Tourists' preferences with Indigenous tourism experiences in the Wet Tropics of Queensland, Australia

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 31 (2017) 142e151

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Tourists' preferences with Indigenous tourism experiences in the Wet Tropics of Queensland, Australia Anja Pabel*, Bruce Prideaux, Michelle Thompson School of Business and Law, Central Queensland University, Level 3 Market Square, Corner Abbott and Shields Streets, Cairns, QLD, 4870, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 24 May 2016 Received in revised form 10 November 2016 Accepted 29 November 2016

This article reports on visitor interest in Indigenous tourism experiences in the Wet Tropics region of Queensland, Australia. The findings are based on a survey sample of 326 tourists departing Cairns. The aim of this research was to investigate the demand for Indigenous tourism products and experiences. The research aim informed three research objectives: to identify the level of interest and participation in Indigenous tourism experiences; to ascertain if respondents with an interest in Indigenous tourism experiences had different motivations for visiting the Wet Tropics region than those with no interest in such experiences; and to determine tourists’ purchase behaviour of Indigenous artefacts. The research profiles Indigenous tourism seekers and respondents with no interest in Indigenous tourism activities. Results indicate that experiencing Indigenous culture was ranked as neither important nor unimportant by the two groups of respondents. First-time visitors (87.5%) were significantly more likely to have participated in an Indigenous tourism activity than repeat visitors to the Wet Tropics. Findings also showed that respondents who were looking to take part in Indigenous tourism experiences showed a high interest in experiencing other nature-based activities. The majority (77.5%) of Indigenous artefacts were purchased by visitors who did not participate in an Indigenous tourism activity. These findings have important implications for the development of future Indigenous tourism experiences for the Wet Tropics. © 2017 The Authors.

Keywords: Indigenous tourism Demand Wet tropics Australia Artefacts Travel motives

1. Introduction Tourism experiences based on the exotic otherness of Australia's Indigenous cultures have been promoted by the nation's tourism industry as a strategy to differentiate its tourism offering in the highly competitive international market (Sofield, 2002; Tourism Research Australia [TRA], 2011). With an estimated 40,000 significant Aboriginal sites (Sofield, 2002), Australia has a rich assemblage of Indigenous culture including oral histories, artefacts, rock art and dance. A number of Indigenous communities have sought to capitalise on interest in their culture by promoting tourism as a vehicle to attract development and generate jobs (Wu, Wall, & Tsou, 2014). Many of these communities are located in regional areas and face significant problems related to access, investment and marketing. Moreover, opportunities to develop Indigenous tourism are overshadowed as research by Tourism Research Australia (2011) found

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Pabel), (B. Prideaux), [email protected] (M. Thompson). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.11.004 1447-6770/© 2017 The Authors.

[email protected]

that the demand for Indigenous tourism activities has been in decline since 2006. This indicates that at least in Australia, the perceived attractiveness of Indigenous tourism experiences as a destination pull factor has been either overestimated or that the products on offer are not those that interest tourists. It also indicates the need to understand the preferences that tourists have for Indigenous products (McIntosh, 2004; Pettersson, 2002) in relation to the totality of available experiences that a particular destination has on offer. To date, the positioning of Indigenous tourism products and experiences within the total suite available at destinations has been largely ignored in the literature. For this reason the aim of this research is to investigate the demand for Indigenous tourism products and experiences in the Wet Tropics region of Queensland, Australia by treating Indigenous tourism as a subset of the total suite of tourism experiences available within the destination. The justification of selecting the Wet Tropics region is based on its overall popularity as a tourism destination, its rich Indigenous culture and apparent failure to develop its tourism experiences based on its Indigenous culture. In terms of Ritchie and Crouch’s

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(2003) concept of destination competitiveness, the region's Indigenous culture represents a comparative advantage that still awaits its transformation into a competitive advantage. 2. Literature review 2.1. Defining Indigenous tourism Indigenous tourism can be described from a number of perspectives including cultural tourism (Smith, 2003), niche or special interest tourism (Schmiechen & Boyle, 2007) and serious tourism (Wu et al., 2014). Tourism Research Australia (2011, p. 1) described tourists who are interested in Indigenous tourism as individuals “who participate in at least one Indigenous tourism activity during their trip which can be a one-off activity, or in addition to other tourism activities.” Other descriptions of tourism activities that involve at least some contact with Indigenous peoples include Butler and Hinch (1996, p. 9) who refer to Indigenous tourism as “tourism activity in which Indigenous people are directly involved either through control and/or by having their culture serve as the essence of the attraction.” From a different perspective, Notzke (2004, p. 31) describes Aboriginal tourism as enterprises “which are characterised by Aboriginal ownership and control” while acknowledging that this ownership does not necessarily have to focus on exhibiting Aboriginal culture. As Wu et al. (2014) noted the organisation of Indigenous tourism may vary, ranging from activities where Indigenous tourism forms the core of the experience to activities that include a small Indigenous component. A similar remark can be made about ownership, with businesses that are solely Indigenous owned to partnerships where Indigenous communities have a minority ownership. Tourism ventures that incorporate an Indigenous component require careful planning and management to avoid or reduce the negative effects that involvement with tourism activity may have on the quality of life of Indigenous communities (Altman & Finlayson, 1992). Negative impacts identified by Fuller, Buultjens, and Cummings (2005) include environmental damage, potential cultural clashes due to different value systems, tourism activities intruding into Indigenous lives and the relating invasion of privacy. There can also be negative impacts on biodiversity (Kiss, 2004). Barriers to the ongoing success of Indigenous tourism ventures include limited opportunities in forming partnerships with other tour operators, limited participation in appropriate training (Coria & Calfucura, 2012) and unfamiliarity with the tourism distribution system (Rodrigues & Prideaux, under review). As Fuller et al. (2005) observed, the ideal situation is where Indigenous tourism experiences are designed to promote opportunities that lead to sustainable development. Previous studies related to aspects of Indigenous tourism have generally focused on issues that include: identifying characteristics of individuals who seek Indigenous tourism experiences (Moscardo & Pearce, 1999; Ruhanen, Whitford, & McLennan, 2013); addressing information needs that lead to improved Indigenous tourism products and experiences (Notzke, 2004; Ryan & Huyton, 2002); description and discussion of Indigenous activities such as guiding (Howard, Thwaites, & Smith, 2001); festivals (Chang, 2006; Mason, 2004); learning about Indigenous peoples’ past and history (Moscardo & Pearce, 1999; Zeppel, 2002); wildlife tourism, village tours, cultural tours and treks (Whitford & Ruhanen, 2009); the sale of artefacts and economic considerations such as self-sufficiency (Altman, Hunter, Ward, & Wright, 2002; Ryan & Huyton, 1998; Smith, 1996); and capacity-building (Whitford & Ruhanen, 2010). Furthermore, a new area of research is emerging which attempts to de-marginalise research on Indigenous tourism by including considerations of Indigenous peoples as tourists (Peters & Higgins-

