Traditional pharmacopeia in small scale freshwater fish farms in West Java, Indonesia: An ethnoveterinary approach

Aquaculture 416–417 (2013) 334–345

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Traditional pharmacopeia in small scale freshwater fish farms in West Java, Indonesia: An ethnoveterinary approach Domenico Caruso a,⁎, Angela Maria Lusiastuti b, Taukhid b, Jacques Slembrouck c, Oman Komarudin b, Marc Legendre c a b c

Institut de Recherche pour le Développement IRD, UMR 226–ISE-M, Jl. Kemang Raya 4, Jakarta 12730, Indonesia Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Budidaya Air Tawar (BPPBAT), Jl. Sempur No. 1 Bogor 16154, Indonesia IRD, UMR 226–ISE-M, Bât. 22-CC065, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier cedex 05, France

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 8 February 2013 Received in revised form 14 September 2013 Accepted 26 September 2013 Available online 2 October 2013 Keywords: Fish disease Freshwater aquaculture Traditional drugs Veterinary ethnopharmacology Herbal therapy Sustainability

a b s t r a c t The use of plants for herbal medicine in the Indonesian aquaculture is still poorly known. The present study aimed to provide an inventory of the plants used by fish farmers, establishing their respective ethnobotanic importance and identifying the variables that determine the use and the choice of these plants in fish health management. A survey based on a semi-directive questionnaire was conducted using a representative sample of fish farmers (n = 504 from 176 villages) from the province of West Java. Of these fish farmers, 46% [41%, 50%; CI95%] of them use plants in their farms and 79 species of plants belonging to 36 families have been identified. Most of these plants were common plants used also traditionally in human pharmacopeia. Four categories of plant use were identified namely: improvement of water quality; reduction of fish stress; increase of fish resistance to pathogens; and treatment of fish diseases (when an outbreak occurred). In order to appraise the significance of plant usage, the following ethnobotanic parameters were determined: the Use Value (UV), the Fidelity Level (FL) and the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF). The Use Value (UV) was generally low for plants except for Carica papaya which reached the highest UV scores. The majority of the plants were used according to personal experience of the fish farmers and the knowledge related to herbal therapy appeared variable among fish farmers. Only 26 species of plants had a UV N 0.025. The highest Fidelity Level (FL) value was obtained for C. papaya. The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) of each plant usage was relatively high for all four categories of use – ranging from 0.78 to 0.88 – but the same plant may have several therapeutic indications. The use of plants, as well as their variety and number, depended not only on fish species, production systems and production areas but also on social characteristics such as the professional experience of fish farmers and their ethnic origin. To our knowledge, this is the first ethnobotanic survey specifically applied to aquaculture. It was able to identify the species of plants used in the West Java Province, and how they are used. It also highlighted the significance of traditional Indonesian herbal therapy in aquaculture. The use of several plants in aquaculture is reported for the first time in this study. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Indonesia ranks fourth among the largest aquaculture producing countries worldwide, aquaculture production (excluded seaweed and algae) reached more than 2.36 million tons in 2010 (FAO, 2012). More than 2.2 million fish farmers, working mainly on small scale freshwater farms, were active in 2004 in the country, where fish and aquatic products are recognized as an essential source of proteins (FAO, 2007). Pathology has been considered as a major constraint for sustainability of the aquaculture production sector (Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005). The management of fish disease has severe limitations (e.g. strict sanitary isolation of aquaculture facilities; limited number of vaccines available); moreover, ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +62 21 71 79 46 51; fax: +62 21 71 79 46 52. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Caruso). 0044-8486/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.09.048

since fish diseases are mainly multi-factorial, this complicates health management. The poor knowledge of sanitary conditions in fish often leads fish farmers to consider chemotherapy as the only solution against fish diseases. This may induce fish farmers to an indiscriminate use of antibiotics to forestall fish disease. Indiscriminate uses of chemotherapeutic compounds result in the bioaccumulation of residues in the environment and in fish, and may induce antibiotic resistance, eventually associated to a transfer of resistance between bacterial species (Sarter et al., 2007). This is a major concern in South-East Asia and raises serious problems for the future of aquaculture (Cabello, 2006; Hernández Serrano, 2005). Implementation of alternatives to chemotherapy is needed in order to secure the health management of cultured fish. Herbal therapy has been considered as a strong and promising alternative (Chansue and Assawawongkasem, 2008; Direkbusarakom, 2004). Several ethnoveterinary studies stress the significance of traditional

D. Caruso et al. / Aquaculture 416–417 (2013) 334–345

335

Fig. 1. The eight districts of West Java Province considered (hatched area) for the ethnoveterinary study in aquaculture. 1, Bandung; 2, Bogor; 3, Cianjur; 4, Cirebon; 5, Indramayu; 6, Subang; 7, Sukabumi; 8, Tasikmalaya. —————: District boundaries; ————: Province boundaries.

pharmacopeia for the health management of livestock in tropical countries (Santhanakrishnan et al., 2008; Sindhu et al., 2010; Upadhyay et al., 2011). Additionally, ethnoveterinary surveys in western countries have been carried out to promote traditional pharmacopeia and phytotherapy for health management of farmed terrestrial animals (Bullitta et al., 2007; Lans et al., 2006; Viegi et al., 2003). Despite the growing interest for phyto-pharmacopeia and the increasing number of studies on properties of plants against fish or shrimp pathogens (Campbell et al., 2001; Citarasu, 2010; Divyagnaneswari et al., 2007; Harikrishnan et al., 2010), there has been no ethnoveterinary study to our knowledge that assesses the importance of traditional phytotherapy in aquaculture. Researchers and pharmaceutical entrepreneurs agree that ethnobotanic derived compounds have greater activity than compounds derived from random screening, and therefore, a greater potential for the development of novel therapeutic products (Cox and Balick, 1996; Flaster, 1996). In Indonesia, there are approximately 940 plant species listed for their therapeutic effects in traditional medicine (Handayani et al., 2001). Although the use of herbs or plants in aquaculture is known to be widespread throughout the country, detailed information on the nature and use of these plants is lacking. The present ethnoveterinary study has been carried out in fish farms of West Java Province (Java Island, Indonesia) in order to make an inventory of the plants used in aquaculture, determine their importance in fish health management, and identify the variables that determine the use of herbal therapy among fish farmers. The Province of West Java, known as “the cradle of aquaculture in Indonesia”, was chosen for this survey. 2. Material and methods 2.1. Target population and area of study Due to its population density and number of fish farmers, West Java represents the most important province for aquaculture production in Indonesia. According to the statistics of the Ministry of Fisheries, the total number of fish farmers for this province exceeded 800,000 in 2006. The target population considered for this study was restricted to

freshwater fish farmers located in the main production areas of the province, thereby reducing the number of fish farmers eligible for the study to approximately 394,000. No discrimination among fish farms was made in relation to cultivated species or technical type of rearing, except rice-fish culture was excluded because its fish production was too irregular. Eight among the seventeen districts of the West Java Province have been included in the survey (Fig. 1). These districts corresponded to the most important aquaculture areas of the province and were retained as such, according to expert opinion and official fish production statistics. Considering the number of fish farmers presents in the eight production zones selected (more than 100,000), the sample size was determined by the following formula:

