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Tourism in Cuba in the 1990s: back to the future?
Arguably, it is more a case of catching up and helping to sustain what is current rather than breaking new ground. This, perhaps, is not surprising given the population size which does bring into question the viability of any subatantial attraction; compare the lack of private sector tourism projects of any scale. However, given the low base of visitor numbers even a small but sustained, gradual growth in demand for holidays potentially offers substantial benefits to the myriad of small businesses involved. More substantial growth is a matter of conjecture. What will happen once the initial flurry of activity, initiatives and projects settles and peace prevails. as one sincerely hopes it will, is open to debate. What is likely is that the favoured support received will decline, with a concomitant increase in demand for indigenous resources. The future development of tourism will thus become more dependent on actual demand, potentially exacerbating weaknesses in the product portfolio. The key role players and agents will be faced with a new set of problems. However, they have persevered in the face of adversity and the unexpected; thus, given their enthusiasm and abilities, there is little to doubt that they will address tomorrow’s problems with the notable optimism of the past. David Leslie Department of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure Management Glasgow (hledonian University Park Campus I Park Drive Glasgow G-3 61~P, Scotland
References ‘Terry. E ‘Peace dividend for tourism’ Lei.Sl,i?’o/‘pc’Yfunirir.s IYY3 ( 127) 15 ‘IJlhtcr Television Murkering Guide 10 Nor/hcrn Idand Marketing and Research Department. Ulster Television. Belfast ‘Ryder. C‘ ‘Northern Ireland’ Dai/y Tdegruph I6 January IYYI ‘Lcslic. D ‘Tourism and Northern lrcland _ a trouhlcd time lY67-IYYI’. unpublished hlnhtcr of Philosophy thesis. University 01 Lllster. September 1991 ‘Lcslic. D, McGurran, F and McDowell, D A ‘European Regional Development Fund and Northern Ireland: the additional-
ity issue‘ J Public
Policy
/ion 1989 4 (3) 32--U) “Horwath & Horwath Tourism Srudy. Horwath
und AdtninktrriNorrkrn Idand & llorw;tth, Loll-
don (1980) ‘Department of Economic Development (NI) Touri.sm Policy Guiddinrt .Ytu~nwrrr (1986) ‘Graham, C ‘(‘ritcria for government sup port‘ in McDowell. D A ;md Leslie, D (eds) Pkmning fiv Tourism crncf Leisure University of Ulster (IYXX) ‘Bloomfield. Sir Kenneth [then Head t)f the Northern Ireland Civil Service] ‘Northcm Ireland. hospitality and tourism‘ 111 McDowell. D A and Leslie. D (cds) Torrrism Resourw~: I.SSIW~, P/annin~ trnri I)(,velopmen~ University of Ulster (IYYI) Tourism rrntl flrcj “‘Horwath & Horwath Northern Irelund Ecorrom~, London ( I0X-I) “Nicholson-l.ord, D Tlfc, (;rwrrinK 01 Ciries Routlctlgc & Kcgan P;tul. Londrm (19X7) “Judge. E “I’hc role of tourism in the regional and urban economy’ Regionul Sludies Associurion Newdefter I YXY ( 164) “Roberts. P Ithcn Chairman of the Kcgional Studies Association] cluotcd in
Judge. E ‘The role of tourism in the rcgional and urban economy’ Re,qionul .Sfudic~.t Axsociation Nrwslenc~r I YXY ( 164) “Henderson. I ‘The Northern Ireland
cx-
pcrience’ paper presented at the conlercnce on ‘Tourism - il Vital Force foi Peace‘, Vancouver. C;mada. IYXX 15NITB Ar1r71& .Srrrti.~rics (vcarly) ‘“NITB lYY0 “Buckley. P J and Klemm. M ‘The dechnc of tourism in Northern Ireland - the GIUS~S Tourism Munqem~~nt 1901 14 (J) ‘XETBINITB/STBIWTB ;%c, 1 ‘k Ir,rtrr.\r (annual) “‘NIHCA .Suhnli.ssro,r /o I’our~srn Rct~rcw Group Northern Irclanc Hotclicrh zlnd Caterers Association Bclf;l\t. (IYXY) “‘Dcpartmcnt of Economic Development (NI) Tour/w in .Yorrhc,rn /rd~Ind: (I View fo rhe Fu/uw. HMSO. London ( I’IXY) “NITB Visitor Reporr (IWO) ‘2Krippcndorf. J /‘/I(, ilolrcicr~ ,MnXcrt Hcinemann. Oxlord ( lYX~7) “Pcarcc. P L. “l’ourihm-rcsidcnt impacts: cxamplcs, cxpl3n;itions ;md cmcrglng hoIlltiom’ in Theobald. W (cd) Glohrrl 7intnvrn - ihe Nctf llrc~utic Buttcrworthtlcincmann. Oxiortl ( IWI)
Tourism in Cuba in the 1990s: back to the future? In order to understand tourism in Cuba and what the situation of the tourism sector has been and will be in the future, it is necessary to define what the term tourism means for both the Cuban government and the Cuban it people. For the Cuban government, means the development of foreign tourism for political purposes and not domestic tourism. In most countries today travel and tourism has strong linkages to cultural pursuits and provides opportunities to increase worldwide understanding and mutual goodwill. In Cuba it is different. In Cuba travel and tourism is an activity that allows the government to support its ideas through linkages to foreign policy initiatives. For the Cuban govcrnment this is the first and major purpose of tourism. Travel and tourism is also seen as a means of economic development by the Cuban government, but the Cuban people see this somewhat differently. For the Cuban people, tourism is synonymous with economic, social and environmental decline. They see
tourism as the only current alternative way to survive, the only way to feed and clothe themselves adequately. For example, Cuban nationals with the means to travel abroad try not to spend hard currency in foreign countries. Currency they obtain abroad (gifts, economic help. etc) is taken back to Cuba and used by them to pay living expenses.
Rebirth and growth of the Cuban tourism industry Traditionally, Cuba was one sectors. In the the principal was Cuba. In
travel and tourism in of the main economic pre-revolution period, Caribbean destination 19%. 272 266 foreign tourists visited Cuba, but in lY50, the year of the revolution. tourism virtually disappeared from Cuba. This was an understandable cessive
negative
reaction social
to the
impacts
ex-
of tour-
ism in Cuba before the revolution, when international tourism was based on prostitution and gambling in addition to sun. sand and $urf.’ In his lY60
Reports loo0
tourists” with revenues US$900 miIlion.4
Sources: WTO, INTUR, Cuba News 3
Tourism and Cuba’s worsening economy
600-
2400‘C
1982
I984
1986
I988 Year
1990
1992
1994,
Figure 1
??
book on the Cuban revolution C Wright Mills describes the prior situation through one of his composite interviews with Cuban revolutionaries:
the development of charter flights, mainly from Western Europe; ?? stepped-up promotion; ?? payment in freely convertible currencies at tourist establishments.
