by feed withdrawal could lead to Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis 1
Corresponding author: [email protected]
infection in poultry [1–6]. Investigators linked the increased incidence of gastroenteritis caused by Salmonella Enteritidis in hens to contaminated eggs resulting from transovarian transmission after colonization of the intestinal tract [3]. Others reported that non-feed-removal diets
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292 reduced the occurrence of Salmonella Enteritidis as compared with fasting [7]. Ultimately, the United Egg Producers Scientific Advisory Committee, having dealt with the issue of feed withdrawal for molting since the early 1990s, amended the Animal Husbandry Guidelines for US Egg Laying Flocks to specify the use of nonfeed-withdrawal molt methods after January 1, 2006 [8]. Alternative Feeding Methods Scientists have developed an array of alternative molting techniques. Some diets have included 20,000 mg/kg of Zn as ZnO [9] and less than 0.3% Ca [10–13]. Also assessed have been Na-deficient diets [14–22] along with 2,500 to 5,000 mg/kg of I as KI [23], and supplementation with Al [24–26]. Additionally, diets containing high fiber and low protein have been evaluated. Vermaut et al. [27] demonstrated that jojoba meal, a by-product from the extraction of oil from jojoba seeds, was an ideal low-cost local feed source with no adverse effects. Anderson and Havenstein [28] investigated the use of low-protein, low-energy diets with minimal nutrients for body maintenance and livability during induced molting. Cottonseed meal, an easily available, inexpensive by-product of cottonseed, added at the rate of 20, 40, and 50%, was used in a molt diet to produce results similar to those of feed withdrawal, with the exception of low feed consumption [29]. Cessation of lay occurred on d 10. Biggs et al. [30] fed wheat middlings for 28 d and observed cessation of lay on d 8. Wheat middlings at 95% of the diet and various combinations, such as 71% wheat middlings and 23% corn, produced postmolt production values comparable with results for feed-withdrawal methods [30, 31]. Diets with grape pomace at 20 to 40% were as efficient as feed withdrawal. Moreover, they led to cessation of lay on d 7 and were low cost [32]. Contrary to United Egg Producers Guidelines [8], feeding grape pomace with thyroxin after 1 d of feed withdrawal was proposed as an alternative molt method [33]. Alternatively, induced molting was simulated by feeding hens during the morning of the first day and during the evening of the next day for 32 d. This pattern
resulted in rejuvenation of the reproductive tract similar to that of a traditional molt [34]. Tomato Pomace and Safflower Meal in Non-Feed-Removal Diets Two ingredients for possible inclusion in molt diets for laying hens in California are tomato pomace and safflower meal. In California, where more than 90% of the processed tomatoes in the United States are produced, there is an abundance of tomato pomace, an agricultural by-product that is a mixture of cores, culls, trimmings, seeds, peels, liquor, and unprocessed green tomatoes picked by harvest machinery [35]. Selected values for tomato pomace, as analyzed in our laboratory [36–38], are shown in Table 1. Because tomato pomace is high in fiber and relatively low in digestible nutrients (Table 1), it may be useful for short-term consumption to induce molting [36, 37, 39–41]. Other investigators showed that compared with feed deprivation, dried tomato pomace produced less BW loss during molting and comparable egg quality and production after molting [42]. Agriculturalists in California grow 50% of the US production of safflower seeds [43]. Decorticated safflower meal is high in protein and fiber (Table 1) [44] and is suitable as an ingredient in poultry feed when there is management of extra metabolizable calories and addition of methionine and lysine [45]. Chicks and layers have been fed properly balanced diets with partially dehulled safflower meal [46–49]. Except for BW gain and the specific gravity of eggs, no significant differences in performance and egg quality measurements were noted when laying hens received a basal corn and soybean meal