N¼

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  r  2 t Pð1−PÞ =L ;

where t is the Student's t-value (1.96 when the desired level of confidence is 95%), P is the attended prevalence of use of plants (in our case the hypothesis was 50%) and L is the accepted absolute error or precision (5%). Thus, the required total sample size was 385 fish farmers. However, another 30% more of supplementary questionnaires were taken for a possible further stratification of data. 2.2. Questionnaire and sampling strategy A directive questionnaire including 21 questions and a choice of 2 to 7 answers per question was proposed to the fish farmers. The survey was conducted by the extension service staff of the West Java Fisheries Service during August and September 2010. In order to ensure a large territorial covering of the districts and a random selection of fish farmers, several meetings were organized previously with the investigators in order to train them about the aims, questionnaires and sampling strategy of the study. The data collected from the survey were compiled and computerized using database software (Microsoft Access 2007).

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2.4. Data analysis

Table 1 Number of villages surveyed within each district. District

Number of villages

Bandung Bogor Cianjur Cirebon Indramayu Subang Sukabumi Tasikmalaya

53 20 12 22 10 21 7 31

For the univariate analysis, the Chi square test and z-test have been used to test differences between the frequencies and percentages respectively; the Mann–Whitney rank sum test, ANOVAs analysis on rank and Spearman's correlation test were also used. Additionally, discriminant analyses (step-backward method with F b 3.84 to remove variables) have been carried out to identify the determinant variables for the use of plant among fish farmers and to identify variables that influence the frequency of plant's use among the users. All analyses were performed using Sigma Stat 3.1 or SPSS 11.0 software. 3. Results

2.3. Use Value (UV), Fidelity Level (FL) and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

In total, 504 questionnaires were collected from 176 villages of the 8 districts in the Province of West Java (Table 1). The questionnaires taken from Indramayu district (n = 39) were excluded from some analysis as they were collected only from fish farmers using plants. To confirm the quality and veracity of answers given in the questionnaires, 173 (34%) of the interviewed farmers were re-contacted by phone or visited again in their farms, and all of them confirmed the given data.

In order to evaluate the relative importance of the plants used, the UV was calculated using the following formula: UV ¼ ˙ΣU=N where U is the number of citations per plant species and N is the number of informants. The Fidelity Level (FL) (Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2000) of each plant was determined as follows:

3.1. Plants inventory, UV, ICF and FL 3.1.1. Identification of plants The use of plants in the freshwater aquaculture of West Java proved to be very common and 46% [41%, 50%; CI95%] (n = 465) of fish farmers interviewed used plants in their rearing practices. More than 130 local names of plants were mentioned by informants (fish farmers). The local name of the plant may vary according to the ethnic origin of the informant and several names often corresponded to the same species. To avoid synonymy, the names of plants given to the collectors were cross checked according the ethnic origin of informant and the corresponding Indonesian and Latin names were attributed for each species using reference plant identification literature available (De Padua et al., 1999; Levang and de Foresta, 1991). The original and revised lists were kindly checked by Dr. Purwanto an Indonesian ethnobotanist and accuracy of scientific name was checked according to The Plant List (2010). Finally, a list containing 79 species of plants belonging to 36 different families were validated in this study (Fig. 2; Table 2). The Fabaceae family was the most represented (10 species), followed by the Asteraceae (8 species) and Zingeberaceae (6 species). Although, the Caricaceae was represented by a single species i.e. Carica papaya, it was the most widely employed by fish farmers (144 citations). The median value of the number of plant species used by fish farmers was

FL ¼ ðIp=IuÞ  100 where Ip is the number of informants who independently suggested the use of a plant species for a particular purpose and Iu is the total number of informants who mentioned the plant for any use. The FL was calculated only for plants with a UV N 0.025. The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was used to identify the ethnopharmacological relevance of plants against different ailments (Heinrich et al., 2009), as well as to evaluate the level of agreement between fish farmers about the use of these plants (Andrade-Cetto, 2009). As ailments in fish disease are difficult to determine, four categories for plant application were distinguished: a) improvement of water quality; b) reduction of fish stress; c) increase of fish resistance to pathogens; d) treatment of fish diseases (when an outbreak occurs). The ICF, ranging from 0 to 1, was calculated by the following formula: ICF ¼ ðnur–nt Þ=ðnur–1Þ; where nur is the number of citations in each category and nt is the number of plant species used.

Number of species

12

44 10

124 8

6 6

17 6

19

4

17 2

32

1 5 7 4 1

9

8 3

77 2

2 1441 46

30

1

21 1

4

1

11

2 9

1 9 1 1 11

0 Zingiberaceae Solanaceae Salviniaceae Rutaceae Rubiaceae Rhizophoraceae Pontederiaceae Poaceae Plutaceae Piperaceae Phyllanthaceae Myrtaceae Musaceae Moringiaceae Moraceae Menispermaceae Meliaceae Malvaceae Liliaceae Lamiaceae Fabaceae Euphorbiaceae Cucurbitaceae Convolvulaceae Combretaceae Chlorophyceae Caricaceae Caesalpiniaceae Asteraceae… Arecaceae Araceae Apocynaceae Annonaceae Anacardiaceae Amaranthaceae Acanthaceae Fig. 2. Families of plants used by fish farmers of West Java as well as the number of plant species cited in each family (Y axis). The numbers above the columns indicate the number of fish farmers that quoted a species of plant belonging to the family.