Some of you [Yankees] came down just to lie in the sun or on the beaches we Cubans were not allowed to use. But some of you came to gamble and to whore in Havana, sin was also the big money for the few,
Figure 1 shows the growth in numbers of international tourists arriving in Cuba annually between 1981 and 1994.* Cuba had hoped to receive 706 401 foreign tourists by the end of 1994, resulting in income of US$631 million, but the Cuban government reported that the year’s total would actually surpass 850 000 foreign
and every filthy practice of the brothel for girls 12 and 14 years old. Nobody knows how many of our sisters were whores. . In Havana, two years before the downfall of the tyranny, there were some 270 overcrowded brothels, there were dozens of hotels and motels renting rooms by the hour, and there were over 700 bars congested with meseras - or ‘hostesses’ - the first step towards prostitution. Well that’s over We’ve made laws and we’re sticking to them Our sisters are not going to be whores for Yankees any more. (pp. 15, 16)
In the 1970s Cuba initiated a return to international tourism, primarily to reduce its dependence on the sugar industry and to obtain substantial hard currency. Package tours to Cuba were initiated from Canada during the early 1970s and the American travel ban to Cuba was temporarily lifted in 1977.’ In the 198Os, the Cuban government began a great effort to promote three Ss tourism: sea, sun and sand, especially before the collapse of the Soviet Union and the socialist bloc. By the mid-1980s the country received a higher number of international tourists than in 1958. The factors that contributed to the fast re-establishment of Cuba’s travel and tourism industry were:
* Sources
consulted were: from 1981 to 1985, Compendium of Tourism Statistics. WTO; from 1986 to 1990, a 1992 article in the Argentine journal Estudios y Perspectivas en Turismo 1 (2) by J Alverez, P T More and A Ferriol, ‘Modelo turistico de Cuba’, 118-135; from 1991 to 1993, CubaNews 1994 2 (9), Miami Herald Publishing Company; 1994 estimated by the Cuban government, CubaNews 1994 2 (5), Miami Herald Publishing Company.
* Figures cited from page 51 of a 20 February 1995 cover story on Cuba published in Time magazine 145 (7), written by Kevin Fedarko and reported by Cathy Booth in Havana. ’ In Cuba, the Gross Social Product is equivalent to the term Gross Domestic Product (GDP) used in the United States, and consistent with the World Bank definitions. GDP is the value of all goods and services produced domesticially.
Source: Cuba News .
2.5 -
‘. ‘.
v) 2.0 $ a ‘c1 e 1.5 2 ._ E l.O-
Figure 2
--b Tourism - - 0 - - Medical prod. --x--Tobacco _- a - - Fruit --,*.--Fish --+--Nickel --,.,--sugar
‘\ ‘\
”
the introduction of the tourist card; ?? the exemption of tourists from customs declarations;
In the last few years, the Cuban economy has continued to worsen. The Gross Social Product’ has declined by 46% in five years because of reduced international trade, particularly in respect of sugar exports (see Figure 2).’ The principal reasons are low productivity, lack of hard currency, and the lack of oil and general supplies. The 1994 Gross Social Product declined by about 6% compared with 1993.’ ‘Cuba’s No. 1 money earner, the sugar crop, amounted to less than 4 million tons [last] year - a level not seen for decades. The island’s factories are producing at only 30% capacity, giving rise to shortages in everything from clothes and cosmetics to pots and pans.‘$ The tourism industry is the most dynamic sector of the Cuban economy and a growing international trade sector, Cuba’s second largest source of hard currency. Tourism is a service
3.0
??
56
than
800-
: 2 co c
of more
?? . ?? .
\
‘\ ‘. ‘0..
1991
**.*
-*._
**....._.___*
1993
1992 Year
I994
industry and large amounts of tradable business services have been exported by the Cuban government. From the tourist movement between Cuba and the United States in the last two years, the Cuban government received the following annual average amounts of revenue: * * $3.9 million from invitation letters to persons who live in Cuba and do not receive visas to travel to the USA; $22.9 million from invitation letters to persons who live in Cuba and receive visas.L3 $19 million to obtain permission to extend stays in the USA for Cuban nationals; $2.2 million from permits to extend stays in Cuba by Cuban-American citizens. Similarly. the role of tourism as an export sector includes all the revenue accrued from food and transportation generated by international tourists during their stay in Cuba. For example. in the same period, the Cuban government received the following gain: ??
??
$11.5 million from travel and travel arrangements to Cuba; $385 million from food and lodging.
Cuban tourism is also a political business. As a result of this, through travel agencies. Cuba provides other services, for which it has annually received in the last two years the following in revenue: $40 million, from fees collected to send hard currency to Cuba; $1.5 million, from fees collected to send goods and food to residents in Cuba; $400 million sent to Cuban nationals from Cuban Americans. In total, this represents $886 million per year, that is to say approximately $1.7 billion in revenue were received from these sources in 1992 and 1993. The lJS Treasury Department estimated that the new sanctions
** All figures are unpublished. They were ohtained by personal effort from contacts in Cuba.
the Cuban govermnent and two Spanish firms, Endesa and Iberia Travel, also signed an agreement to build three hotels in Varadero Beach and Cayo Coca Key, providing 1600 rooms in total; Jamaica and Cuba have reached an agreement to co-promote tourism and cruise packages; Commonwealth Hospitality Inc, a Canadian company. signed an agreement to manage three hotels in Marea del Portillo Beach; a Chilean enterprise, Santa Cruz Real Estate Company, in cooperation with the Cuban firm Horizonte has built a four-star hotel in Varadero Beach.
announced by President Clinton on 20 August 1994 - banning remittances and most travel to the island by exiles and tmigrks - will cut monetary transfers to Cuba by at least $150 million annually.’ Flights between Miami and Cuba have also been scaled back; previously Miami charter companies offered 10 weekly flights; they now offer only three per week. In terms of reduction of tourist flows to Cuba. this situation and the rafter crisis means that this year between 40 000 and 50 000 tourists will not travel to Cuba.
International investment in Cuban tourism In 1993 national tourism in Cuba.
and 1994 a series of interjoint ventures and other new investments were announced Among them:‘+
six hotels will be built by the Cuban enterprise Cubanacan and Golden Tulip Hotels of The Netherlands; one hotel will be built in Cayo Coca Key by the Spanish company Guitart Hotels; Super Club of Jamaica is opening one hotel in Varadero Beach; Spain’s C Hotels and Forte Hotels of Great Britain took over the management of two hotels in Havana and in Varadero; Pizza Nova of Toronto. Canada opened several restaurants in hotels operated by Cuba’s Cubanacan; Roma Restaurant Supply Ltd from Italy improved their services and technology supplied to Cuba; Rogner International Hotels and Resorts, an Austrian hotel chain, plans to build a IOO-bed tourist resort on Cayo Largo Key; Delta Hotels, a Canadian group, took over management of three hotels in Santiago de Cuba and Holguin Provinces. They also signed an agreement to build four hotels in Santiago de Cuba city and to provide electrical supplies. plumbing, doors, windows and soft goods for foreign projects: ‘+ Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) information.