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Desbiolles, 2012) and by considering the voices and presence of Indigenous researchers within Indigenous tourism (Nielsen & Wilson, 2012). Examples of studies into aspects of Indigenous tourism experiences undertaken by Notzke (1999) found that authenticity in terms of learning about Indigenous peoples' daily lives was seen by tourists as an important criteria for assessing the quality of their experience. When participants were asked what the best part of their Indigenous tourism experience was, over half of the respondents (54%) considered their personal encounter with native people to be their highlight and the majority (77%) stated they wanted to find out more about the peoples' everyday life (Notzke, 1999). In a later study, Notzke (2004) found that the most important characteristics of Indigenous tourism experiences were: authenticity (64%); learning something about people's lifestyles (45%); native owned and operated (38%); price (17%) and entertainment (12%). Neither of these studies sought to place Indigenous tourism within the overall demand for tourism experiences in the destinations studied. One area of Indigenous tourism research that has generated some interest by academics is guided tours. In a study of the effects of participating in a guided tour with an Indigenous tour guide, Howard et al. (2001) found that participation in a tour of this type can positively influence tourists’ perceptions and attitudes of Aboriginal culture. Guided tours also produce benefits for local Indigenous communities where these tours take place. As Howard et al. (2001, p. 33) observed, guided tours generate “employment, keeping people close to their community and country, providing management with local knowledge, skills and traditional practices that benefit local biodiversity”. Other studies (Howard, Smith & Thwaites, 2001; Collard, Harben, & van den Berg, 2007; Butler & Hinch, 2007) have examined the cultural exchanges between tourists and Indigenous tour guides in Australia, where Indigenous guides expressing and interpreting their own cultural heritage through their own stories offer tourists an authentic cultural experience. Tourists participating in these types of experiences benefit from being “immediately thrust into the context of the site because the guide is part of the fabric of the experience” (Howard et al., 2001, p. 38). Tours of sacred sites conducted by Indigenous peoples can be highly emotional experiences (Trauer & Ryan, 2005). In their research in Mutawintji National Park, New South Wales in Australia, Howard et al. (2001) found that Aboriginal tour guides often used their traditional language when talking about plants and animals or when explaining Aboriginal concepts through analogies and metaphors. An example from their research is that of comparing Mutawintji National Park to a cathedral which helps visitors to gain awe and respect for the place. Sounds and dance can also be important elements in developing Indigenous tourism experiences. Mason (2004) explored Aboriginal representations in musical experiences of First Nations people in Ottawa, Canada and found that the sounds of the musical performances can be used to interpret Aboriginal cultural heritage and meaning to non-Indigenous people. According to Henke (2005) Indigenous music can also be used as a tourist icon which can be utilised in tourism promotion to encourage travel to the location where a particular type of music is unique to a specific Indigenous culture. Other cultural performances involving music, as well as dance and theatre, are also frequently used for tourist encounters. These performances represent an important means of conveying Indigenous meanings while generating economic opportunities for communities. In this way Indigenous cultural festivals are a powerful mechanism for promoting the uniqueness of local Indigenous culture (Chang, 2006). Cultural heritage tourism has been approached by Naidu (2011) as an artefact in its own right based on