D. Caruso et al. / Aquaculture 416–417 (2013) 334–345 Table 2 Inventory of plant species used by fish farmers in West Java province, with their Indonesian common name, the number of citations for each plant used and their UV (total of 685 citations number of informant n = 253). Family and scientific names Acanthaceae Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. Annonaceae Annona muricata L. Apocynaceae Plumeria rubra L. Araceae Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G. Don. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Arecaceae Areca catechu L. Asteraceae (Compositae) Ageratum conyzoides (L.)L. Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray Cosmos caudatus Kunth Erechtites valerianifolia (Link ex Wolf) Less. Austroeupatorium inulifolium (Kunth) R.M. King & H. Rob. Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. Tagetes erecta L. Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr. Caesalpiniaceae Senna siamea (Lam.) Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Chlorophyceae Kelas spp. Combretaceae Terminalia catappa L. Convolvulaceae Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Ipomoea batatas (L.) Poir. Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita pepo L. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia antiquorum L. Euphorbia plumerioides Teijsm. ex Hassk. Manihot esculenta Crant Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Senna alata (L.) Roxb Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. Glycine max (L.) Merr. Koompassia malaccensis Benth Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes Parkia speciosa Hassk Albizia saman (Jacq.) Merr Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. Tamarindus indica L. Lamiaceae Leucas lavandulifoliaSm. Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Plectranthus scutellarioides (L.) R.Br Tectona grandis L. f. Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Meliaceae Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum (A. Juss.) Miq. Melia azedarach L. Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. Menispermaceae Tinospora tuberculata Beumée ex K. Heyne

Indonesian name

No. of Use citation value

Sambiloto

1

0.004

Jarong

5

0.020

Jambu monyet

7

0.028

Sirsak

4

0.016

Kamboja

1

0.004

4 13

0.016 0.051

2

0.008

Babandotan Kipait Kenikir Sentrong

32 38 20 3

0.126 0.150 0.079 0.012

Kirinyuh

27

0.107

Capituheur Tagetes Mahkota dewa

1 2 1

0.004 0.008 0.004

Johar

2

0.008

144

0.569

Alga Hijau

1

0.004

Ketapang

46

0.182

Kangkung Ubi jalar

3 4

0.012 0.016

Labu

1

0.004

Ketuba Semboja jepang

7 7

0.028 0.028

Singkong

5

0.020

Ketepeng cina Cembreng Kedelai Kompas Lamtoro Albasia

8 7 1 1 9 1

0.037 0.028 0.004 0.004 0.036 0.004

Petai Pohon trembes Turi Asam

7 6 1 3

0.028 0.024 0.004 0.012

Lenglengan Kemangi Jawer kotok Jati

6 2 8 1

0.024 0.008 0.032 0.004

Kembang sepatu

1

0.004

Kedoya

1

0.004

Mindi Surian

1 4

0.004 0.016

Brotowali

4

0.016

Sente Talas Tanaman pinang

Pepaya

337

Table 2 (continued) Family and scientific names Moraceae Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson ex F.A. Zorn) Fosberg Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Ficus septica Burm.f. Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Musaceae Musa acuminata Colla Musa balbisiana Colla Musa × paradisiaca L. Musa spp. Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L. Psidium spp. Phyllanthaceae Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. Phyllanthus acidus L. Phyllanthus urinaria L. Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. Piperaceae Piper betle L. Piper nigrum L. Liliaceae Allium sativum L. Pluteaceae Volvariella volvacea (Bulliard ex Fries) Singer Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Setaria barbata (Lam.) Kunth Panicum repens L. Pontederiaceae Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora sp. Rubiaceae Morinda citrifolia L. Rutaceae Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack. Salviniaceae Salvinia adnata Desv. Solanaceae Brugmansia suaveolens Bercht. & J. Presl Physalis angulata L. Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Curcuma zanthorrhiza Roxb. Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M.Sm. Etlingera hemisphaerica (Blume) R.M.Sm. Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Indonesian name

No. of Use citation value

Sukun

2

0.008

Nangka Tanaman awar-awar

6 1

0.024 0.004

Kelor

1

0.004

1 10 3

0.004 0.040 0.012

18

0.071

1 2

0.004 0.008

Wera Cerme Meniran Katuk

5 1 23 1

0.020 0.004 0.091 0.004

Sirih Lada

10 1

0.040 0.004

Bawang Putih

21

0.083

Jamur merang

1

0.004

Padi Jamras Rumput lampuyangan

6 2 1

0.024 0.008 0.004

Eceng Gondok

8

0.032

Bakau

1

0.004

Mengkudu

9

0.036

Kemuning

1

0.004

Kayambang

1

0.004

Kecubung Ciplukan

9 2

0.036 0.008

47 13 9 8 6

0.186 0.051 0.036 0.032 0.024

1

0.004

Pisang Kepok Pisang Batu Pisang klutuk hitam; Pisang mas Pisang mangola; Pisang raja Jambu batu Jambu

Kunyit Temu lawak Kunyit putih Tanaman bongkot Honje Jahe

2. The detailed list of plants used by the fish farmers is given in Table 2, together with the number of citation per species (total of 685 citations of plants use) and the corresponding UV for each plant. This list also contained one species of mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) and one alga (Kelas spp. Chlorophyceae) that were rarely used (each of them was cited only once). Results indicate that plants generally have a low UV (median value of 0.183); with the exception of C. papaya (UV of 0.569). Among 253 fish farmers using plants, 49.8% (n = 126) of them used plants for one ailment, 47% (n = 119) of them used plants for more than one ailment, and 3.2% (n = 8) did not clearly answer this question. Overall, the four categories of uses (improvement of water quality; reduction of fish stress; increase of fish resistance to pathogens; treatment of fish diseases) were cited 447 times by fish farmers and the percentage in each category of use, as well as their ICF values are shown in Fig. 3.

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Systematically Exceptionally No Answer

Treatment of fish disease Improvement of water quality Reduction of fish stress Increase fish resistance to pathogens Unspecified

Frequently Sometimes

2%

2%

13% 18%

14% b (0.78)

52%

40% a (0.88)

15%

21% b (0.82) Fig. 4. Frequency of plant use by fish farmers expressed as percentages (n = 246).

23% b (0.86) Fig. 3. Percentage of citations expressed by fish farmers declaring to use plants for each category of ailment or therapeutic indication. The four categories of use were cited 447 times. Different letters in italics indicate significant differences between the percentages observed for each type of plant usage (z-test). Values in brackets indicate the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) for each type of plant utilization expressed by fish farmers.

The highest ICF value (0.88) corresponded to the use of plants against fish disease, but other ICFs were also relatively high for each category of plant application (from 0.78 to 0.86). Taken as a whole, the fish farmers used 63 plants for treatment of fish diseases, 56 plants for improvement of water quality, 50 plants for increase of fish resistance to pathogens and 39 plants for reduction of fish stress. Table 3 presents the 26 species of plants mostly used by fish farmers (with a UV N 0.025), and corresponding categories for application of plant.

The frequency of use of the plants by fish farmers varied as shown in Fig. 4. The reasons for the differences observed between farmers should be further investigated, but did not appear to be related to the efficacy as expressed by fish farmers (ANOVA on Rank P = 0.07). Plant efficacy, expressed by fish farmers as “generally bad, sometimes good or generally good”, was ranked as 0, 1 and 2 respectively. The data have been analyzed according to the fish species reared and included only monospecific culture. Significant differences were found between fish species reared (P b 0.001, n = 139, Kruskal–Wallis). The lowest score, obtained for Cyprinus carpio carpio, was significantly different from the highest scores obtained for Osphronemus goramy and ornamental fish.