Foreign capital has been crucial to the rebirth of the tourism sector in Cuba. The Cuban government and its laws limit participation of foreign capital to 49%. allowing for exceptions made by the Executive Committee of the Council of Ministers. Some companies have partnerships with Cuba providing a 5050 division of the profits. Until recently, most foreign inveatment in Cuba has come from Spain. Today, five Spanish firms operate hotels in Cuba: Raytur, Guitart Hotels, Ibercu. Sol Melia Group and Kawama Caribbean Hotels. As of 1993 there were 20 800 highquality hotel rooms in Cuba. They were principally located in Varadero Beach, Havana and the keys alongside the Cuban coastline -- including Cayo Largo Key. Sabinal Key and Fragoso Key.
Economic reforms and the future of tourism in Cuba What is the future of tourism in Cuba’! Cuba is an island that depends on exports and imports, and tourism is growing in importance as one of Cuba’s principal exports. Cuba finished each of the first four years of this decade with a small trade surplus:“? ??
$197 million
surplus
in 19Yl:
??
$382
million
surplus
in lYY2;
??
$270
million
surplus
in 1993;
*iThesc figures were calculated according to the information published in C’ubaNcws.
57
Reports ??
$479 million surplus mated in September.
in 1994, esti-
In 1993 and 1994 the Cuban government announced and approved several actions toward economic reform that would stimulate production. These actions are, among others: dollarization of the economy, foreign investments, administrative reself-employment, organization of government agencies, income and personal property taxes, reduction of subsidies, agricultural cooperatives for public employees, establishment of farmers’ markets, and higher domestic prices for basic goods and services. Dollarization of the economy. Through this measure the government hopes to capture hard currency in the hands of Cuban nationals, but Cubans still prefer to buy on the black market which offers products at lower prices. Foreign investments. The Cuban government has entered into a great number of agreements with many countries, granting concessions in petroleum, mining and telecommunications. In the case of tourism, foreign investments have affected the number of jobs. For example, in the Havana Libre hotel that employed more than 1000 workers, the workforce was reduced by 50%. Another company, Iberostar SA of Spain, closed the Triton hotel to remodel it and slashed its total workforce by nearly 75%, from 750 employees to 180.’ In the opinion of many foreign managers, there are many problems with the Cuban labor force for the tourism industry: In most cases, workers have improvised qualifications: professors, engineers and other specialists are working in hotels and restaurants with the goal of receiving tips in hard currency.8 The average pay for tourism workers is very low: 250 pesos a month, worth only about $3.00 on the black marketx Workers must give 40% of their tips to the Cuban Communist Party: 10% for the party itself and 30% for other workers who
58
??
do not have the possibility of earning tips: eg cooks, busboys and dishwashers.* A lack of worker customer service orientation expected by many foreign tourists results in low repeat visitation.
Self-employment. A total of licenses have been granted employment, but the Cuban ment has limited the type, scope of these businesses.
151 130 for selfgovernsize and
Reorganization of administrative apparatus. Sixteen governmental agencies have been eliminated and six new ministries were created in 199394. The reorganization changes include transforming the National Tourism Institute (INTUR) into the Ministry of Tourism. The present minister has said that the rigid structure of INTUR had made marketing difficult. The reorganization reforms include the authorization of foreign hotel managers and the creation of a new Cuban hotels group; Gran Caribe, composed of four- and five-star hotels and well-known restaurants such as Floridita and La Bodeguita del Medio; Horizonte, which group three-star hotels; Islazul, which includes hotels with special facilities for particular domestic Cuban vacationers, such as honeymooners. The tourist groups Cubanacan and Gaviota will remain as they were prior to the reform. Some analysts have estimated that this restructuring will result in the loss of 500 000 jobs.” System of taxes. In order to increase revenues, the Cuban government has announced the introduction of taxes on income and personal property. Reduction of subsidies. A reduction of subsidies has increased the prices of cigarettes, alcoholic beverages and fuel. This has also, for the first time, established prices for cultural and sports activities which previously were free. Other reforms. Other reforms include: (1) the establishment of agricultural cooperatives on state lands which public employees can join; (2) the imple-
mentation of higher domestic prices, especially for basic goods and services, such as electricity, communications and transportation; and (3) the establishment of farmers’ markets, as part of an experiment by the government to overcome food shortages. The reforms undertaken in 1994 will be crucial for the coming years. The most pressing need for the Cuban government will continue to be access to foreign capital, forced by the present circumstances. However, the main problem facing the Cuban tourism industry is still the lack of cash. According to CubaNews, half of Cuba’s tourism receipts are eaten up by sales commissions, tour operators, airlines, imported tourism supplies and other expenses. The development of travel and tourism in Cuba depends on the importation of food and goods.
Environmental impacts of tourism development In Cuba, during the first half of the 20th century, economic and population growth devastated a substantial amount of forest along with the original fauna. and undisturbed zones were limited to mountains, swamps and keys. With the revolution of 1959 environmental institutions were created for the study, protection and conservation of natural resources. However, today the following environmental problems surpass those existing in 1959: soil erosion, salinization of productive soil, water pollution, deforestation, extinction or severe reduction of native species and erosion of the beaches.“’ The irrational building of hotels, roads and houses on sand dunes is the principal cause of soil erosion. Construction on the sand dunes and marine pollution are the main problems at Varadero Beach. Cuban tourism development is based on natural resources, especially beaches. Although Cuba has 3571 miles of coastline, 1300 offshore islands and 280 virgin sand beaches, tourism development has been concentrated in only a few coastline areas, and the level of development has been relatively low. The Cuban authority for urban planning recently restricted
new development, mainly in Varadero Beach, an area that remains 50% undeveloped. However, the Cuban authority also plans to diversify tourism into other areas, such as Trinidad, a small and old colonial city with 16th century architecture; the north coast of Holguin Province; several districts outside Havana; and the keys north of Ciego de Avila and Camaguey. One example of tourism development in the coastal keys illustrates the environmental problems affecting the Cuban archipelago. Like most countries, Cuba has a variety of environmental problems brought about by development decisions made without regard for future consequences, particularly in tourist areas where natural rebourccs are the chief attractions. This is nothing new. The environmental impacts of tourism were rccosnized in the Manila Declaration on World Tourism. The following example indicates a need to pay closer attention to wise resource management in C‘uba. particularly with respect to the twact1c\.
In order to make the keys located in the north and on the south side of the main island accessible to tourists, the Cuban government, and specifically Fidel Castro. established a program to join these keys with a series of stone roads called ‘pedraplenes’ (which means ‘stone and embankment’), blocking substantial sea water and the normal marine currents between the coastline and the keys. This action has resulted in irreparable damage and disturbance to the native tlora and fauna. Sea life has been drastically reduced in all these areas, with an accompanying decrease in the fishing resource. The result was predictable: entire areas of these waters have been reduced to salty lagoons. with low oxygen levels and little life. These types of arcas (the keys) have a high fragility. When their carrying capacity and saturation levels are exceeded. there will be a number of negative effects. Rather than choosing to avoid the predicted environmental problems, it was more important for the Cuban government to offer international tourists a unique tourist attraction, with rare ecosystems, on scarce land; and in a place where it is
also difficult to provide fresh water. electricity and other infrastructure rt*quirements.