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the idea that cultural heritage is engrained in a specific local place and as such able to attract tourists because of its qualities of uniqueness. 2.2. Selling of Indigenous artefacts Tourism has the potential to provide economic opportunities for Indigenous peoples including Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Economic opportunities include direct involvement in tourism through employment, indirect involvement in tourism through the arts and crafts industry as well as joint ventures in cultural tourism activities with non-Indigenous people (Altman & Finlayson, 1992). Indigenous ecotourism in particular can be beneficial for Indigenous communities by empowering them, protecting biodiversity and improving the livelihood of community members (Coria & Calfucura, 2012). One area where economic benefits can be derived from tourism is through the sale of Indigenous handicrafts and art. However the commercialisation of Indigenous handicraft raises the issue of commodification and a range of questions around this issue (Dyer, Aberdeen, & Schuler, 2003). While important, it is not the intent of this paper to explore the questions that surround commodification in a general way, but specifically as it pertains to the central objectives of this paper which focus on examining the demand for Indigenous tourism products and experiences in the Wet Tropics region. Cohen (1993) has previously commented on the commercialisation of Indigenous artefacts pointing to trends towards giantism, where cultural products, such as paintings are produced as very large mural type art or miniaturisation, where Indigenous themes are reproduced on small items such as souvenir spoons or pens. Other products such as t-shirts may also utilise Indigenous themes but many are the output of non-Indigenous groups seeking to capitalise on the demand for cheap souvenirs that appear to have an apparent connection to Indigenous culture (Smith, 1996). In Australia, the diversity of Indigenous cultures is such that there are considerable differences. These differences relate to how Indigenous peoples connect to their country, for example there are ‘saltwater people’ living on the coast or ‘freshwater’, ‘rainforest’, ‘desert’ or ‘spinifex’ people who live in these ecological environments (AIATSIS, 2016). Despite this diversity, cultural products appear to be perceived as reasonably homogenous regardless of where they are sold (Ruhanen et al., 2013). This can pose problems for Indigenous communities in remote regions because they are not seen as offering experiences that differ from those available in areas of high tourism concentration such as metropolitan cities. Despite these problems, artefacts and souvenirs produced by Indigenous artists represent an important income source for many Indigenous communities (Ryan & Huyton, 1998; Smith, 1996). Although the national economic value of Indigenous arts is difficult to establish due to a lack of comprehensive data, Altman et al.’s (2002) approximation was between AU$100 and AU$300 million dollars for the sales of Indigenous visual arts. Others estimate the industry was worth between AU$400 and AU$500 million (Commonwealth of Australia, 2007). 2.3. Perceptions of Indigenous tourism Ruhanen, Whitford & McLennan‘s (2013) research on Indigenous tourism in Australia found that there was an issue with product awareness and promotion. They asked respondents about awareness, preference and intention to undertake Indigenous tourism experiences and found that tourists had reasonably low awareness of Indigenous tourism products (20%). The figures were even lower for preference (12%) and intention (2%) to undertake Indigenous tourism experiences. In relation to the Wet Tropics

study region, research by Prideaux, Sakata, and Thompson (2012) examined annual patterns of reef and rainforest tourism in North Queensland. They asked respondents to rate the importance for a number of travel motivations on a scale from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (very important). The travel motive for experiencing Indigenous culture decreased from 3.16 in 2007 to 2.85 in 2012. Indigenous tourism operators interviewed by Ruhanen et al. (2013) indicated that low participation in particular in relation to the domestic market was due to ‘racism/negative preconceptions’ and ‘negative media attention’. A study by Ryan and Huyton (2002) on tourists visiting central Australia found that attractions with a focus on Australian Aboriginal culture were perceived to be less popular than previously thought. Figures by Tourism Research Australia (TRA) exemplify this claim. The number of international Indigenous tourism visitors declined from 842,000 in 2006 to 689,000 in 2010, which represents a decline of
4.9% (TRA, 2011). These visitor figures correspond with a decline in total nights spent in Australia for international Indigenous tourism visitors from 42 million nights in 2006 to 38 million nights in 2010. The demand for Indigenous tourism experiences was especially low for the domestic market. Since 2006, domestic overnight Indigenous tourism visitors have decreased from 700,000 in 2006 to 306,000 in 2010, representing a decline of 18.7% (TRA, 2011). A drop was also reported for domestic visitor nights by 23%, while total expenditure has decreased on average each year by 21%. This could indicate that domestic tourists do not regard Indigenous cultural experiences as a key domestic travel product but rather consider them as one aspect of a larger array of available natural and cultural Australian travel experiences (Ryan & Huyton, 2000). In relation to the international market, Buultjens and White (2008) found that the majority of international visitors (between 60% and 80%), although interested in and having previously participated in an Indigenous tourism activity, reported having seen very little advertising. Ruhanen et al. (2013) also found that a lack of promotional material appeared to be one cause for the low level of participation in Indigenous tourism experiences. A further finding was that respondents perceived little differentiation between Indigenous product offerings and therefore viewed them as being rather homogenous. Willingness to pay seemed to be another issue with respondents preferring Indigenous activities to be either ‘free’ or willing to pay no more than AU$100 for full day tour options (Ruhanen et al., 2013). Research by Kutzner, Wright, and Stark (2009) asked participants to rank 31 Indigenous tourism products according to several activities, topics and experiences. The top three activities for participants were ‘woodcarving’, ‘collecting plants to eat’ and ‘outdoor survival.’ The most popular tourism topics were ‘animal and plant life of the region’, ‘stories and legends of Aboriginal culture’ and ‘Aboriginal history post-European contact’. Finally, the most preferred experiences were identified as ‘taking photos of scenic landscapes or wildlife’, ‘demonstrations by artisans of artefacts’, and ‘drumming and dance performances.’ Understanding the types of activities, experiences and even artefacts tourists are interested in is important in the development and management of Indigenous tourism experiences. This understanding ensures the products offered are of interest to tourists, which in turn can encourage higher levels of demand through participation and satisfaction. An interesting finding was made by Kutzner et al. (2009) with Indigenous tourism in Canada, in which respondents’ previous experience was positively associated with an interest in more Indigenous experiences. They implied from this that “visitors need a type of introductory experience to Aboriginal culture in order to later engage in in-depth cultural experiences” (Kutzner et al., 2009, p. 112). Similarly, research conducted by Moscardo and Pearce (1999) found that close to half of their sample (43%) had