Table 3 Plants mostly used by fish farmers from West Java Province. These plants were taken from the inventory list for their UV value N0.025. FL: fidelity level. Family Anacardiaceae Araceae Asteraceae (Compositae)

Species

Anacardium occidentale Colocasia esculenta Ageratum conyzoides Tithonia diversifolia Austroeupatorium inulifolium Cosmos caudatus Caricaceae Carica papaya Combretaceae Terminalia catappa Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia plumerioides Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus urinaria Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Senna alata Gliricidia sepium Leucaena leucocephala Parkia speciosa Lamiaceae Plectranthus scutellarioides Liliaceae Allium sativum Musaceae Musa balbisiana Musa spp. Piperaceae Piper betle Pontederiaceae Eichhornia crassipes Rubiaceae Morinda citrifolia Solanaceae Brugmansia suaveolens Zingeberaceae Curcuma longa Curcuma zanthorrhiza Curcuma zedoaria Etlingera elatior Species of plants used according their type of use (plants with UV value N 0.025)

FL % improvement of water quality

FL % reduction of fish stress

FL % increase of fish resistance to pathogens

FL % treatment of fish disease

42.9 46.2 31.3 71.1 74.1 60 77.8 67.4 85.7 26.1 87.5 42.9 55.6 42.9 12.5 61.9 – 63.6 50 62.5 22.2 33.3 42.6 – 88.9 – 23

57.1 15.4 15.4 10.5 25.9 – 23.6 43.5 14.3 17.4 87.5 – 11.1 14.3 – 57.1 20 9.1 10 25 22.2 – 46.8 92.3 55.6 – 21

– 46.2 34.4 31.6 51.9 55.6 36.1 30.4 42.9 39.1 12.5 42.9 25 42.9 – 61.9 30 45.5 30 62.5 22.2 33.3 36.2 92.3 11.1 100 24

– 69.2 93.8 73.7 51.9 90 77.8 54.4 100 100 – 100 55.6 100 87.5 100 100 22.2 100 100 55.6 66.7 72.3 100 55.6 – 23

D. Caruso et al. / Aquaculture 416–417 (2013) 334–345

***

339

Overall (848)

Javanese

***

C.carpio koi (39)

***

Clarias spp (128) Sundanese

***

Ornamental fish (39)

*

O.goramy (82) Unspecified use not use

P. hypophthalmus… 0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

Percentage

0

*** ***

Subang

***

Cirebon

** **

Bogor

***

Bandung use not use

0

20

40

60

80

20

40

60

80

100

Percentage

Fig. 8. Percentage of fish farmers using plants according to the fish species reared (n = 465). Fish farmers may have several species of fish in their farms (*** ≤ 0.001; ** ≤ 0.01; χ2 analysis). No significant difference appears between P. hypophthalmus and overall.

Overall West Java

Sukabumi

**

others (32) use not use

Cianjur

***

C. carpio carpio (256)

Fig. 5. Ethnic difference in the use of plants in aquaculture (χ2 = 39.295, P = b0.001, n = 504). For Javanese = 58; Sundanese n = 349; Unspecified = 97.

Tasikmalaya

**

O. niloticus (203)

100%

100

Percentage

Fig. 6. Percentage of plant users in each district of West Java (except Indramayu). Asterisks denote a significant difference between districts versus overall West Java (*** ≤ 0.001; ** ≤ 0.01; χ2analysis n = 465).

3.2. Factors influencing the use of plants in freshwater small scale aquaculture of West Java 3.2.1. Social and ethnic aspects The median age of fish farmers using plants in their practices was 45 and did not differ significantly from that of fish farmers not using plants (P = 0.643). Similarly, the education level (scored from 1 for primary school to 4 for university) of fish farmers using or not using plants did not differ significantly (P = 0.548). By contrast, experience in aquaculture played a role in the use of plants; the median value of fish-farming experience was significantly higher for users of plants (≥10 years of experience in fish culture) than for fish farmers who did not use plants (P = 0.007). Most of the fish farmers surveyed belonged to two ethnic groups native to Java Island; 70% were Sundanese (from West Java), whilst 11% were Javanese (from Central or East Java). Only 0.8% of fish

A)

farmers belonged to 4 other ethnic groups, whilst 18% of the farmers did not answer this question. Ethnic origin played a role in the use of plants. The Javanese fish farmers were more prone to use plants than Sundanese, or fish farmers whose ethnic origin remained undetermined (Fig. 5). Among the Sundanese and Javanese there was no difference between percentages of plant users against fish diseases. However, the percentage of Javanese fish farmers that use plants for water management was significantly higher than for Sundanese fish farmers (χ2 = 9.040, P = 0.003). There was no significant difference between the median values of the number of plants used by Sundanese or Javanese fish farmers; these were 3 and 2 plants, respectively (P = 0.939). Among the plant species used by fish farmers of the West Java province, 19 were common to the two ethnic groups, 48 were cited only by Sundanese fish farmers, and 7 species of plants were cited only by Javanese fish farmers. Significant differences were found in the use of some species of plants shared by the two ethnic groups: Curcuma longa (χ2 = 8.54, P ≤ 0.01) and Allium sativum (χ2 = 15.18, P ≤ 0.001) were used more by Javanese than Sundanese fish farmers.

3.2.2. Territorial differences A high territorial variability appeared in the use of plants, varying from 13% to 97% according to the different districts (Fig. 6). Important territorial differences were also found between subdistricts and localities of each district; this was particularly the case within the districts of Cianjur or Tasikmalaya. As a matter of fact, despite the largest number of fish farmers existing in Tasikmalaya district, only

B) f) Floating cage (38)

Overall (513) ***

Hatchery (23)

f

d) Concrete pond… *

Nursery (225) **

Growth-out (266) use not use

e) Earthen pond (359)

0

20

40

60

Percentage

80

100

f

c) Concrete tank (64)

f

b) Hapa in pond (15)

def

a) Aquaria (19)

def

use not use

0

20

40

60

80

100

Percentage

Fig. 7. (A) Percentages of fish farmers that use plants according to the type of production in their fish farms (hatchery, nursery or grow-out). (B) Percentages of fish farmers that use plants according to the type of rearing structures. Numbers between brackets indicate the number of respondents. Fish farmers may have different types of production and several rearing systems in their farms. Asterisks indicate significant difference between value of the different types of production versus overall data (*** ≤ 0.001; ** ≤ 0.01; * ≤ 0.05; χ2 analysis). Letters indicate significant differences within the type of rearing structures. n = 465.