Socioeconomic impacts of tourism in Cuba One of the reasons tourism is so important economically is that it is labor intensive. Tourism offers ;I promising source of new jobs in Cuba, demanding large numbers of highly skilled workers. and well-trained and educated managers. However, the classic role of tourism i1S a great economic contributor to the growth of domestic industries - eg agriculture. food processing - is not at present totally rc:tlized in Cuba. The tourism impact on the local economy and the henetlts from tourism are usually in such catcgories as employment, income and Iiiversification of the economic bate. However, none of these positive inpacts occurs in Cuba. Often one of the negative effects of tourism is the appearance of \oc~al and pathology, including prostitution robbery. Sometimes. these outconleh are responses to direct tourist tlemands, but in other case\. for cxaml)le in Cuba. these phenomena result from the total ahsenct: of social and matcrial satisfaction for the (‘uban people. Three years ago, it was not infrequent that Cubans were denied access to their own beaches, because they coilId not pay in hard currency. The return ot’ prostitution associated with tourism is one of the most disturbing recent developments in Cuba. This is mainly due to the desperate economic condition of the Cuban people. and is :I consequence of the social and economic politics of the Cuban government. The cost of enjoying one night with ;I young Cuban girl is equivalent to one pail of jeans, or two bars of soap. or $10-20 ~ equivalent to more than a month’s salary there. Prostitition may be viewed as a necessary means of economic survival by many Cubans. who see that the foreign tourists rat while they are hungry. There is a related negative impact on education stemming from foreign tourism that is also alarming. Many young Cuhans at the universities do
not want to study. They prefer to work in hotels, restaurants and bars linked with foreign tourism. This is because they know they can receive dollars in these places, worth much more to them economically than the wages they could earn with university degrees.
Outlook for the future By the year 2000. the (.‘uhan government hopes to receive I .5 million foreign
tourists
the numher
annually. arriving
almost now.
How
twice will
this affect Cuba and the Cuban pco-
pie? It will obviously increase the flow of hard currency into (‘uba which the Cuban government so Ibadly needs. It will also help the Cuban government to recover from the current economic crisis and contribute to ;I normali~ation of foreign trade anci foreign police initiatives. The Cuban pcoplc. at I~;IXI those working outside the tourism industry. are not likely to benefit greatly from this projected growth in international tourism. On the contr;iry, it may rcpresent a high social cost for them. as indicated by the return of prostitution as ;I necessilry eLiI. Marc tourist dollars are likely to result in more prostitution and other negative social impacts. There may also he denial of access for Cuban nat ronal to more pobernment-owned beaches. park\. hotels and stores which the Cuban government designates for the \ole benefit of increasing number\ of foreign tourists. Environmental impacts on beach areas and other natural rcsources from tourism developnicnt arc also likely to continur: at an ,icccleratcd pace. More irreversible damage to the native fauna and flora along the Cuban coastline ib almost certain to occur. given the Cuban government’s policies for tourism Idevelopment at any cost tIow will the projected increase In foreign tourism for Cuba affect other countries in the Caribbean basin? The increases reported in recent years worry Cuba’s Caribbean neighbor>. In the Bahamas, for example. tourism was born after the Cuban revolution. when United States residents could no longer visit Cuba and when most ele-
Reports ments of the pre-revolutionary tourism industry were eliminated. The rebirth and growth of that industry may result in strong competition with the Bahamas and other Caribbean neighbors of Cuba for foreign tourists. In conclusion, it is possible to say that while the Cuban government is benefiting from the success and growth of the Cuban tourism industry, the Cuban people are seeing the loss of many of the benefits gained at the beginning of their revolution. Major changes in policy by the Cuban government are needed to reverse what appear to be long-term trends of social and environmental decline associated with the growing international tourism industry in Cuba.
References ‘Wright Mills, C Listen Yankee, The Revolution in Cuba Ballantine Books, New York (1960) ‘Hinch, T D ‘Cuban tourism industry, its re-emergence and future’ Tourism Management 11 (3) 214-226 ‘CubaNews 1994 2 (9) and 2 (5), Miami Herald Publishing Company 4Diario Las Americas 3 October 1994, 1 ‘The source of these figures is CubaNews 1994 2 (9). Miami Herald Publishing Company ‘CubaNews 1994 2 (1). Miami Herald Publishing Company ‘Miami Herald 5 October 1994, 9A ‘CubaNews 1994 2 (3), Miami Herald Publishing Company “CubaNews 1994 2 (5). Miami Herald Publishing Company “‘CubaNews 1994 2 (I), Miami Herald Publishing Company
Amparo E Avella University of Havana, Cuba and Allan S Mills Recreation, Parks, and Tourism Program, Virginia Commonwealth University, PO Box 842037, Richmond, VA 23284-2037, USA
formerly
A profile of UK outbound ‘environmentally friendly’ tour operators The latter years of the 1980s and the early 1990s have been synchronous with increasing attention being paid to the ‘eco-tourist’ by the tourism industry, tourism destinations and academics. The concept has been welcomed in the travel trade as proof that the industry is becoming more environmentally responsive whilst simultaneously being discredited in some quarters as a phenomenon that could lead to the destruction of some of the most fragile parts of the world eco-system. There now seems to be a plethora of companies offering ‘green’ and ‘eco’ holidays. The purpose of this article is to provide a market profile of UK outbound tour operators who promote a green or environmentally friendly product.
The problems of ‘mass tourism’ discussed in Turner and Ash’s polemic text The Golden Hordes are now well known.’ In response to these problems and a wider environmental awareness in western consumerist society, the late 1980s and early 1990s have seen the development and promotion of alternative forms of tourism.
60
the implicit message being environmental friendliness. Probably the most publicized component of the portfolio of alternative tourism products on the market is eco-tourism. The importance of this growing market segment to the tourism industry was highlighted in a recent newspaper report.’ TUI, the
large German tour operator, is reported to have said: ‘in eight years there will be no more tours that are incompatible with the environment’. The same article draws attention to a recent study conducted by the International Centre for Eco-tourism Research at Griffith University in Australia which concluded that ecotourism is the fastest growing subsector of the international tourism industry. It has a growth rate three times that of tourism overall. According to A Blaza of the World Travel and Tourism Environmental Research Centre at the ‘Hosts-Guests: Partners in Development’ conference, in March 1994, the eco-tourism market constitutes around 5% of the international tourism market. The terminologies used in connection with eco-tourism are varied. The following terms have been used in reference to the concept of ‘ecotourism’; nature-based tourism. environment-friendly tourism, alternative, responsible, ethical, sustainable, green and appropriate t0urism.j There are also numerous definitions of eco-tourism.’ Implicit in all the definitions is respect or friendliness for the physical and cultural environment, ie developing a form of tourism that is nondamaging and non-degrading; subject to adequate and appropriate management controls; and that offers financial contributions for the protection of indigenous cultures and environments. The dangers of promoting tourism to fragile areas under the banner of eco-tourism without proper controls and regulation may be no different than that of mass tourism. The economic pressures for utilization of natural resources are high.‘.’ The attitudes of tour operators who promote the nature and culture of destinations through imagery to appeal to their potential market will therefore be instrumental in determining the pace of change and sustainability of those areas they choose to include in their tour programmes.