Table 1. Content of selected nutrients in tomato pomace and safflower meal Nutrient
Tomato pomace, %
Safflower meal, %
Protein Crude fat CF Moisture Ash
26.9 11.9 26.3 5.1 3.5
24.5 1.4 30.0 9.0 3.5
Patwardhan et al.: TOMATO POMACE AND SAFFLOWER MEAL diet with substitutions of 0, 4, 7, and 10% safflower meal [50]. On the basis of previous results for tomato pomace [41, 42] and safflower meal [50] obtained in other regions of the world, measurements from hens fed diets with these ingredients may compare favorably with those fed a noadded-salt non-feed-removal diet [51]. Thus, the objective of the present work was to determine several molt and postmolt production measurements of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorn hens receiving ad libitum quantities of either a cracked corn- and soybean meal-based control diet, a cracked corn meal-based diet with no added salt (low salt), a low-salt diet with safflower meal, or a low-salt diet with tomato pomace.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Design The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the University of California, Davis approved the experimental protocol as 28 d for premolt and molt, followed by 56 d for postmolt [52]. A flock of Single Comb White Leghorns (104 wk old) received ad libitum feed and water throughout the experiment (Table 2). Initially, hens were acclimated for a period of 4 wk, with a daily photoperiod of 16 h, and were fed a commercial layer ration [53]. At the end of this period, hens producing fewer than 4 eggs/wk were culled. Hens were placed in individual commercial layer cages (45.7 × 45.7 × 53.3 cm) under an experimental design of 5 diets × 6 blocks (pens) × 2 replications. Sixty birds were allotted randomly to each group, with a mean BW of 1.56 ± 0.2 kg. Blocks within each replicate group were placed throughout the house in a completely randomized design so that birds within groups were exposed to as many microclimates within the house as possible. The computer program Agri-Data, Concept 5 was used for diet formulation [54]. During the molt phase, the experimental groups received the following ad libitum diets with 8 h of light (Table 2): 1) a cracked corn and soybean meal control diet (CS8), 2) a cracked corn diet with no added salt (C-NS) [51], 3)
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C-NS plus safflower meal (C-NS-SM), and 4) C-NS plus tomato pomace (C-NS-TP). All hens were housed in 1 house. An environmental control treatment (CS16) was used, in which hens received 16 h of light and were fed a corn and soybean meal diet, to detect factors other than low light and diets that could produce a molt. During the additional 8 h of light provided for hens fed CS16, doors and partitions separated them from the others. The C-NS diet represented a conventional, practical low-salt molting diet. The C-NS-TP and C-NS-SM diets, therefore, were formulated to be isocaloric and isonitrogenous, with similar Na levels. With the exception of chloride, crude fat, and CF levels, which are not known to affect molting patterns, components were the same for the C-NS-TP and C-NS-SM diets (Table 2). Although safflower and tomato pomace have similar values for fiber (Table 1), C-NS-TP was considered the high-fiber diet because pomace was fed at 70% of the diet whereas safflower meal was fed at 43.51%. At the beginning of the molt, the photoperiod for the CS8, C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP groups was reduced by 2 h each day from 16 to 8 h. This procedure was used to provide a gradual reduction in light as hens became accustomed to the test diets and was similar to that used at the beginning of the postmolt period [27]. Light (8 h) was provided