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12.4% of them used plant. Conversely, in Sukabumi, one of the smallest districts, almost all fish farmers were users of plants. The number of plants used by fish farmers in the various districts varied significantly (ANOVA on Ranks P b 0.001) and the median value ranged from 1 to 4.5 for Cianjur and Sukabumi district respectively. The median value for the number of plants used by fish farmers in Sukabumi district was significantly higher than the median value observed in all other districts. The median value of Bogor district (3) was significantly higher than Cianjur median value. The median value for the number of plants used by fish farmers in Sukabumi district and Bogor district was significantly higher than Cianjur.

3.2.3. Types of production, rearing systems and fish species As shown in Fig. 7, marked differences appeared in the use of plants according to the types of production and rearing system. Furthermore, the comparison between farmers owning different types of rearing facilities showed that farmers using small structures (e.g. aquaria or hapa placed in ponds) used more herbal therapy than those using bigger structures (e.g. concrete tanks, ponds or floating cages; χ2, P b 0.001). Plants for water management are mostly used by the fish farmer at the beginning of the production cycle, such as in hatchery, nursery or in small units of production (e.g. ornamental fish farms); rather than for other phases of the production cycle, particularly grow-out of fish raised for food (z-test = 5.304; P b 0.001). When compared to the overall situation (all fish species combined), it appeared that fish farmers of Clarias spp., Koi carp or other ornamental fish, used a significantly higher number of plants. On the contrary, plant therapy was less used in fish farms of Oreochromis niloticus and C. carpio carpio (Fig. 8). The number of plants used by fish farmers was positively correlated to the number of fish species cultivated on the farm (Spearman correlation = 0.370, P b 0.001). When comparing data obtained exclusively in monospecific fish farms, the median values of the number of plants used were significantly different for the 5 most frequently cultivated fish species (Kruskal–Wallis analyses, P b 0.006; n = 139). The median value of plants used was 1 for O. niloticus, which was significantly lower than that observed for O. goramy or Clarias spp. (median value of 2 for both species). Discriminant analyses have been carried out to determine the variables that distinguish profiles of users and non-users of plants, as well as frequencies of plant use against fish disease. Twenty one variables that were negatively or positively correlated to the use of plants (Spearman correlations), were introduced in the discriminant analysis, and 8 of them were retained after the stepwise (backward) Wilk's analysis (F b 3.84; Table 4). The results of the multivariate analysis confirmed those observed after univariate analysis; i.e. the use of plants in aquaculture depended on the cultivated fish species, the types of production and rearing facilities, and the experience of fish farmers. To determine the frequency of use of plants in case of fish disease, the “sometime” or “frequently” Table 4 Factors that determine the use or not of plants among fish farmers of West Java. Discriminant analysis step-backward method with F b 3.84 to remove variables. Fisher's linear discriminant functions, n = 441, Wilk's Lambda 0.700, P b 0.001, 77% of cases were correctly classified. Determinant variables for plant use in aquaculture in West Java Variables

No use of plants

Use of plants

Experience of farmer Hatchery Grow-out farming Cyprinus carpio carpio Clarias spp. Osphronemus goramy Cyprinus carpio koi Ornamental fish (constant)

0.158 1.002 2.729 3.328 1.316 2.233 −0.395 3.356 −3.744

0.210 3.635 2.091 2.679 2.695 3.391 2.009 4.890 −4.682

responses given by fish farmers were numbered 1 and 2 respectively and then used for analysis. From 12 significantly correlated variables, the discriminant analysis retained 5 variables (Table 5). From this analysis, it appeared that the Sundanese fish farmers frequently used plants against fish disease, and that plants were more frequently used by ornamental fish breeders and O. goramy fish farmers than by those cultivating other fish species.

4. Discussion 4.1. Factors influencing the use of plants in small scale freshwater aquaculture of West Java Plants used by fish farmers in West Java are generally common plants; some of them are largely used in traditional kitchen, as food or condiments, and are cultivated or easily found in local markets. Nonetheless, among the 26 plants that were the most used, Tithonia diversifolia, Ageratum conyzoides and Terminalia catappa are considered as invasive plants (IUCN/ISGG, 2011), and are not used for human consumption except for traditional herbal therapy. In most cases, the plants used in fish culture are also commonly used in human traditional pharmacopeia, as is the case of Austroeupatorium inulifolium, Phyllanthus urinaria, Tamarindus indica and Andrographis paniculata (De Padua et al., 1999; Grosvenor et al., 1995). This indicates an absence of a clear distinction between plants used in aquaculture and human medicine, as already reported from another ethnoveterinary survey (Ghirotti, 1996). The use of plants in Java's aquaculture was found to depend on the size of facilities and the fish species that were being cultivated. Fish farmers with small facilities were bigger users of plants than those using larger rearing structures. The plant treatments were mostly administered directly in fish rearing water. Therefore, it is likely that the concentration of the plant active substances would be greater in a small volume of water, resulting in more effective treatment. This could explain the higher proportion of plant users within fish farmers using relatively small facilities. The frequency of plant use specifically directed against diseases, as well as their efficacy, depends on fish species. Both univariate and multivariate analysis demonstrated that ornamental fish and O. goramy farmers were the main users of plants for therapeutic purposes. If the large therapeutic use of plants in ornamental fish farms may be attributed to the limited size of rearing facilities used, however, in the case of O. goramy, which is mainly cultivated in ponds, the frequent use of plants for disease treatments might be associated with a low level of intensification in traditional farming within the Sundanese area. The ability of O. goramy to feed on plant materials might also explain at least for a part the efficacy of plant treatments for this species in ponds. By contrast, the widespread intensification of carp farming and grow-out of most species is generally associated with a low use of plants for therapeutic purposes. The low UV or FL values generally observed in this survey suggest that the use of plant could be a result of fish farmers' initiative in response to Indonesia's new regulation (Kepmen KP No 20/MEN/ 2003Kepmen KP No 20/MEN/2003) which has restricted the use of chemotherapy in aquaculture. Furthermore, data collected (not shown Table 5 Factors that determine the frequency of plant use in case of fish disease. Discriminant analysis step-backward method with F b 3.84 to remove variables. Fisher's linear discriminant functions, n = 227, Wilk's Lambda 0.764, P b 0.001. 75% of cases are correctly classified. Determinants variables for frequency of plant's use in case of fish disease Variables

Sometimes

Frequently

Sundanese Grow-out farming C. carpio carpio O. goramy Ornamental fish (constant)