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previously participated in tourism experiences based on Indigenous cultures in other countries. This was suggested as a more effective approach in segmenting the Indigenous tourism market. It was therefore recommended to provide repeat visitors with diverse and in-depth Indigenous experiences while first-timers should be enticed with interesting introductory experiences (Kutzner et al., 2009). 2.4. Indigenous tourism experiences in the Wet Tropics region of Queensland The Wet Tropics describes the coastal rainforest region located in the northern part of Queensland stretching over 450 km from south of Cooktown to near Townsville (WTMA, 2015). Fig. 1 shows a map of the region. This region is the home to the Rainforest Aboriginal people (‘Rainforest Bama’) who are divided into 18 tribal groups with ongoing traditional connections to their ancient homeland (WTMA, 2012). The declaration of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (WTWHA) in 1988 and the inclusion of Rainforest Bama on the board of the Wet Tropics Management Authority (WTMA), which manages the World Heritage property, has provided the stimulus for a number of Indigenous groups and individuals to invest in the tourism industry. In Cairns, the main gateway to the Wet Tropics region, the Tjapukai Aboriginal Cultural Park represents the traditions of the Djabugay people while the more recent venture by the Kuku Yalanji in the Mossman Gorge area has achieved a high level of success. For the Kuku Yalanji, nature and culture are viewed as one entity where “the stories of the Dreamtime and the spirits of the rainforest are interwoven with information on medicinal plants, fruits, and ‘bush tucker’ (food), how to make a bark wurun (shelter), and how to make paint for ceremonial purposes” (Sofield, 2002, p. 122). A number of smaller Indigenous owned businesses operate commercial tours and art galleries in the Wet Tropics. Table 1 illustrates the wide range of Indigenous tours available in the region. In terms of art galleries, the significance of being able to participate in the tourism industry is demonstrated by the results of an audit of Indigenous art sales at Aboriginal art centres in Far North Queensland. In 2011, total sales were $6,375,034 (Ninti One Limited, 2013). Paintings dominated the art sales followed by other products such as carving, weaving, sculpture and printmaking. The Tjapukai Aboriginal Cultural Park in Cairns has attracted the attention of a number of researchers including Moscardo and Pearce (1998), Zeppel (1998), and Dyer et al. (2003). Moscardo and Pearce’s (1998) research was focused on tourists' satisfaction at the cultural park. Zeppel (1998) argued that simplifying or otherwise adjusting dance performances to appeal to tourists made the Tjapukai Cultural Park a somewhat inauthentic experience. Dyer et al. (2003) identified a range of advantages and disadvantages of the park to the Djabugay people. Advantages included the creation of employment opportunities; revival and improved understanding of the Djabugay culture; and improved material welfare. Disadvantages were identified as degradation of Djabugay culture and minimal interactions between tourists and the Djabugay community members. The adverse aspects of commodification of the Djabugay culture observed by Zeppel (1998) raises a number of questions for Indigenous communities investing in attractions of this type. Without commodification the experience may hold little interest to visitors, while adhering to authenticity may result in a lack of appeal. In relation to this issue, Prideaux and Timothy (2008) introduced the concept of the ‘new authentic’ where the economic role of artefacts was ascribed a greater significance than the cultural values. While a vexed question that has occupied the attention of scholars for decades and undoubtedly will continue to attract their attention into

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the future, an observation by Crick (1989) holds some options for dealing with authenticity in a tourism context. Crick (1989) wrote that authenticity is a subjective concept which for participating tourists means forming their own views on what authenticity means for them. How tourists create this meaning is very much dependent on their previous exposure to experiences of a similar kind. Ryan and Huyton (2002) also considered authenticity as questionable since there are relatively few tourists searching for ‘reality’ while the majority of tourists are motivated by having a great time during their holiday. For these reasons, and given the context of the staged representations depicted in the Tjapukai Aboriginal Cultural Park, tourists might have some awareness of this level of authenticity. The preceding review of literature highlights a number of issues that require further research. In particular there are few studies that attempt to place Indigenous tourism within the total destination experience. As with many other forms of special interest tourism (SIT), Indigenous tourism has often been studied in isolation. However the reality is that like most forms of SIT, Indigenous tourism activities usually form one element of a broader range of experiences available in a destination. To understand the role that Indigenous tourism may play as one of the many activities that comprise the totality of a destination's experiences, it is useful to compare and contrast the demand for Indigenous tourism with other aspects of the total destination experience. This research attempts to fill this gap by seeking to gain a better understanding of tourists' interest and participation in Indigenous tourism experiences as part of their overall tourism experience. To understand the role of Indigenous tourism experiences within the broader framework of tourism in the Wet Tropics region, three research objectives were developed to: - Identify the level of interest and participation in Indigenous tourism experiences - Ascertain if respondents with an interest in Indigenous tourism experiences had different motivations for visiting the Wet Tropics region than those with no interest in such experiences - Categorise visitors' purchase behaviour of Indigenous artefacts for visitors in the Wet Tropics. 3. Material and methods A descriptive, explanatory research approach was adopted to identify the demand for Indigenous tourism experiences. The survey instrument (a self-administered questionnaire) used to collect data was part of a longer running survey that has been monitoring aspects of tourism in the study region for many years. The questionnaire featured three sections: questions related to respondents' socio-demographic profile; motivations for visiting the region; and specific questions that probed respondents' participation in and views on Indigenous tourism. General items relating to Indigenous tourism were drawn from the literature while a smaller number of region specific questions were based on the authors’ observations of tourism in the study region. The survey was administered at the domestic terminal of the Cairns International Airport between March and May 2014. Trained survey staff used a convenience sampling approach to distribute the questionnaires. Passengers were approached by survey staff and asked if they were interested in participating. A filter question was used to ensure that local residents were not included in the survey. Having approached 360 visitors (both domestic and international) to the region, a total of 326 valid questionnaires were received giving a response rate of 91%. As with any survey of this nature there were a number of limitations that need to be brought to the attention of readers. The study was not designed to report on

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Fig. 1. Map of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (Map courtesy of the Wet Tropics Management Authority).