throughout the remainder of the molt. At the beginning of postmolt, an equivalent pattern for increasing light to 16 h was used [27]. Production Measurements Body weight was measured weekly. Feed consumption was calculated for the premolt and molt phases. Accurate determination of feed consumption was not made during postmolt. Mortality was recorded daily so that feed consumption could be adjusted based on the number of birds remaining in each pen. Analyses to determine the cause of death of hens were conducted at the California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory at the University of California, Davis. Egg production was recorded daily. Specific gravity [55], Haugh units (HU) [56], and eggshell thickness were measured twice weekly. After removal of the shell membranes,
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Table 2. Composition of control and non-feed-removal molt diets1 fed to third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns Item Ingredient, % Corn Safflower meal Tomato pomace Soybean meal Fat (corn oil) Calcium carbonate (limestone) dl-Methionine (99%) l-Lysine hydrochloride Dicalcium phosphate Vitamin premix2 Salt Mineral premix3 Choline chloride, dry (60%) Mold inhibitor Total Calculated analysis4 ME, kcal/kg CP, % Lysine, % Methionine + cysteine, % Ca, % Available P, % Na, % Chloride, % Crude fat, % CF, % Moisture, %
CS16 and CS8
C-NS
C-NS-SM
C-NS-TP
68.91 — — 20.35 0.60 8.60 0.10 — 0.81 0.07 0.32 0.06 0.07 0.10 100.00
97.02 — — — — 1.25 — — 1.50 0.07 — 0.06 — 0.10 100.00
51.00 43.51 — — 0.19 3.12 0.04 0.43 1.25 0.07 — 0.06 0.23 0.10 100.00
9.78 — 70.00 5.45 9.95 3.16 0.04 0.08 1.08 0.07 — 0.06 0.23 0.10 100.00
2,867 15.00 0.74 0.58 3.25 0.25 0.15 0.25 3.23 2.44 12.08
3,243 7.28 0.19 0.28 0.76 0.36 0.02 0.05 3.30 2.43 14.30
2,336 14.91 0.73 0.45 1.44 0.36 0.01 0.06 2.53 14.33 11.35
2,336 14.65 0.73 0.45 1.44 0.36 0.01 0.16 16.47 28.44 5.95
1
CS16 = control diet fed under a 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = control diet fed under an 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = corn diet [52]; C-NS-SM = safflower meal diet; C-NS-TP = tomato pomace diet. 2 Provided the following per kilogram of diet: vitamin A from vitamin A acetate, 4,400 IU; cholecalciferol, 1,000 IU; vitamin E from α-tocopheryl acetate, 11 IU; vitamin B12, 0.011 mg; riboflavin, 4.4 mg; d-pantothenic acid, 10 mg; niacin, 22 mg; menadione sodium bisulfite complex, 2.33 mg. 3 Provided the following per kilogram of diet: manganese, 75 mg from manganese oxide; iron, 75 mg from iron sulfate; zinc, 75 mg from zinc oxide; copper, 5 mg from copper sulfate; iodine, 0.75 mg from ethylene diamine dihydroiodide; selenium, 0.1 mg from sodium selenite. 4 Calculated values met NRC [44] requirements for poultry.
shells were air-dried at 22°C for 24 h to determine shell thickness, with micrometer [57] measurements (mm) taken near the broken equatorial edge and at the rounded end of the shell. Statistical Analysis All data were analyzed in the Statistical Laboratory of the University of California, Davis. All analyses were carried out using SAS, version 9.1 [58]. The significance of means was determined at P ≤ 0.05. Egg production data were analyzed using a mixed-model Poisson regression model, in which all replication-related effects were treated as random effects (SAS,
PROC GLIMMIX). Bird mortality data were analyzed using a Cox proportional hazards model (SAS, PROC PHREG). Bird BW and egg quality variables were analyzed using mixed model ANOVA methods (SAS, PROC MIXED). Because of issues with the normality and constant variance assumptions for these models, data were winsorized [58] as necessary to minimize the effect of outliers, and then a weighted least squares analysis was used to address problems with the constant variance assumption. Correlations among the egg quality variables were calculated within the premolt, molt, and postmolt periods by using Spearman correlations (SAS, PROC CORR).