1.786 2.241 1.471 1.487 1.973 −2.008

3.122 1.465 0.516 3.498 3.552 −3.122

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here) tended to enlighten the minor role of intergenerational transmission of the knowledge of herbal therapy among fish farmers. Exchanges of information between fish farmers were generally strong and often formalized in village committees called “Kelompok Pembudidaya Ikan” (literally “group of fish farmers”). Such collective organizations strongly contribute to the sharing of professional information and knowledge among fish farmers, and their respective dynamisms could explain the high territorial variability observed in the use of plants. The ethnic origin may also determine the choice of different species of plants and their corresponding category for plants application as suggested by several differences observed between the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups in this study. However, due to the predominant number of Sundanese fish farmers in the studied area of West Java, an in depth comparison between ethnic groups would require complementary surveys carried out in Central or East Java, where fish farmers are mainly Javanese. 4.2. How plants are used In most cases, fresh plants were introduced directly in the rearing water and rarely given through fish feed. Plants were distributed whole, sometimes crumpled or chopped. The doses applied depended essentially on the personal experience of fish farmers. For fish disease, the plants were selected on the basis of symptoms. For some plants commonly used, there was a large consensus within fish farmers for their type of use, as indicated by their high FL value. This consensus appeared especially for plants used for the treatment of fish disease. Nevertheless, plants often have several types of use. Considering the low specificity in the use of plants for different ailments, the real significance of several types of use claimed by fish farmers seems doubtful. This low specificity may result from the difficulty of fish farmers to acknowledge fish disease or plant properties. The holistic dimension of fish disease is intuitively understood by fish farmers as a negative outcome of rearing conditions. Fish diseases are an outcome of several pathological and environmental unfavorable factors, which both contribute to reduce the fish defenses and increase the pressure exerted by ubiquitous opportunistic pathogens in aquaculture facilities. Alternatively, the multipurpose use of some plants attests this holistic approach of fish health management and seems to be justified by the multiple beneficial effects of many plants on fish health. For example, T. catappa and A. sativum – that were indifferently used by fish farmers for water management, disease treatment or strengthening the condition of fish – are known for their inhibiting effects on various fish pathogens such as bacteria, parasites and fungi (Nya and Austin, 2009a; Peña et al., 1988; Wei and Musa, 2008). T. catappa was also reported to improve water quality (Chitmanat et al., 2005). The quality of water raises a major concern among fish farmers who consider bad water quality as one of the main causes of outbreak in their farming. In order to improve water quality, plants are generally dipped in water where they release variable amounts of hydrophilic substances. Among those, the humic acids are known to chelate heavy metals, such as cadmium, and reduce their toxicological effects in O. niloticus; they can also have direct activity against external fish parasites (Noor El-Deen et al., 2010; Osman et al., 2009). In water maceration, plants may release tannins, which can inhibit the growth of many fungi, yeasts, bacteria and viruses (Chung et al., 1998). Even though multipurpose utilization of plants may be appropriate in some cases, it appears that the criteria of choice and the use of plants remain largely empirical and discretionary. 4.3. Reported pharmacological activities on plants mostly used by fish farmers in West Java Province Extensive bibliographic work has been realized to determine if plants used by fish farmers were already reported for their pharmacological activities on aquatic animals. The results are summarized in Table 6. Although this list given is not exhaustive, it appears that

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among the 79 plants cited by fish farmers, only 16 (20%) have been reported for their pharmacological activities in fishes. Among the plants mostly used (UV N 0.025), only 10 plants out of 26 (38%) have already been reported in literature for their use in aquaculture. Some of them such as A. sativum, C. longa and T. catappa are frequently cited both in literature and by fish farmers, but the bulk of plants (80%) used by fish farmers of West Java can be considered as new for aquaculture. The citation of some medicinal plants by a large number of fish farmers could be considered as a validation and strongly suggests a good efficacy of these plants. Nevertheless the limited use of several plants (UV b 0.025) does not necessarily mean that they are of poor medicinal value. For the sake of clarity, we considered hereafter only the plants which, among those mostly used by fish farmers of West Java, were never reported for their use in fish therapy, and could have a significant potential of application in aquaculture. Parasiticide activity of Piper betle against leishmania and filaria has been reported by Kumar et al. (2010) and the anthelmintic activity of P. betle's essential oil against tapeworms and hookworms have been found to be superior to the chemical drugs such as piperazine phosphate and hexylresorcinol (Garg and Jain, 1992). These broad-spectrum parasiticide properties of P. betle should be studied in fish because multi parasitic infections are common in aquaculture facilities. The papaya (C. papaya) is the most cited plant by fish farmers for all fish ailments, but so far, its use against bacteria has not been reported in literature on fish. Methanol extracts of roots of papaya tree are known to have more antibacterial activity against Gram− bacteria than against Gram+ bacteria (Doughari et al., 2007). Therefore, use of papaya tree extracts could be promising in aquaculture considering that many common fish diseases are caused by several opportunistic Gram− bacteria. Asteraceae were often cited by fish farmers and 4 species belonging to this family were among the plants most used by fish farmers. Other species belonging to the same family but not cited by fish farmers, have been investigated for mastery diseases in fish (Christybapita et al., 2007; Ilondu et al., 2009; Meepagala et al., 2004). T. diversifolia and A. conyzoides play an important role in traditional medicine for different ailments in several part of the world. Ethanolbased extracts from the leaves and oils of these plants have been reported for their antibacterial properties against several pathogens (ChagasPaula et al., 2012; Okunade, 2002). Both plants show antiprotozoal activities; T. diversifolia against Plasmodium falciparum and A. conyzoides has been successfully tested as an anticoccidial for poultry (ChagasPaula et al., 2012; Nweze and Obiwulua, 2009). Ethanolic extracts of Cosmos caudatus (Fabaceae) have antibacterial activity and have been identified as a potentially rich source of dietary flavonoids and antioxidants (Andarwulan et al., 2010; Rasdi et al., 2010). In contrast to the other Zingiberaceae used by Javanese fish farmers, no report was found in literature concerning the use of Curcuma zanthorrhiza nor Etlingera elatior in aquaculture, but leaves and flowers of E. elatior are known for their antioxidant, antimycotic and antibacterial properties, mainly steered against Gram+ bacteria (Chan et al., 2007; Lachumy et al., 2010). Fabaceae is the family with the highest number of species with a UV N 0.025, but their use is not so frequent. Except for Senna alata, there has been no report concerning the use of other species of plants of this family for herbal therapy in fish culture. Nonetheless, nematicidal and antibacterial activities were reported in vitro for Gliricidia sepium (Nazli et al., 2008); Parkia speciosa and Leucaena leucocephala were also reported to have antibacterial property (Chew et al., 2011; Rojas et al., 2006). Within the family Lamiaceae, Plectranthus scutellarioides displayed a high FL value for treatment of fish disease, but to our knowledge, there has not been any use reported in fish. The use of this plant is common in human traditional pharmacopeia in many countries of South East Asia, as well as in Papua New Guinea, where it is used against skin infections, wounds and sores (Nick et al., 1995). Its antibacterial activity has been proved against some bacteria (de Padua et al., 1999). Javanese fish farmers use leaves, pseudostem and inflorescences (banana heart) of several species of Musa (Musaceae) and attribute to