Survey of UK outbound tour oprators Against
this background
a study was
References ‘Terry. E ‘Peace dividend for tourism’ Lei.Sl,i?’o/‘pc’Yfunirir.s IYY3 ( 127) 15 ‘IJlhtcr Television Murkering Guide 10 Nor/hcrn Idand Marketing and Research Department. Ulster Television. Belfast ‘Ryder. C‘ ‘Northern Ireland’ Dai/y Tdegruph I6 January IYYI ‘Lcslic. D ‘Tourism and Northern lrcland _ a trouhlcd time lY67-IYYI’. unpublished hlnhtcr of Philosophy thesis. University 01 Lllster. September 1991 ‘Lcslic. D, McGurran, F and McDowell, D A ‘European Regional Development Fund and Northern Ireland: the additional-
ity issue‘ J Public
Policy
/ion 1989 4 (3) 32--U) “Horwath & Horwath Tourism Srudy. Horwath
und AdtninktrriNorrkrn Idand & llorw;tth, Loll-
don (1980) ‘Department of Economic Development (NI) Touri.sm Policy Guiddinrt .Ytu~nwrrr (1986) ‘Graham, C ‘(‘ritcria for government sup port‘ in McDowell. D A ;md Leslie, D (eds) Pkmning fiv Tourism crncf Leisure University of Ulster (IYXX) ‘Bloomfield. Sir Kenneth [then Head t)f the Northern Ireland Civil Service] ‘Northcm Ireland. hospitality and tourism‘ 111 McDowell. D A and Leslie. D (cds) Torrrism Resourw~: I.SSIW~, P/annin~ trnri I)(,velopmen~ University of Ulster (IYYI) Tourism rrntl flrcj “‘Horwath & Horwath Northern Irelund Ecorrom~, London ( I0X-I) “Nicholson-l.ord, D Tlfc, (;rwrrinK 01 Ciries Routlctlgc & Kcgan P;tul. Londrm (19X7) “Judge. E “I’hc role of tourism in the regional and urban economy’ Regionul Sludies Associurion Newdefter I YXY ( 164) “Roberts. P Ithcn Chairman of the Kcgional Studies Association] cluotcd in
Judge. E ‘The role of tourism in the rcgional and urban economy’ Re,qionul .Sfudic~.t Axsociation Nrwslenc~r I YXY ( 164) “Henderson. I ‘The Northern Ireland
cx-
pcrience’ paper presented at the conlercnce on ‘Tourism - il Vital Force foi Peace‘, Vancouver. C;mada. IYXX 15NITB Ar1r71& .Srrrti.~rics (vcarly) ‘“NITB lYY0 “Buckley. P J and Klemm. M ‘The dechnc of tourism in Northern Ireland - the GIUS~S Tourism Munqem~~nt 1901 14 (J) ‘XETBINITB/STBIWTB ;%c, 1 ‘k Ir,rtrr.\r (annual) “‘NIHCA .Suhnli.ssro,r /o I’our~srn Rct~rcw Group Northern Irclanc Hotclicrh zlnd Caterers Association Bclf;l\t. (IYXY) “‘Dcpartmcnt of Economic Development (NI) Tour/w in .Yorrhc,rn /rd~Ind: (I View fo rhe Fu/uw. HMSO. London ( I’IXY) “NITB Visitor Reporr (IWO) ‘2Krippcndorf. J /‘/I(, ilolrcicr~ ,MnXcrt Hcinemann. Oxlord ( lYX~7) “Pcarcc. P L. “l’ourihm-rcsidcnt impacts: cxamplcs, cxpl3n;itions ;md cmcrglng hoIlltiom’ in Theobald. W (cd) Glohrrl 7intnvrn - ihe Nctf llrc~utic Buttcrworthtlcincmann. Oxiortl ( IWI)
Tourism in Cuba in the 1990s: back to the future? In order to understand tourism in Cuba and what the situation of the tourism sector has been and will be in the future, it is necessary to define what the term tourism means for both the Cuban government and the Cuban it people. For the Cuban government, means the development of foreign tourism for political purposes and not domestic tourism. In most countries today travel and tourism has strong linkages to cultural pursuits and provides opportunities to increase worldwide understanding and mutual goodwill. In Cuba it is different. In Cuba travel and tourism is an activity that allows the government to support its ideas through linkages to foreign policy initiatives. For the Cuban govcrnment this is the first and major purpose of tourism. Travel and tourism is also seen as a means of economic development by the Cuban government, but the Cuban people see this somewhat differently. For the Cuban people, tourism is synonymous with economic, social and environmental decline. They see
tourism as the only current alternative way to survive, the only way to feed and clothe themselves adequately. For example, Cuban nationals with the means to travel abroad try not to spend hard currency in foreign countries. Currency they obtain abroad (gifts, economic help. etc) is taken back to Cuba and used by them to pay living expenses.
Rebirth and growth of the Cuban tourism industry Traditionally, Cuba was one sectors. In the the principal was Cuba. In
travel and tourism in of the main economic pre-revolution period, Caribbean destination 19%. 272 266 foreign tourists visited Cuba, but in lY50, the year of the revolution. tourism virtually disappeared from Cuba. This was an understandable cessive
negative
reaction social
to the
impacts
ex-
of tour-
ism in Cuba before the revolution, when international tourism was based on prostitution and gambling in addition to sun. sand and $urf.’ In his lY60
Reports loo0
tourists” with revenues US$900 miIlion.4
Sources: WTO, INTUR, Cuba News 3
Tourism and Cuba’s worsening economy
600-
2400‘C
1982
I984
1986
I988 Year
1990
1992
1994,
Figure 1
??
book on the Cuban revolution C Wright Mills describes the prior situation through one of his composite interviews with Cuban revolutionaries:
the development of charter flights, mainly from Western Europe; ?? stepped-up promotion; ?? payment in freely convertible currencies at tourist establishments.