98.96 ± 4.13 1,556.30 ± 31.02 3.00 0.53 67.51 ± 0.65 1.075 ± 1.34 0.33 ± 0.01 67.07 ± 1.74
a
128.5 ± 3.81 1,545.59 ± 34.21a 2.00 0.65a 67.86 ± 0.87a 1.073 ± 1.24 0.33 ± 0.00a 71.70 ± 1.74a
CS16 a
127.71 ± 3.61 1,574.20 ± 34.27ab 3.30 0.55a 65.58 ± 0.87ab 1.074 ± 1.24 0.33 ± 0.00a 70.61 ± 1.75a
CS8 ab
102.92 ± 3.81 1,446.30 ± 33.96bc 1.70 0.19b 60.94 ± 1.51c 1.071 ± 1.34 0.26 ± 0.01b 71.61 ± 2.99ab
C-NS
Molt phase
ab
90.79 ± 3.55 1,393.43 ± 33.90c 3.30 0.12b 64.23 ± 1.20b 1.075 ± 1.46 0.33 ± 0.01a 76.81 ± 2.62ab
C-NS-SM
73.12 ± 3.38b 1,156.73 ± 33.78d 4.60 0.03c 62.47 ± 2.07b 1.072 ± 1.89 0.27 ± 0.01b 80.94 ± 4.09b
C-NS-TP
1,545.90 ± 31.06 4.40 0.67 (0.59–0.75)a 67.87 ± 0.85a 1.073 ± 1.16 0.35 ± 0.0 65.34 ± 1.65a
CS16 1,599.17 ± 30.96 3.40 0.55 (0.49–0.62)a 67.08 ± 0.83a 1.075 ± 1.16 0.36 ± 0.0 64.13 ± 1.61a
CS8
1,568.41 ± 31.00 0 0.32 (0.29–0.37)b 66.45 ± 0.94a 1.076 ± 1.16 0.36 ± 0.0 70.74 ± 1.86b
C-NS
1,542.74 ± 30.77 0 0.22 (0.19–0.25)c 63.12 ± 0.98b 1.074 ± 1.34 0.34 ± 0.0 72.84 ± 2.06b
C-NS-SM
1,484.44 ± 30.67 8.10 0.14 (0.12–0.16)d 63.06 ± 0.95b 1.074 ± 1.46 0.34 ± 0.01 75.15 ± 2.06b
C-NS-TP
1
Means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05). CS16 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = cracked corn (97.02%) with no added salt [52], 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-SM = cracked corn (51.00%) with no added salt plus safflower meal (43.51%), 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-TP = cracked corn (9.78%) with no added salt plus tomato pomace (70%), 8-h photoperiod.
a–d
BW, g Mortality, % Egg production, eggs/hen per day Egg weight, g Specific gravity, g/cm3 Shell thickness, mm Egg Haugh units
Measurement
Postmolt phase
Table 4. Eight-week postmolt production measurements for third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns fed non-feed-removal diets1 during a 4-wk molt
1
Means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05). CS16 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = cracked corn (97.02%) with no added salt [52], 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-SM = cracked corn (51.00%) with no added salt plus safflower meal (43.51%), 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-TP = cracked corn (9.78%) with no added salt plus tomato pomace (70%), 8-h photoperiod.