A. Pabel et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 31 (2017) 142e151 Table 1 Indigenous experiences in the Wet Tropics region. Location

Type of tourism operation

ex Cairns

Daintree Cooktown - The Bama Way 1 Day Aboriginal Rock Art Tour Daintree Dreaming Day Tour Dreamtime Rainforest Walk Mossman Gorge Interpretive Walk Kuku-Yalanji Dreamtime Tours Walkabout Cultural Adventures Rainbow Serpent Rock Art Tour Indigenous Guided Kayak Tour

ex Port Douglas ex Mossman ex Daintree ex Cooktown ex Tully

Source: Aboriginal Australia (2015) http://www.aboriginalaustralia.com.au/tours/

overall visitor numbers to the region and as the questionnaire was distributed in English only, responses are representative of Englishspeaking participants only. Moreover the survey did not include the views of tourists who departed the region by car, bus or cruise ship. Hence, this limits the extent to which this research can be generalised beyond the study area and care should be taken if results are generalised beyond the reported sample. The data was analysed using SPSS version 22. Non-parametric tests such as Chi-square and Mann-Whitney were used to analyse the data. These tests are used more frequently when no assumptions are made about the underlying population distribution and when data are mostly measured on categorical and ordinal scales (Pallant, 2007), as was the case in this study. The Chi-square test explores the relationship between two categorical variables, while the MannWhitney tests for differences between two independent groups. 4. Results 4.1. Profile of all respondents and Indigenous experience seekers All respondents (n ¼ 326) were asked whether they looked for opportunities to participate in Indigenous tourism experiences when on holidays. Of the 294 valid responses for this question,

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16.3% said ‘Yes’, another 35.4% replied ‘Sometimes’, and the remaining 48.3% stated ‘No’. Those respondents who replied ‘Yes’ or ‘Sometimes’ to looking for Indigenous tourism opportunities were combined into one group and were identified as Indigenous tourism experience seekers. This group comprised 51.7% of the sample, or a subset of 152 tourists, and is the basis of much of the further analysis. Table 2 outlines the demographic profiles of Indigenous tourism experience seekers (n ¼ 152) and nonIndigenous tourism seekers (n ¼ 142). Statistically significant results are marked with a star in Table 2. Indigenous experience seekers appeared to be more highly educated with more respondents stating that they had a degree (46.9%) compared to respondents with no interest in Indigenous experiences. A significant difference was also found for visitation pattern where Indigenous experience seekers were more likely to be first-time visitors (82.9%). Information sources such as guidebook (36.2%) and travel agents (23.0%) appear to be more frequently utilised by Indigenous experience seekers.

4.2. Interest level and participation in Indigenous tourism experiences The first research objective was to identify whether respondents were interested in Indigenous tourism experiences and their actual level of participation in these types of activities. A Chi-square test for independence indicated a significant association between visitors who are interested in Indigenous tourism activities and visitors who did in fact participate in an Indigenous tourism experience on their trip to the Wet Tropics, c2 (2, n ¼ 294) ¼ 32.5, p ¼ 0.000. The association indicated that tourists with an interest in Indigenous tourism experiences (45.2%) were more likely to actually participate in an Indigenous tourism activity than people with no interest (11.5%). Another significant association was established between first-time visitors to the region and respondents who were interested in taking part in Indigenous tourism activities, c2 (2, n ¼ 294) ¼ 15.1, p ¼ 0.001. Specifically, looking for Indigenous

Table 2 Demographic profiles of Indigenous tourism seekers and respondents with no interest in Indigenous tourism. Demographic profile Gender Female Male Age groups Under 20 yrs 20-29 yrs 30-39 yrs 40-49 yrs 50-59 yrs 60-65 yrs Over 65 years Origin Australia New Zealand North America South America Germany UK & Ireland Scandinavia Europe other Asia Education Secondary Trade qualification Diploma Degree * Other

Indig Exp Seekers (n ¼ 152)

No interest (n ¼ 142)

64.7% 35.3%

53.9% 46.1%

9.3% 39.7% 15.9% 6.6% 9.9% 7.9% 10.6%

6.4% 34.0% 11.3% 10.6% 18.4% 11.3% 7.8%

21.7% 0.7% 27.6% 1.3% 13.8% 17.1% 4.6% 9.2% 3.3%

46.8% 2.8% 14.9% 0.7% 13.5% 10.6% 4.3% 4.3% 1.4%

23.1% 5.4% 12.9% 46.9% 11.6%

26.1% 14.1% 16.2% 33.8% 9.9%

Note: * Pearson Chi-Square test significant at p < 0.05.

Travel behaviour Travel composition Couple Friends Family with children Alone Tour group Visitation pattern First-timers * Repeat visitors Accommodation Resort/hotel Backpacker hostel Holiday unit Friends/relatives Information source Friends/relatives Internet Guidebooks * Travel agents * Most time spent Cairns Port Douglas Palm Cove

Indig Exp Seekers (n ¼ 152)

No interest (n ¼ 142)

43.7% 29.1% 8.6% 8.6% 6.0%

51.8% 18.4% 12.8% 9.2% 4.3%

82.9% 17.1%

63.4% 36.6%

37.6% 36.2% 14.1% 2.0%

46.4% 26.4% 14.3% 6.4%

44.1% 40.8% 36.2% 23.0%

43.7% 42.3% 19.0% 14.1%

73.3% 16.7% 4.0%

60.0% 23.6% 7.9%

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Table 3 Indigenous tourism experiences in the Wet Tropics region. Indigenous experience

Description

n

Kuranda Tjapukai Mossman Tour operator

Kuranda Village, Rainforestation Nature Park Aboriginal Cultural Park, cultural centre, dance Mossman Gorge Dreamtime walk Reef Daytripper, Tropic Wings, Ocean Freedom