Some of you [Yankees] came down just to lie in the sun or on the beaches we Cubans were not allowed to use. But some of you came to gamble and to whore in Havana, sin was also the big money for the few,
Figure 1 shows the growth in numbers of international tourists arriving in Cuba annually between 1981 and 1994.* Cuba had hoped to receive 706 401 foreign tourists by the end of 1994, resulting in income of US$631 million, but the Cuban government reported that the year’s total would actually surpass 850 000 foreign
and every filthy practice of the brothel for girls 12 and 14 years old. Nobody knows how many of our sisters were whores. . In Havana, two years before the downfall of the tyranny, there were some 270 overcrowded brothels, there were dozens of hotels and motels renting rooms by the hour, and there were over 700 bars congested with meseras - or ‘hostesses’ - the first step towards prostitution. Well that’s over We’ve made laws and we’re sticking to them Our sisters are not going to be whores for Yankees any more. (pp. 15, 16)
In the 1970s Cuba initiated a return to international tourism, primarily to reduce its dependence on the sugar industry and to obtain substantial hard currency. Package tours to Cuba were initiated from Canada during the early 1970s and the American travel ban to Cuba was temporarily lifted in 1977.’ In the 198Os, the Cuban government began a great effort to promote three Ss tourism: sea, sun and sand, especially before the collapse of the Soviet Union and the socialist bloc. By the mid-1980s the country received a higher number of international tourists than in 1958. The factors that contributed to the fast re-establishment of Cuba’s travel and tourism industry were:
* Sources
consulted were: from 1981 to 1985, Compendium of Tourism Statistics. WTO; from 1986 to 1990, a 1992 article in the Argentine journal Estudios y Perspectivas en Turismo 1 (2) by J Alverez, P T More and A Ferriol, ‘Modelo turistico de Cuba’, 118-135; from 1991 to 1993, CubaNews 1994 2 (9), Miami Herald Publishing Company; 1994 estimated by the Cuban government, CubaNews 1994 2 (5), Miami Herald Publishing Company.
* Figures cited from page 51 of a 20 February 1995 cover story on Cuba published in Time magazine 145 (7), written by Kevin Fedarko and reported by Cathy Booth in Havana. ’ In Cuba, the Gross Social Product is equivalent to the term Gross Domestic Product (GDP) used in the United States, and consistent with the World Bank definitions. GDP is the value of all goods and services produced domesticially.
Source: Cuba News .
2.5 -
‘. ‘.
v) 2.0 $ a ‘c1 e 1.5 2 ._ E l.O-
Figure 2
--b Tourism - - 0 - - Medical prod. --x--Tobacco _- a - - Fruit --,*.--Fish --+--Nickel --,.,--sugar
‘\ ‘\
”
the introduction of the tourist card; ?? the exemption of tourists from customs declarations;
In the last few years, the Cuban economy has continued to worsen. The Gross Social Product’ has declined by 46% in five years because of reduced international trade, particularly in respect of sugar exports (see Figure 2).’ The principal reasons are low productivity, lack of hard currency, and the lack of oil and general supplies. The 1994 Gross Social Product declined by about 6% compared with 1993.’ ‘Cuba’s No. 1 money earner, the sugar crop, amounted to less than 4 million tons [last] year - a level not seen for decades. The island’s factories are producing at only 30% capacity, giving rise to shortages in everything from clothes and cosmetics to pots and pans.‘$ The tourism industry is the most dynamic sector of the Cuban economy and a growing international trade sector, Cuba’s second largest source of hard currency. Tourism is a service
3.0
??
56
than
800-
: 2 co c
of more
?? . ?? .
\
‘\ ‘. ‘0..
1991
**.*
-*._
**....._.___*
1993
1992 Year
I994
industry and large amounts of tradable business services have been exported by the Cuban government. From the tourist movement between Cuba and the United States in the last two years, the Cuban government received the following annual average amounts of revenue: * * $3.9 million from invitation letters to persons who live in Cuba and do not receive visas to travel to the USA; $22.9 million from invitation letters to persons who live in Cuba and receive visas.L3 $19 million to obtain permission to extend stays in the USA for Cuban nationals; $2.2 million from permits to extend stays in Cuba by Cuban-American citizens. Similarly. the role of tourism as an export sector includes all the revenue accrued from food and transportation generated by international tourists during their stay in Cuba. For example. in the same period, the Cuban government received the following gain: ??
??
$11.5 million from travel and travel arrangements to Cuba; $385 million from food and lodging.
Cuban tourism is also a political business. As a result of this, through travel agencies. Cuba provides other services, for which it has annually received in the last two years the following in revenue: $40 million, from fees collected to send hard currency to Cuba; $1.5 million, from fees collected to send goods and food to residents in Cuba; $400 million sent to Cuban nationals from Cuban Americans. In total, this represents $886 million per year, that is to say approximately $1.7 billion in revenue were received from these sources in 1992 and 1993. The lJS Treasury Department estimated that the new sanctions
** All figures are unpublished. They were ohtained by personal effort from contacts in Cuba.
the Cuban govermnent and two Spanish firms, Endesa and Iberia Travel, also signed an agreement to build three hotels in Varadero Beach and Cayo Coca Key, providing 1600 rooms in total; Jamaica and Cuba have reached an agreement to co-promote tourism and cruise packages; Commonwealth Hospitality Inc, a Canadian company. signed an agreement to manage three hotels in Marea del Portillo Beach; a Chilean enterprise, Santa Cruz Real Estate Company, in cooperation with the Cuban firm Horizonte has built a four-star hotel in Varadero Beach.
announced by President Clinton on 20 August 1994 - banning remittances and most travel to the island by exiles and tmigrks - will cut monetary transfers to Cuba by at least $150 million annually.’ Flights between Miami and Cuba have also been scaled back; previously Miami charter companies offered 10 weekly flights; they now offer only three per week. In terms of reduction of tourist flows to Cuba. this situation and the rafter crisis means that this year between 40 000 and 50 000 tourists will not travel to Cuba.
International investment in Cuban tourism In 1993 national tourism in Cuba.
and 1994 a series of interjoint ventures and other new investments were announced Among them:‘+
six hotels will be built by the Cuban enterprise Cubanacan and Golden Tulip Hotels of The Netherlands; one hotel will be built in Cayo Coca Key by the Spanish company Guitart Hotels; Super Club of Jamaica is opening one hotel in Varadero Beach; Spain’s C Hotels and Forte Hotels of Great Britain took over the management of two hotels in Havana and in Varadero; Pizza Nova of Toronto. Canada opened several restaurants in hotels operated by Cuba’s Cubanacan; Roma Restaurant Supply Ltd from Italy improved their services and technology supplied to Cuba; Rogner International Hotels and Resorts, an Austrian hotel chain, plans to build a IOO-bed tourist resort on Cayo Largo Key; Delta Hotels, a Canadian group, took over management of three hotels in Santiago de Cuba and Holguin Provinces. They also signed an agreement to build four hotels in Santiago de Cuba city and to provide electrical supplies. plumbing, doors, windows and soft goods for foreign projects: ‘+ Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) information.
Foreign capital has been crucial to the rebirth of the tourism sector in Cuba. The Cuban government and its laws limit participation of foreign capital to 49%. allowing for exceptions made by the Executive Committee of the Council of Ministers. Some companies have partnerships with Cuba providing a 5050 division of the profits. Until recently, most foreign inveatment in Cuba has come from Spain. Today, five Spanish firms operate hotels in Cuba: Raytur, Guitart Hotels, Ibercu. Sol Melia Group and Kawama Caribbean Hotels. As of 1993 there were 20 800 highquality hotel rooms in Cuba. They were principally located in Varadero Beach, Havana and the keys alongside the Cuban coastline -- including Cayo Largo Key. Sabinal Key and Fragoso Key.