a–d
Feed, g/bird per day BW, g Mortality, % Egg production, eggs/hen per day Egg weight, g Specific gravity, g/cm3 Eggshell thickness, mm Egg Haugh units
Measurement
Premolt phase
Table 3. Production measurements for third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns fed control and non-feed-removal diets1 during a 4-wk molt
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Historically in the US table egg industry, hens have been maintained in production from 80 to 110 wk, with some birds in production at 140 wk [59]. Although economic considerations may cause most producers to choose replacement flocks after the second laying cycle, industry personnel note that presently, hens with high levels of production are maintained up to 116 wk [60]. Older hens (104 d old) were fed various test diets in the present study. Although the Leghorns were no longer at peak performance, their egg production was constant and was adequate for examining the efficacy of various non-feedremoval molt diets. Moreover, results from the study will be useful to egg producers when feeding second- or third-cycle flocks where tomato pomace and safflower meal are low-cost ingredients. The hens fed the CS16 diet continued to produce eggs throughout the molt; therefore, no other conditions in the laying house induced molting. Values for measurements from the hens fed the CS16 diet are shown in Tables 3 and 4 and Figure 1a to 1f. Because the CS16 group experienced no other effects from induced molting, primary comparisons are discussed for the experimental groups CS8, C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP. Feed Consumption Mean feed consumption for all hens during premolt was 98.96 ± 4.13 g/bird per day (Table 3). During the molt phase, birds in the CS8, C-NS, and C-NS-SM groups had similar consumption, whereas consumption for hens in the C-NS-TP group was lower than that of hens in the CS8 group (P ≤ 0.05). Potentially, high fiber levels coupled with hens’ lack of familiarity with the feed and the palatability of the feed [61] may have contributed to reduced consumption of C-NS-TP [61, 62]. Investigators reported that smell, taste, color, particle size, familiarity with the feed, and brightness of light affected consumption [61]. We observed that hens fed the C-NS-TP diet produced the greatest volume of fecal matter because of greater fecal cone width and height. The observed rapid emptying of the gastrointestinal tract by hens fed C-NS-TP was likely due
to high fiber. Presumably, extending the postmolt trial phase would have resulted in similar consumption for all hens as the effects of diarrhea and lack of feed palatability subsided. BW During the Molt To follow animal care guidelines, BW loss was monitored weekly by comparing the BW of hens in the C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP groups with the BW of those in the CS8 group. Based on results of the statistical analysis, when we observed that mean BW loss of hens fed the C-NS-TP diet was more than 20% greater than that of hens fed the CS8 diet (P ≤ 0.05), the molt phase was discontinued during the fourth week. Body weight loss of hens in the C-NS-TP group continued to decrease into the first week postmolt (Figure 1a). During the molt phase, hens fed the C-NSSM and the C-NS-TP diets had the lowest BW, whereas the BW of those fed the CS8 and C-NS diets were intermediate (Table 3 and Figure 1a). The BW loss for hens fed the C-NS-TP diet was 26.5% compared with that of hens fed the CS8 diet (Table 3). These values exceeded those of researchers who have recommended no more than 20% BW loss [63, 64]. Thus, we suggest that caution be used when testing various nonfeed-removal diets for induced molting of hens. Although, in earlier reports on induced molting, it was noted that a 25% BW reduction by feed removal optimized postmolt production performance [65–68], researchers now suggest a BW reduction of 15% or lower, which was observed for the C-NS-TP diet during wk 2 of the molt (Figure 1a) [69]. We suggest, based on a reduction of 15% BW during wk 2 of the 28-d molt for hens on the C-N-TP diet, that it should be fed for 2 wk, followed by the C-NS diet for the final 2 wk. This feeding regimen would possibly 1) reduce cost because, presently, tomato pomace is a no-cost agricultural by-product; 2) mitigate the effects of BW loss, diarrhea, and mortality; and 3) promote normal postmolt egg production. During postmolt, hens gained BW rapidly (Table 4 and Figure 1a). Hens previously fed the C-NS-TP diet gained BW similarly (P ≤ 0.05) to that of all treatment groups fed during the molt (Table 4 and Figure 1a).
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Figure 1. Panel a) Body weight for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel b) Egg production for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel c) Egg weights for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel d) Specific gravity of eggs for treatment during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel e) Eggshell thickness for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel f) Egg Haugh units for treatments of premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Singe Comb White Leghorns. The disconnected lines in panels c, d, e, and f indicate insufficient data during the time period. CS16 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = cracked corn (97.02%) with no added salt [52], 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-SM = cracked corn (51.00%) with no added salt plus safflower meal (43.51%), 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-TP = cracked corn (9.78%) with no added salt plus tomato pomace (70%), 8-h photoperiod.