10 7 6 3

tourism opportunities was more important for respondents who visited the region for the first time (87.5%) than those who had previously visited the region (12.5%). A similar result was found in regards to actual participation in Indigenous tourism experiences. First-time visitors (85.7%) were significantly more likely to participate in such an activity than visitors who had been to the Wet Tropics region before (14.3%), c2 (1, n ¼ 325) ¼ 4.2, p ¼ 0.041. When Indigenous tourism experience seekers (n ¼ 152) were asked what type of Indigenous tourism they looked for, 71% preferred elements of cultural history, followed by food (56%), art (50%), festivals (42%) and dance (24%). Although this group reported looking for opportunities to participate, not all actually engaged in an Indigenous activity while in the study region. Only 13% (or 42 respondents) of the entire sample (n ¼ 326) actually participated in an Indigenous tourism experience on their trip to the Wet Tropics during the time the survey was administered. Results in Table 3 show where respondents undertook Indigenous experiences in the Wet Tropics region, including attractions based on activities such as dance and boomerang throwing, and tours with commercial tour operators. Although 42 respondents reported participating in an Indigenous activity, fewer expressed where these activities were undertaken (hence Table 3 shows n ¼ 26). The majority of tourists who participated in an Indigenous tourism experience rated it good (81%) or fair (14%). Less than 5% rated their experience as poor or awful. 4.3. Differences in travel motives for Indigenous experience seekers vs non-Indigenous experience seekers The second research objective was to establish whether respondents with an interest in Indigenous tourism experiences differed from those with no interest in Indigenous tourism experiences in terms of their motives for visiting the Wet Tropics region. Results are shown in Table 4. Each respondent was asked to rank 20 travel motives for visiting the region from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (very important). For Indigenous tourism seekers visiting the Great Barrier Reef (4.46) was the top motivation, followed by snorkelling and diving (4.09) and experiencing the natural environment (3.96). Experiencing Indigenous culture was ranked as neither important nor unimportant, with a mean ranking of 3.16. Unsurprisingly, this mean was even lower for respondents who were not looking for opportunities to participate in Indigenous tourism activities (2.59). A Mann-Whitney U test was run to reveal any significant differences in travel motives between the two groups of respondents. Table 5 shows all output that revealed significant differences. It became apparent that Indigenous experience seekers were significantly more likely to be motivated by other nature-based activities on offer in the region, such as experiencing the natural environment, visiting a World Heritage Area, learning about the natural environment, visiting the Great Barrier Reef, visiting the Wet Tropics rainforest and seeing Australian wildlife. One significant result for respondents who were not interested in Indigenous tourism experiences showed a higher mean rank for the motive of rest and relaxation. A further Mann-Whitney U test was run to reveal any significant differences in travel motives for visiting the Wet Tropics region

Table 4 Mean differences between Indigenous experience seekers and non-Indigenous tourism seekers. Travel motives

Indigenous experience seekers

No interest

Overall rank

Mean

Mean

Visit the Great Barrier Reef Snorkelling & diving Experience the natural environment See Australian wildlife Rest and relax Visit the Wet Tropics rainforest Climate Enjoy the tropical lifestyle Learn about the natural environment Adventure activities The price matched my budget Visit the beaches Visit the region's national parks Visit a World Heritage Area Experience Indigenous culture Experience life in a tropical city Spend time with my family Experience the outback Go shopping Visit friends and relatives

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

4.46 4.09 3.96 3.8 3.8 3.74 3.71 3.67 3.65 3.61 3.6 3.58 3.52 3.51 3.16 3.1 2.76 2.66 2.43 2.28

4.11 3.7 3.66 3.41 4.14 3.46 3.64 3.61 3.01 3.36 3.43 3.5 3.16 3.13 2.59 3.03 3.11 2.6 2.44 2.36

between respondents who had actually participated in an Indigenous tourism activity and those who had not. Table 6 details all the output that showed significant differences. Respondents who actually participated in an Indigenous tourism experience were also significantly more likely to be interested in other nature-based activities on offer in the region such as visiting the Wet Tropics rainforest, seeing Australian wildlife, experiencing the outback and learning about the natural environment. Two significant results for respondents who had not participated in an Indigenous tourism experience showed higher mean ranks for motives such as rest and relaxation and visiting the beach. This finding clearly indicates a different market segment that is more motivated to visit the Wet Tropics for relaxation and its scenic beaches than its Indigenous and nature-based activities. 4.4. Purchase behaviour of Indigenous artefacts The third research objective was to establish respondents' purchase behaviour of Indigenous artefacts, with 12% of all respondents (n ¼ 326) having made a purchase. Interestingly, only 22.5% of those who purchased an artefact also participated in an Indigenous tourism experience. The majority (77.5%) of purchases were made by visitors who did not participate in an Indigenous tourism activity. The most popular artefacts were boomerangs (67.5%), followed by Indigenous art (37.5%), clothing (20%) and didgeridoos (2.5%). The majority of respondents who made a purchase stated it was either very important (47%) or important (38%) that the Indigenous product was made locally, while 15% indicated this was not important to them. When asked if they would be willing to pay more for locally made Indigenous products, 38.5% stated ‘Yes’, while another 42.5% indicated ‘Maybe’, and 19% were not willing to pay more for locally produced artefacts. Purchases of artefacts were significantly more likely to be made by first-time visitors (95%) than visitors who had been to the Wet Tropics before (5%), c2 (1, n ¼ 325) ¼ 11.5, p ¼ 0.001. A significant association was also found between gender and the importance that Indigenous artefacts were made locally, c2 (2, n ¼ 73) ¼ 8.3, p ¼ 0.016. In this research, it was more important to female respondents (67.6%) than male respondents (32.4%) that the artefacts were locally made. A Chi-square test for independence indicated a significant

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149

Table 5 Significant differences in travel motives for respondents with an interest in Indigenous tourism activities. Travel motive

Visit the Great Barrier Reef Visit the Wet Tropics rainforest See Australian wildlife Experience the natural environment Snorkel and dive Visit the region's national parks Visit a World Heritage Area Learn about the natural environment Rest and relax

Mann-Whitney U

Z

Sig (2-tailed)