Economic reforms and the future of tourism in Cuba What is the future of tourism in Cuba’! Cuba is an island that depends on exports and imports, and tourism is growing in importance as one of Cuba’s principal exports. Cuba finished each of the first four years of this decade with a small trade surplus:“? ??
$197 million
surplus
in 19Yl:
??
$382
million
surplus
in lYY2;
??
$270
million
surplus
in 1993;
*iThesc figures were calculated according to the information published in C’ubaNcws.
57
Reports ??
$479 million surplus mated in September.
in 1994, esti-
In 1993 and 1994 the Cuban government announced and approved several actions toward economic reform that would stimulate production. These actions are, among others: dollarization of the economy, foreign investments, administrative reself-employment, organization of government agencies, income and personal property taxes, reduction of subsidies, agricultural cooperatives for public employees, establishment of farmers’ markets, and higher domestic prices for basic goods and services. Dollarization of the economy. Through this measure the government hopes to capture hard currency in the hands of Cuban nationals, but Cubans still prefer to buy on the black market which offers products at lower prices. Foreign investments. The Cuban government has entered into a great number of agreements with many countries, granting concessions in petroleum, mining and telecommunications. In the case of tourism, foreign investments have affected the number of jobs. For example, in the Havana Libre hotel that employed more than 1000 workers, the workforce was reduced by 50%. Another company, Iberostar SA of Spain, closed the Triton hotel to remodel it and slashed its total workforce by nearly 75%, from 750 employees to 180.’ In the opinion of many foreign managers, there are many problems with the Cuban labor force for the tourism industry: In most cases, workers have improvised qualifications: professors, engineers and other specialists are working in hotels and restaurants with the goal of receiving tips in hard currency.8 The average pay for tourism workers is very low: 250 pesos a month, worth only about $3.00 on the black marketx Workers must give 40% of their tips to the Cuban Communist Party: 10% for the party itself and 30% for other workers who
58
??
do not have the possibility of earning tips: eg cooks, busboys and dishwashers.* A lack of worker customer service orientation expected by many foreign tourists results in low repeat visitation.
Self-employment. A total of licenses have been granted employment, but the Cuban ment has limited the type, scope of these businesses.
151 130 for selfgovernsize and
Reorganization of administrative apparatus. Sixteen governmental agencies have been eliminated and six new ministries were created in 199394. The reorganization changes include transforming the National Tourism Institute (INTUR) into the Ministry of Tourism. The present minister has said that the rigid structure of INTUR had made marketing difficult. The reorganization reforms include the authorization of foreign hotel managers and the creation of a new Cuban hotels group; Gran Caribe, composed of four- and five-star hotels and well-known restaurants such as Floridita and La Bodeguita del Medio; Horizonte, which group three-star hotels; Islazul, which includes hotels with special facilities for particular domestic Cuban vacationers, such as honeymooners. The tourist groups Cubanacan and Gaviota will remain as they were prior to the reform. Some analysts have estimated that this restructuring will result in the loss of 500 000 jobs.” System of taxes. In order to increase revenues, the Cuban government has announced the introduction of taxes on income and personal property. Reduction of subsidies. A reduction of subsidies has increased the prices of cigarettes, alcoholic beverages and fuel. This has also, for the first time, established prices for cultural and sports activities which previously were free. Other reforms. Other reforms include: (1) the establishment of agricultural cooperatives on state lands which public employees can join; (2) the imple-
mentation of higher domestic prices, especially for basic goods and services, such as electricity, communications and transportation; and (3) the establishment of farmers’ markets, as part of an experiment by the government to overcome food shortages. The reforms undertaken in 1994 will be crucial for the coming years. The most pressing need for the Cuban government will continue to be access to foreign capital, forced by the present circumstances. However, the main problem facing the Cuban tourism industry is still the lack of cash. According to CubaNews, half of Cuba’s tourism receipts are eaten up by sales commissions, tour operators, airlines, imported tourism supplies and other expenses. The development of travel and tourism in Cuba depends on the importation of food and goods.
Environmental impacts of tourism development In Cuba, during the first half of the 20th century, economic and population growth devastated a substantial amount of forest along with the original fauna. and undisturbed zones were limited to mountains, swamps and keys. With the revolution of 1959 environmental institutions were created for the study, protection and conservation of natural resources. However, today the following environmental problems surpass those existing in 1959: soil erosion, salinization of productive soil, water pollution, deforestation, extinction or severe reduction of native species and erosion of the beaches.“’ The irrational building of hotels, roads and houses on sand dunes is the principal cause of soil erosion. Construction on the sand dunes and marine pollution are the main problems at Varadero Beach. Cuban tourism development is based on natural resources, especially beaches. Although Cuba has 3571 miles of coastline, 1300 offshore islands and 280 virgin sand beaches, tourism development has been concentrated in only a few coastline areas, and the level of development has been relatively low. The Cuban authority for urban planning recently restricted
new development, mainly in Varadero Beach, an area that remains 50% undeveloped. However, the Cuban authority also plans to diversify tourism into other areas, such as Trinidad, a small and old colonial city with 16th century architecture; the north coast of Holguin Province; several districts outside Havana; and the keys north of Ciego de Avila and Camaguey. One example of tourism development in the coastal keys illustrates the environmental problems affecting the Cuban archipelago. Like most countries, Cuba has a variety of environmental problems brought about by development decisions made without regard for future consequences, particularly in tourist areas where natural rebourccs are the chief attractions. This is nothing new. The environmental impacts of tourism were rccosnized in the Manila Declaration on World Tourism. The following example indicates a need to pay closer attention to wise resource management in C‘uba. particularly with respect to the twact1c\.
In order to make the keys located in the north and on the south side of the main island accessible to tourists, the Cuban government, and specifically Fidel Castro. established a program to join these keys with a series of stone roads called ‘pedraplenes’ (which means ‘stone and embankment’), blocking substantial sea water and the normal marine currents between the coastline and the keys. This action has resulted in irreparable damage and disturbance to the native tlora and fauna. Sea life has been drastically reduced in all these areas, with an accompanying decrease in the fishing resource. The result was predictable: entire areas of these waters have been reduced to salty lagoons. with low oxygen levels and little life. These types of arcas (the keys) have a high fragility. When their carrying capacity and saturation levels are exceeded. there will be a number of negative effects. Rather than choosing to avoid the predicted environmental problems, it was more important for the Cuban government to offer international tourists a unique tourist attraction, with rare ecosystems, on scarce land; and in a place where it is
also difficult to provide fresh water. electricity and other infrastructure rt*quirements.