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Figure 1 (Continued). Panel a) Body weight for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel b) Egg production for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel c) Egg weights for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel d) Specific gravity of eggs for treatment during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel e) Eggshell thickness for treatments during premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Single Comb White Leghorns. Panel f) Egg Haugh units for treatments of premolt, molt, and postmolt of third-cycle Singe Comb White Leghorns. The disconnected lines in panels c, d, e, and f indicate insufficient data during the time period. CS16 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 16-h photoperiod; CS8 = cracked corn (68.91%) and soybean meal (20.35%) control diet, 8-h photoperiod; C-NS = cracked corn (97.02%) with no added salt [52], 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-SM = cracked corn (51.00%) with no added salt plus safflower meal (43.51%), 8-h photoperiod; C-NS-TP = cracked corn (9.78%) with no added salt plus tomato pomace (70%), 8-h photoperiod.
Patwardhan et al.: TOMATO POMACE AND SAFFLOWER MEAL Mortality No statistical differences in mortality were observed for all treatment groups during molt and postmolt (P > 0.05; Tables 3 and 4). As noted above, hens fed the C-NS-TP diet had extensive diarrhea during the molt phase. This continued for 1 wk during postmolt, as did BW loss; these conditions plus the age of hens most likely contributed to their mortality. During premolt, when 1 bird in a block (pen) with 4 cages died, if necessary, 1 of the remaining birds was moved to fill the empty space to promote communal feeding and accommodate the addition of a smaller, compact quantity of feed to the trough. This practice was stopped at the end of the premolt when we observed that birds placed in new cages (across all diets) after acclimation sometimes stopped consuming feed and water. The cause of death for birds who stopped consuming feed because of placement in new cages as well as hens who were not moved was diagnosed as renal failure. Additionally, lesions indicative of Marek’s disease were observed in 2 birds fed the CS16 diet. As expected, Salmonella Enteritidis was not detected. A total of 29 birds died during the experiment. Production Performance Egg Production. Weekly egg production during premolt, molt, and postmolt is shown in Figure 1b. Mean egg production of all hens during premolt was 0.53 eggs/hen per day (Table 3), compared with a high of 0.89 eggs/hen per day reported for commercial layers during their first laying cycle at 21 to 65 wk [59]. The overall low egg production rate was most likely due to the age of the layers [70, 71]. During molt, the mean egg production of all hens fed non-feedremoval diets was significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than that of hens in the CS8 group (Table 3 and Figure 1b). The production for hens in the C-NS and C-NS-SM groups was similar and was significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) than that of hens in the C-NS-TP group (Table 3). Hens in the C-NSTP group slowly ceased production but did not completely cease lay until the end of the molt (wk 4), whereas hens in the C-NS-SM group never ceased lay during the molt. As observed by Bell and Kuney [51], hens in the C-NS group never completely ceased production (Figure 1b).
299
As observed in Table 4, during postmolt, overall egg production was significantly different among hens previously fed various diets, with CS > C-NS > C-NS-SM > C-NS-TP (P ≤ 0.05). Hens in the C-NS-SM group ceased lay during wk 2 postmolt and returned to production during wk 3 (Figure 1b). Hens in the C-NSTP group returned to lay during wk 5 postmolt. Other investigators attributed postmolt enhancement of egg production and egg quality to BW loss, subsequent BW gain, and reproductive tract rejuvenation [71]. Although hens in our study lost BW during the molt and regained it during postmolt, examination of the reproductive tracts was not performed. Mansoori et al. [42] reported that feeding hens dried tomato pomace resulted in postmolt egg quality and egg production comparable with feed removal. The hens used in our study were most likely too old to show the type of enhanced production observed with the younger layers used by Mansoori et al. [42]. Egg Weight, Specific Gravity, and Eggshell Thickness. During the molt phase, egg weights for hens in the C-NS-SM and C-NS-TP groups were greater than the weights of eggs from hens in the C-NS group (Table 3 and Figure 1c; P ≤ 0.05). The egg weights (Table 4 and Figure 1c) during postmolt were lower for hens in the CNS-SM and C-NS-TP groups than for hens in the CS8 and C-NS groups (P ≤ 0.05). Bell and Kuney [51] reported comparable postmolt results for eggs from hens fed the C-NS diet and their control diet. Egg specific gravity was similar among all treatments groups during molt and postmolt (Tables 3 and 4, Figure 1d). Shell thickness is a crucial parameter in judging external egg quality, especially for commercial eggs, which need to be at least 0.33 mm in thickness to survive the rigors of travel to markets [72]. In our study, the shell thickness of all eggs during postmolt was comparable with the required thickness pre- and postmolt. The correlation (R2 = 0.78) between specific gravity and shell thickness is well established [72]. Our correlation coefficient for these values was approximately 0.58 (data not shown). Keshavarz and Quimby [33] also reported a positive correlation (correlation coefficient not provided) between these values. No other correlations above 0.50 between measurements were found in our statistical analysis.