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Table 6 Plants used by fish farmers in West Java already studied for their biological activities on aquatic species. The underlined species are among the plants mostly used by fish farmers. Species of fish

Biological effects

Pathogen

Solvent and doses

Authors

Oncorhynchus mykiss

Aeromonas hydrophila (challenge disease)

Pulp, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% of feed for 14 days

Nya and Austin (2009a)

Aeromonas hydrophila (challenge disease)

Dry powder 1, 5, 10 g kg−1 feed for 60 days

Sahu et al. (2007)

Aeromonas hydrophila (challenge disease)

Garlic peel 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.,5% of feed for 20 days Water extract MIC values ranging from 7.81 to 62.5 mg ml−1

Thanikachalam et al. (2010)

in vitro

Enhancement of growth rate. Stimulation of non specific immunity. Significant increase of survival rate Stimulation of non specific immunity Significant increase of survival rate Increase biochemical and hematological parameters in blood. Increase of survival rate Antibacterial

Andrographis paniculata

Oreochromis niloticus in vivo and in vitro

Antibacterial Prevention of mortality

Annona muricata

in vitro

Antibacterial

Carica papaya

Oreochromis niloticus

Induce temporary or permanent sterility in male

Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio cholerae (from Litopenaeus vannamei) –

Carassius auratus

90% reduction of parasite number

Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (ciliate)

Senna alata

in vitro in vitro

Antibacterial Virucidal and effect on viral adsorption

Colocasia esculenta

in vitro

Antibacterial

Curcuma zedoaria

in vitro

Antibacterial

Curcuma zedoaria

in vitro

Fungicide

Curcuma longa

in vitro

Antibacterial

in vitro

Fungicide

in vitro

Antibacterial

Labeo rohita

Stimulation of non specific immunity. Increase of survival rate Decrease peroxidation products

Low inhibition of Streptococcus sp. IHNV and OMV non enveloped-virus. Preventive contamination by the infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV), an envelope-virus. Vibrio alginolyticus, V. parahaemolyticus, V. harveyi, V. vulnificus and Citrobacter freundii Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Edwardsiella tarda. Saprolegnia spp., Aphanomyces invadans and Achlya spp. (fungi) Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Edwardsiella tarda. Saprolegnia spp., Aphanomyces invadans and Achlya spp. (fungi) Vibrio harveyi, V. cholerae, V. alginolyticus, V. parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus, Aeromonas hydrophila, Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, Staph. epidermidis, Staph. intermidius, Bacillus subtilis, B. cereus and Edwardsiella tarda. Aeromonas hydrophila (challenge disease)

Labeo rohita Clarias gariepinus

Anabas testudineus

−

Gram Edwardsiella tarda, Citrobacter freundii, Escherichia coli, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus. Gram+ Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus Streptococcus agalactiae

–

Wei and Musa (2008)

Water extract MIC 31.25 μg ml−1 Leaf powder in feed 4:36 or 5:35 of dried matter aqueous extract (w/w) Water extract 1:10 concentration 200 μl plate 1 Seed 4.9 g kg−1 day−1 to 9.8 g kg−1 day−1 for 30 days Seed crude methanolic extracts 200 mg L−1 for 72 h Ethanol extract 10 mg ml−1 Ethanol extract 500 μg ml−1

Direkbusarakom et al. (1998) Direkbusarakom et al. (1996)

Water and methanolic extract 250 mg ml−1

Wei et al. (2008)

Crude extract rhizoma 0.1 ml plate 1

Ethanol extract MCI 3.91 to 125 ppt

Muniruzzaman and Chowdhury (2004) Muniruzzaman and Chowdhury (2006) Muniruzzaman and Chowdhury (2004) Muniruzzaman and Chowdhury (2006) Lawhavinit et al. (2010)

Rhizome 1 g per kg of feed for 60 days

Sahu et al. (2008)

Curcumin 0.5–1% of feed for 2 or 8 weeks

Manju et al. (2012)

Crude extract of rhizoma MCI 50 μg ml−1 Crude extract of rhizoma 0.1 ml plate 1 Crude extract of rhizoma MCI 50 μg ml−1

Rattanachaikunsopon and Phumkhachorn (2009) Viera et al. (2010) Ekanem and Okoronkwo (2003) Ekanem et al. (2004)

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Species of plants Allium sativum

Species of plants Biological effects

Pathogen

Solvent and doses

Authors

in vitro

Antibacterial

Crude extract of rhizoma 0.1 ml plate 1

in vitro

Fungicide

Brugmansia suaveolens Moringa oleifera

in vitro in vitro

Antibacterial Antibacterial

Morinda citrifolia

in vitro

Antibacterial

Musa paradisiaca

Colossoma macropomum, Piaractus brachypomus Oreochromis mossambicus

No change on survival rateNo change on alternative complement activity and lysozyme Increase of specific and non specific immunityIncrease survival rate

Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Edwardsiella tarda. Saprolegnia spp., Aphanomyces invadans and Achlya spp. (fungi) Pseudomonas fluorescens several strains Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio cholerae from Litopenaeus vannamei. E. coli from O. niloticus Aeromonas hydrophila, Vibrio alginolyticus, V. parahaemolyticus, V. harveyi, V. vulnificus, Edwardsiella tarda, Streptococcus spp. –

Phyllanthus urinaria

in vitro in vitro

Antibacterial (low) Antiviral activity

Piper betle

in vitro

Antibacterial

in vitro

Fungistatic and fungicidal activity

Saprolegnia parasitica

in vitro Oreochromis niloticus

Bacteriostatic Significant increase of survival

Aeromonas hydrophila (challenge disease)

Ocimum sanctum

Psidium guajava

Aeromonas hydrophila

A. hydrophila and V. harveyi Salmonid viruses IHNV and OMV non enveloped-virus Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas fluorescens Edwardsiella tarda.