2.828
2.282
3.145
3.042
2.336
3.132
3.057
5.382
2.871

8600.000 8034.000 7682.000 7810.500 8291.500 7621.500 7969.500 6300.000 8271.500

Interest in Indigenous tourism

0.005 0.022 0.002 0.002 0.019 0.002 0.002 0.000 0.004

Yes (mean)

No (mean)

4.46 3.74 3.8 3.96 4.09 3.52 3.51 3.65 3.8

4.11 3.46 3.41 3.66 3.7 3.16 3.13 3.01 4.14

Table 6 Significant differences in travel motives for respondents who did and did not participate in Indigenous tourism experiences. Travel motive

Mann-Whitney U

Z

Sig (2-tailed)

Participation in Indigenous tourism Yes (mean)

No (mean)

Visit the Wet Tropics rainforest See Australian wildlife Experience the Outback Learn about the natural environment Rest and relax Visit the beach

4198.000 3874.000 4041.000 3859.000 4038.500 3914.500


2.021
2.223
2.110
2.622
2.559
2.269

0.043 0.026 0.035 0.009 0.011 0.023

3.93 4.00 2.98 3.71 3.61 3.15

3.53 3.55 2.57 3.27 4.02 3.61

association between visitors showing an interest in Indigenous tourism activities and visitors who purchased Indigenous artefacts, c2 (2, n ¼ 294) ¼ 13.8, p ¼ 0.001. Visitors with an interest in Indigenous experiences (25.6%) were more likely to purchase an Indigenous artefact than those with no interest (14.9%). 5. Discussion This research investigated the demand for Indigenous tourism products and experiences in the Wet Tropics region of Australia. A better understanding was gained of the Indigenous tourism market attracted to the Wet Tropics, not merely in terms of respondents’ interest and participation in Indigenous tourism activities but also in terms of their overall travel motives for visiting the region. Consequently, this study makes an important contribution by informing Indigenous tourism stakeholders and destination marketers about possible pathways for the development of future Indigenous tourism activities and experiences. This research showed that as a travel motive, Indigenous tourism experiences were not considered a top priority by respondents visiting the region. With a mean of 3.16, these experiences were ranked as neither important nor unimportant. This finding concurs with previous studies conducted on Indigenous tourism (Ruhanen et al., 2013; Ryan & Huyton, 2002). In the case of this research, the demographic variables were in fact very similar to that of Ryan and Huyton (2002) who established that tourists interested in Indigenous tourism experiences are often female, younger, better educated and more likely to be from North America and (Northern) Europe. Having knowledge of such demographic profiles can inform strategic marketing activities. In terms of the 20 travel motives for visiting the Wet Tropics region, the findings showed that ‘experiencing Indigenous culture’ was ranked 15 by the Indigenous experience seekers and rank 18 for non-Indigenous tourism seekers (see Table 4). This finding is similar to previous research into the importance of Aboriginal culture as a travel motive. For example, Ryan and Huyton (2002) stated that one reason for the relatively low importance is that tourists may perceive Aboriginal people to be part of the overall Australian landscape e one of an array of tourism experiences to

choose from. Although it is difficult to definitively ascertain whether this or other factors influenced tourists' travel motives, it is likely a contributing factor given the sample comprised one third domestic tourists. Previous research (Coghlan & Prideaux, 2012; Thompson & Prideaux, 2012) has indicated other reasons why Indigenous culture may not be regarded as a main motivating travel factor, including the iconic experiences of the Great Barrier Reef and Wet Tropics rainforest that draw tourists to the region, and that the majority of tourists are constrained by a travel timeframe of 5e7 days which is likely pre-allocated in terms of tourist activities. Determining how to incorporate Indigenous tourism experiences into the region's brand to create awareness pre-visit is an important consideration among destination marketers for the future development of these experiences in the region. Another factor influencing the relative importance of Indigenous experiences in the Wet Tropics is the preference for particular types of activities. In this study, Indigenous tourism experience seekers preferred quite diverse activities based on cultural history (71%), food (56%), art (50%), festivals (42%) and dance (24%). While this finding supports previous research (Kutzner et al., 2009), it is important to ensure that a destination's Indigenous tourism experiences are attractive and appealing to tourists, and reflect what tourists are looking for in such an experience. Previous research has identified a positive association between previous Indigenous experiences and an interest in participating in future Indigenous experiences (Kutzner et al., 2009). Therefore, providing desirable, engaging and satisfactory experiences for tourists can have an influence on the likelihood of participating in Indigenous experiences when travelling in the future. Furthermore, Moscardo and Pearce’s (1999) research suggests that matching awareness and activity type can be useful in not only identifying Indigenous tourists (demographically), but can be used to further tailor the experiences according to their level of interest and previous exposure. For destination managers, the implications of these findings extend beyond delivering a preferred and satisfying experience, to tailoring these experiences to target first-time and repeat visitors that can enhance higher levels of participation in Indigenous activities in the region into the future. Targeting experiences at tourists' interest levels in this way enhances the ability of destination managers to