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300 During molt, hens in the C-NS and C-NSTP groups produced statistically similar results for eggshell thickness, which were significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than those for other groups (Table 3 and Figure 1e). When comparing dietary contents of Ca, chloride, available P, and Na provided, chloride was low for the C-NS and C-NS-TP diets (Table 1). The Na:chloride ratio is important for eggshell strength [73]. Eggshell strength is correlated positively with specific gravity and eggshell thickness [72]. The much lower CP, lysine, methionine, cysteine, and Ca levels of the C-NS diet (Table 2) may have caused greater complications in reference to eggshell thickness for the C-NS-TP group than for the C-NS-SM group. This observation may also be related to the significantly lower comparable bone density for hens fed the C-NS-TP diet noted in a related study [74]. Eggshell thickness was similar (P > 0.05) across all treatment groups during the postmolt period (Table 4 and Figure 1e). HU. Our results support the findings of others who reported that molted hens produce eggs with higher HU than do unmolted ones [42]. Mean premolt egg HU of 67.07 ± 1.74 increased for all treatment groups during the molt phase (Table 3 and Figure 1f). The egg HU from hens fed the C-NS and C-NS-SM diets were similar to the egg HU from hens fed the CS8 diet during the molt. Hens fed the C-NS-TP diet produced eggs with a significantly higher HU value than those from hens fed all other diets (P ≤ 0.05). More important, postmolt egg HU for hens in the C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP groups were higher than those from hens in the CS8 group (P ≤ 0.05; Table 4 and Figure 1e). Therefore, the C-NS-TP diet may have value as a molt diet if palatability can be enhanced or if it can be fed for 2 wk before a low-salt diet.
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
1. Feeding the C-NS-SM diet resulted in feed consumption and BW comparable with feeding the C-NS diet. 2. Hens fed the C-NS-TP diet exhibited more diarrhea and lost a greater percentage of BW than did hens fed the other diets.
3. Egg production from hens fed all 3 diets (C-NS, C-NS-SM, and C-NS-TP) was lower than that of hens fed the CS8 diet. 4. Except for egg production, measurements for hens in the C-NS-TP and CNS-SM groups were comparable with those of hens in the C-NS group. 5. Hens in the C-NS-TP group produced a significantly higher egg HU value than did hens in the CS8, C-NS, and C-NSSM groups (P ≤ 0.05). 6. Feeding C-NS-TP at less than 70% of the diet or for only 2 wk when BW is lower than recommended, followed by feeding of the C-NS diet for 2 wk, should be investigated.
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank the personnel at the Campbell Soup Company (Dixon, CA); Animal Science Feed Mill, Cole Facility, and Poultry Facility (University of California, Davis); and the undergraduates Michelle Sanborn, Tanya Pardo, Sarah El Mossalamy, and San Lui (University of California, Davis) for their assistance. Additionally, we thank the J. S. West Company (Delhi, CA) for the Single Comb White Leghorns.