in vitro Clarias macrocephalus Significant increase of survival rate

Aeromonas hydrophila (challenge disease)

in vitro

Antibacterial

in vitro Oncorhynchus mykiss

Antivirus Antivirus small reduction of mortality rate

in vitro

Antibacterial

Terminalia catappa

Carassius auratus Oreochromis niloticus

Zingiber officinale

Oncorhynchus mykiss

Antiparasitic Antiparasitic Antibacterial Stimulation of non specific immunity Increase of survival rate Increase non-specific parameters of neutrophils Increase in weight Enhancement of non specific immunity. Reduction of cumulative mortality

Vibrio harveyi, V. splendidus, V. vulnificus, V. mimicus, V. fluvialis, V. parahaemolyticus, V. cholerae IHNV, OMV and YHV of shrimps Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) Aeromonas hydrophila, A. caviae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Vibrio spp. Gyrodactylus sp., Dactylogyrus Trichodina sp., A. hydrophila

Tagetes erecta

Oncorhynchus mykiss Oreochromis mossambicus

Crude extract of rhizoma MCI 50 μg ml−1 Crude extract of plant 10 μl plate 1 Water (1:10) and ethanolic extract (1:5) of seed (w/v)

Muniruzzaman and Chowdhury (2004) Muniruzzaman and Chowdhury (2006) Foysal et al. (2011) Viera et al. (2010)

Water and methanolic extract 250 mg ml−1

Wei et al. (2008)

feed: 30% of the diet on a dry basis for 12 weeks Water extract leaf (1:10) (w/v) or leaves powder 20 μg to 400 mg fish−1 for 1 day Ethanol extract MCI 2.5 to 5 mg ml−1 Ethanol extract

Lochmann et al. (2009)

Crude extract of leaves 0.1 ml plate 1

Muniruzzaman and Chowdhury (2004) Udomkusonsri et al. (2007)

Ethanol extract 125, 250, 500 μg ml−1. Fungicidal 2,500 μl ml−1 for 5 min Ethanol extracts MIC (62.5 μg ml−1). Leaf powder 1:4 or ethanol extract 1:24 (w:w) for 5 days MIC 625 μg ml−1 Ethanol extract 1 g per kg of feed MIC 1250–5.000 μg ml−1

Logambal et al. (2000)

Direkbusarakom et al., 1998 Direkbusarakom et al. (1996)

Pachanawan et al. (2008)

Direkbusarakom et al. (1997) Direkbusarakom et al. (1997)

0.8, 30.74 and 1000 μg ml−1 Dried powder 100 mg per kg of diet for 6 weeks Water maceration 3 days dry leafs MCI 1–2 mg ml−1 of tannin Dried leaf 5.1 mg L−1 for 2 weeks Dried and grounded leafs 800 ppm

Direkbusarakom et al. (1997) Amar et al. (2012)

Aeromonas hydrophila (challenge disease)

Rhizome 0.5 g per 100 g of feed for 14 days

Nya and Austin (2009b)

– Vibrio vulnificus (challenge disease)

Rhizome 1 g per 100 g of feed for 21 days Acetone extract powder 1% in feed

Dügenci et al. (2003) Immanuel et al. (2009)

Cahnsue and Assawawongkasem (2008) Chansue (2007) Chitmanat et al. (2005)

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Species of fish Curcuma zedoaria

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them several properties. Antibacterial activities have been reported from the unripe banana, both for peel and fruit (Fagbemi et al., 2009; Mokbel and Hashinaga, 2005). In ethnoveterinary medicine, banana have been reported to be used as a remedy for diarrhea in horses in Trinidad and Tobago and mild coccidiostat activity of banana roots was reported for rabbit in Zimbabwe (Lans et al., 2006; Matekaire et al., 2005). For Eichornia crassieps (Pontederiaceae), several studies revealed the capability of this invasive plant to realize the phytoremediation of polluted water, particularly in order to remove heavy metals, but its use in fish therapy is reported here for the first time. The use of this plant appears promising, considering that a recent study showed effective antimicrobial and antimycotic activities, particularly from water extract of leaves (Fareed et al., 2008). Lastly, the properties of Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) appear promising for treatment of fish disease and water management. Antibacterial activities from the bark of plants have been reported by Akinpelu (2001) and are related to the quantity of anacardic acids (Torquato et al., 2004). Moreover, its molluscicide and anthelmintic activities have been reported by Jurberg et al. (1995) and Akhtar et al. (2000). 5. Conclusion The present study provides a thorough overview of the importance of herbal medicine in Indonesian freshwater aquaculture. Although herbal therapy is widely used, the low UV of plants indicates that the knowledge of plants properties is dispersed, and in many cases, it is an innovative practice for small scale aquaculture in Indonesia. Even though most of them are common plants widely used in traditional human phytotherapy, the use of several plants has been reported here for the first time for their use in aquaculture. Further studies remain necessary to better understand the specific properties of plant used by fish farmers in Java Island. It already appears that ethnobotanic research may be extremely valuable to better understand and promote ecofriendly therapies in aquaculture. Improving and adapting the herbal therapy into holistic fish health management present a common challenge between fish farmers, scientists and extension services of aquaculture. Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the Cooperation and Cultural Action Department (S.C.A.C.) of the French Embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia, for providing part of the funds for this work. The authors would like to thank Mr. Ahmad Hadadi, the director of “Dinas Perikanan dan Kelautan” of West Java province, for his support, as well as the extension service belonging to this institution for its important contribution in data collection. We would also like to thank Dr. Purwanto from the Ethnobotanic laboratory of “Pusat Penelitian Biologi-LIPI, Bogor”, for revising the concordance between vernacular names and scientific names of plants. Special acknowledgements are expressed to fish farmers for their kind collaboration during the study. This is a publication IRD-DIVA-ISEM 2013-035. References Akhtar, M.S., Iqbal, Z., Khan, M.N., Lateef, M., 2000. Anthelmintic activity of medicinal plants with particular reference to their use in animals in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Small Rumin. Res. 38, 99–107. Akinpelu, D.A., 2001. Antimicrobial activity of Anacardium occidentale bark. Fitoterapia 72, 286–287. Ali-Shtayeh, M.S., Yaniv, Z., Mahajna, J., 2000. Ethnobotanical survey in the Palestinian area: a classification of the healing potential of medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 73, 221–232. Amar, E.C., Kiron, V., Akutsu, T., Satoh, S., Watanabe, T., 2012. Resistance of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss to infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) experimental infection following ingestion of natural and synthetic carotenoids. Aquaculture 330, 148–155. Andarwulan, N., Batari, R., Sandrasari, D.A., Bolling, B., Wijaya, H., 2010. Flavonoid content and antioxidant activity of vegetables from Indonesia. Food Chem. 121, 1231–1235. Andrade-Cetto, A., 2009. Ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants from Tlanchinol, Hidalgo, México. J. Ethnopharmacol. 122, 163–171.

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