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create an awareness and understanding that not all Indigenous experiences are homogeneous and encourage engagement in multiple experiences within a particular destination. The results in Table 5 revealed that when participants had an interest in Indigenous tourism experiences, they were also significantly more likely to be motivated by other nature-based activities on offer in the region. The previous literature highlights that while there is generally a higher interest to experience nature-based activities and that experiences based on Indigenous culture were not usually given a high priority, there is still a link that can be noted between nature and Indigenous experiences. For example, visitors with an interest in Indigenous culture are normally also very interested in taking part in nature, outdoor and adventure-based experiences (Kutzner et al., 2009; Ryan & Huyton, 2000; Zeppel, 2002). Keeping this in mind, it was therefore suggested to include a cultural element to certain nature-based activities and therefore create added value for tourists (Ryan & Huyton, 2000). The Wet Tropics region offers many nature-based activities such as canoeing, kayaking and hiking. All of these activities could potentially include aspects of Indigenous culture. However, this would need to be carefully planned and managed in conjunction with local Indigenous groups to ensure that the portrayal of cultural traditions is not over-simplified (Ryan & Huyton, 2000) and retains the desired level of authenticity. These findings have important implications from a destination management viewpoint, in terms of marketing, promoting and even packaging Indigenous tourism experiences appropriately with other nature-based activities available in the study region. A rather surprising finding was that an interest in Indigenous tourism experiences was more of a deciding factor in purchasing Indigenous artefacts than actually taking part in an Indigenous tourism activity. The majority (77.5%) of respondents who purchased an Indigenous artefact did not participate in Indigenous tourism activities. There are several reasons why visitors may choose not to participate in Indigenous tourism activities such as limited time, other sightseeing activities and Indigenous tourism experiences being too expensive (Ruhanen et al., 2013). Yet, the purchase of an Indigenous artefact indicates that some visitors are still willing to take home a souvenir of exotic otherness. This finding may be of particular interest to destination managers and marketers in terms of creating opportunities for tourists to purchase Indigenous artefacts during their travels, creating an economic benefit to local Indigenous artists. Making Indigenous artefacts more easily available and visible may also prove a useful platform by which to generate a greater awareness of Indigenous tourism experiences and potentially interest and participation in these activities. 6. Conclusion This paper investigated and identified the demand for Indigenous tourism products and experiences in the Wet Tropics region. While actual participation in Indigenous tourism experiences was low (13%) and it was not considered a major motivating factor to travel to the region (see Table 4), the findings identified a group based on their interest in seeking out these types of experiences (51.7%). The results indicated that tourists were more likely to participate in an Indigenous tourism experience if they were first-time visitors to the study region. Additionally there was also a significantly higher motivation to engage in other nature-based experiences available in the region. Knowledge of this type is valuable for destination managers and Indigenous tourism operators to more effectively identify target markets and promote to these segments. Additionally, this finding enables the development of Indigenous tourism products and experiences to be tailored to meet tourist demand. For example, packaging Indigenous tours with nature-

based experiences targeting first-time and in particular international tourists. Interestingly, tourists who did not participate in an Indigenous tourism experience were more likely to purchase local Indigenous artefacts. Although these tourists did not participate in an Indigenous tourism activity, this finding indicates an opportunity for the sale of Indigenous artefacts such as handicrafts and art at retail outlets outside the attraction. The findings provide valuable insights for destination managers and academics in terms of product development and further research opportunities in regards to how the region's Indigenous tourism offering can be further developed. Opportunities include: increasing the availability and visibility of Indigenous experiences and artefacts; promoting the diversity of the region's Indigenous tourism experiences; building on nature-based experiences with cultural content; and diversifying the region's brand. However, any development needs to produce a desirable outcome for those involved from both demand and supply-side perspectives, particularly the tourists, the destination marketers and local Indigenous communities. For academics, the results support much of the existing literature into Indigenous tourism experiences and provide a useful platform on which to focus future research. While this research focused on the Wet Tropics region, questions remain as to the best way for the region to strategically and sensitively develop its Indigenous tourism offering. As this research has identified the demand for Indigenous tourism experiences in the Wet Tropics, there is an immediate need to identify the types of experiences available from a supply-side perspective, and determine the attractiveness of these experiences to current and future demand. Additional research could be conducted at other destinations around Australia that have a strong focus on Indigenous tourism experiences, enabling emerging trends to be identified and comparisons made with the Wet Tropics of Australia. Furthermore, other research might focus on the specific activities and experiences that tourists would like to see in conjunction with Indigenous tourism. Acknowledgement The authors would like to acknowledge that this research was funded through the National Environmental Research Program (NERP) project no 10.2. References Aboriginal Australia. (2015). Tours in Queensland Accessed on 19th June 2015 from Diverse Travel: http://www.aboriginalaustralia.com.au/tours/. AIATSIS. (2016). Indigenous Australians: Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander people Accessed on 11 May 2016 from AIATSIS: http://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/articles/ indigenous-australians-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-people. Altman, J. C., & Finlayson, J. (1992). Aborigines, tourism and sustainable development. Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research discussion paper no. 26. Canberra: Australian National University. Altman, J. C., Hunter, B. H., Ward, S., & Wright, F. (2002). Some competition and consumer issues in the Indigenous visual arts industry, no. 235. Discussion Paper: Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research. Butler, R. W., & Hinch, T. (1996). Tourism and indigenous peoples. London: International Thompson Business Press. Butler, R., & Hinch, T. (2007). Tourism and indigenous peoples: Issues and implications. Oxford, U. K.: Butterworth-Heinemann. Buultjens, J., & White, N. (2008). In Indigenous Tourism: The Possibilities into the Future. Paper presented at the Desert Knowledge Symposium 2008-Developing Desert Directions: Rethinking the Future, Alice Springs. http://www.nintione.com. au/resource/DKCRC_Indigenous-Tourism_-The-Possibilities-into-the-Future.pdf. Chang, J. (2006). Segmenting tourists to aboriginal cultural festivals: An example in the Rukai tribal area. Taiwan. Tourism Management, 27, 1224e1234. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.05.019. Coghlan, A., & Prideaux, B. (2012). Reef tourism third yearly report. Patterns of reef tourism on the GBR, tropical North Queensland and the whitsundays. Cairns: Marine and Tropical Sciences Research Facility. Cohen, E. (1993). Introduction: Investigating tourist arts. Annals of Tourism Research, 20, 1e8. Collard, L., Harben, S., & van den Berg, R. (2007). Nyungar tourism in the southwest

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Anja Pabel

Bruce Prideaux

Michelle Thompson