Socioeconomic impacts of tourism in Cuba One of the reasons tourism is so important economically is that it is labor intensive. Tourism offers ;I promising source of new jobs in Cuba, demanding large numbers of highly skilled workers. and well-trained and educated managers. However, the classic role of tourism i1S a great economic contributor to the growth of domestic industries - eg agriculture. food processing - is not at present totally rc:tlized in Cuba. The tourism impact on the local economy and the henetlts from tourism are usually in such catcgories as employment, income and Iiiversification of the economic bate. However, none of these positive inpacts occurs in Cuba. Often one of the negative effects of tourism is the appearance of \oc~al and pathology, including prostitution robbery. Sometimes. these outconleh are responses to direct tourist tlemands, but in other case\. for cxaml)le in Cuba. these phenomena result from the total ahsenct: of social and matcrial satisfaction for the (‘uban people. Three years ago, it was not infrequent that Cubans were denied access to their own beaches, because they coilId not pay in hard currency. The return ot’ prostitution associated with tourism is one of the most disturbing recent developments in Cuba. This is mainly due to the desperate economic condition of the Cuban people. and is :I consequence of the social and economic politics of the Cuban government. The cost of enjoying one night with ;I young Cuban girl is equivalent to one pail of jeans, or two bars of soap. or $10-20 ~ equivalent to more than a month’s salary there. Prostitition may be viewed as a necessary means of economic survival by many Cubans. who see that the foreign tourists rat while they are hungry. There is a related negative impact on education stemming from foreign tourism that is also alarming. Many young Cuhans at the universities do
not want to study. They prefer to work in hotels, restaurants and bars linked with foreign tourism. This is because they know they can receive dollars in these places, worth much more to them economically than the wages they could earn with university degrees.
Outlook for the future By the year 2000. the (.‘uhan government hopes to receive I .5 million foreign
tourists
the numher
annually. arriving
almost now.
How
twice will
this affect Cuba and the Cuban pco-
pie? It will obviously increase the flow of hard currency into (‘uba which the Cuban government so Ibadly needs. It will also help the Cuban government to recover from the current economic crisis and contribute to ;I normali~ation of foreign trade anci foreign police initiatives. The Cuban pcoplc. at I~;IXI those working outside the tourism industry. are not likely to benefit greatly from this projected growth in international tourism. On the contr;iry, it may rcpresent a high social cost for them. as indicated by the return of prostitution as ;I necessilry eLiI. Marc tourist dollars are likely to result in more prostitution and other negative social impacts. There may also he denial of access for Cuban nat ronal to more pobernment-owned beaches. park\. hotels and stores which the Cuban government designates for the \ole benefit of increasing number\ of foreign tourists. Environmental impacts on beach areas and other natural rcsources from tourism developnicnt arc also likely to continur: at an ,icccleratcd pace. More irreversible damage to the native fauna and flora along the Cuban coastline ib almost certain to occur. given the Cuban government’s policies for tourism Idevelopment at any cost tIow will the projected increase In foreign tourism for Cuba affect other countries in the Caribbean basin? The increases reported in recent years worry Cuba’s Caribbean neighbor>. In the Bahamas, for example. tourism was born after the Cuban revolution. when United States residents could no longer visit Cuba and when most ele-
Reports ments of the pre-revolutionary tourism industry were eliminated. The rebirth and growth of that industry may result in strong competition with the Bahamas and other Caribbean neighbors of Cuba for foreign tourists. In conclusion, it is possible to say that while the Cuban government is benefiting from the success and growth of the Cuban tourism industry, the Cuban people are seeing the loss of many of the benefits gained at the beginning of their revolution. Major changes in policy by the Cuban government are needed to reverse what appear to be long-term trends of social and environmental decline associated with the growing international tourism industry in Cuba.
References ‘Wright Mills, C Listen Yankee, The Revolution in Cuba Ballantine Books, New York (1960) ‘Hinch, T D ‘Cuban tourism industry, its re-emergence and future’ Tourism Management 11 (3) 214-226 ‘CubaNews 1994 2 (9) and 2 (5), Miami Herald Publishing Company 4Diario Las Americas 3 October 1994, 1 ‘The source of these figures is CubaNews 1994 2 (9). Miami Herald Publishing Company ‘CubaNews 1994 2 (1). Miami Herald Publishing Company ‘Miami Herald 5 October 1994, 9A ‘CubaNews 1994 2 (3), Miami Herald Publishing Company “CubaNews 1994 2 (5). Miami Herald Publishing Company “‘CubaNews 1994 2 (I), Miami Herald Publishing Company
Amparo E Avella University of Havana, Cuba and Allan S Mills Recreation, Parks, and Tourism Program, Virginia Commonwealth University, PO Box 842037, Richmond, VA 23284-2037, USA
formerly
A profile of UK outbound ‘environmentally friendly’ tour operators The latter years of the 1980s and the early 1990s have been synchronous with increasing attention being paid to the ‘eco-tourist’ by the tourism industry, tourism destinations and academics. The concept has been welcomed in the travel trade as proof that the industry is becoming more environmentally responsive whilst simultaneously being discredited in some quarters as a phenomenon that could lead to the destruction of some of the most fragile parts of the world eco-system. There now seems to be a plethora of companies offering ‘green’ and ‘eco’ holidays. The purpose of this article is to provide a market profile of UK outbound tour operators who promote a green or environmentally friendly product.
The problems of ‘mass tourism’ discussed in Turner and Ash’s polemic text The Golden Hordes are now well known.’ In response to these problems and a wider environmental awareness in western consumerist society, the late 1980s and early 1990s have seen the development and promotion of alternative forms of tourism.
60
the implicit message being environmental friendliness. Probably the most publicized component of the portfolio of alternative tourism products on the market is eco-tourism. The importance of this growing market segment to the tourism industry was highlighted in a recent newspaper report.’ TUI, the
large German tour operator, is reported to have said: ‘in eight years there will be no more tours that are incompatible with the environment’. The same article draws attention to a recent study conducted by the International Centre for Eco-tourism Research at Griffith University in Australia which concluded that ecotourism is the fastest growing subsector of the international tourism industry. It has a growth rate three times that of tourism overall. According to A Blaza of the World Travel and Tourism Environmental Research Centre at the ‘Hosts-Guests: Partners in Development’ conference, in March 1994, the eco-tourism market constitutes around 5% of the international tourism market. The terminologies used in connection with eco-tourism are varied. The following terms have been used in reference to the concept of ‘ecotourism’; nature-based tourism. environment-friendly tourism, alternative, responsible, ethical, sustainable, green and appropriate t0urism.j There are also numerous definitions of eco-tourism.’ Implicit in all the definitions is respect or friendliness for the physical and cultural environment, ie developing a form of tourism that is nondamaging and non-degrading; subject to adequate and appropriate management controls; and that offers financial contributions for the protection of indigenous cultures and environments. The dangers of promoting tourism to fragile areas under the banner of eco-tourism without proper controls and regulation may be no different than that of mass tourism. The economic pressures for utilization of natural resources are high.‘.’ The attitudes of tour operators who promote the nature and culture of destinations through imagery to appeal to their potential market will therefore be instrumental in determining the pace of change and sustainability of those areas they choose to include in their tour programmes.
Survey of UK outbound tour oprators Against
this background
a study was