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Using inter-disciplinary programs to encourage integrated work across the curriculum
189
Using Inter-disciplinary Programs to Encourage Integrated Work Across the Curriculum Pauline BLEACH Research Fellow, Reading and Language Information Centre, University of Reading, School of Education, Reading. UK
If microcomputers are to be used to support and extend good primary practice, a learning model which allows children to discover freely needs to be employed. The most effective type of software to encourage this is that described as 'revelatory'. Simulations, which fulfil both demands, stimulate skill development in a way not previously available via traditional classroom methods. By using a full resource package, such as Wagons West, in a group collaborative situation, many social, verbal and pedagogical skills can be engendered. The emphasis is upon skill-based and conceptual learning across the curriculum rather than on the acquisition of discrete subject-based knowledge. This leads to a new role for teachers as managers of children's learning rather than as didactic imparters of knowledge.
Keywords: Microcomputers, Simulations, Cross-curricular Work, Group Collaboration, Inter-disciplinary Programs, Integrated Computer Work, Resource Packages, Revelatory.
Pauline Bleach, following a wide and varied teaching career, covering 15 years of classroom experience with all ages of children from 2-12 years, is at present Research Fellow for language development with microcomputers at the Reading and Language Information Centre at the University of Reading, School of Education. Her main research is into primary school children's comprehension of non-fiction texts, at the transition to secondary schools, and she is also responsible for the publication of evaluations for teachers of language development software. She is also concerned with inservice training of teachers in computer literacy through lectures, seminars and courses.
North-Holland Education & Computing 3 (1987) 189-193 0067-9287/87/$3.50 © 1987, IFIP
Long before the recent advent of microcomputers in primary schools, Kemmis et al. [1] proposed a useful framework within which to discuss the educational implications of different types of computer assisted learning (CAL). The framework is characterised, as follows, by four educational paradigms: 1. The Instructional paradigm A form of CAL akin to programming learning in which the student is led through the learning material via a structured question and answer dialogue. The focus of the instruction is on the subject material and on the student's mastery of the various concepts within it. 2. The Revelatory paradigm A form of CAL in which the user is guided through a process of discovery so that the subject matter and the underlying theory are progressively revealed to him as he proceeds through the CAL package. The computer acts as a mediator between the student and a hidden model of some real-fife situation. 3. The Conjectural paradigm The use of the computer to assist the student in his manipulation and testing of ideas and hypotheses. It is based on the concept that knowledge can be created through the student's experiences; its emphasis is on the student's exploration of information on a particular topic. 4. The Emancipator?/ paradigm The use of the computer as a means of reducing the student's workload, for example as an aid for numerical calculations or for information retrieval. In the early use of microcomputers in schools many, if not most, of the programs were based upon the behaviouristic model of the first paradigm. Typically, these programs were fairly short, supporting a drill and practice conception of
P. Bleach / The Use of Inter-disciplinary Programs
190
teaching and learning and failed to make use of the more powerful capabifities of the machines. Fortunately the last few years have seen a much greater concentration by software producers on programs which are based upon the educational perceptions of the other three paradigms and whilst some of the most worthwhile software is to be found in the last two paradigms, it is with the second one that this paper is mainly concerned. Schenk [2, p. 100] writes that: "Perhaps the real justification for having micros in primary schools is that they can be used, as one resource among many, to support and extend what already goes on in good primary classrooms and can provide new opportunities for young children to learn through activity." The amount, type and quality of this activity is often dictated by the software itself. At one end of the continuum the computer activity firmly controls the children's working whilst at the other, the children are much more free to control the computer. Wellington [3] represents the model as shown in Table 1. Microcomputers have changed aspects of society at large. Few can doubt that they will also effect a change on education: " I t is fast becoming possible to conceive and develop new teaching techniques and learning environments, by means of which educational goals may be attained which have long been considered desirable, but which were hitherto beyond our grasp." [4] One of the 'desirable goals' is a true integration of the many subject disciplines in the primary school. To date, this has been attempted, and some success achieved, through project or topic based work carried out through traditional classroom methodology, but with the introduction of micros we now have "the potential for extending the intellectual capabilities of our children in a
way limited only by the boundaries of our own imagination." [5] By combining the idea of 'learning' programs in Wellington's model with Kemmis et al.'s Revelatory paradigm we can make use of simulation programs to achieve the desirable goal of cross curricular working. Simulations are based on a model of a situation, usually real, and they expose children to one of the most powerful computer techniques known. This complex form of mediated learning can be used to simulate dangerous, distant, time-consuming or costly activities in which children could not normally be involved. A computer simulation involves the use of a model to study how a system changes over time. It does this by showing simulated views, maps or information sheets and by posing problems of a kind which exercise the children's initiative. The model upon which the simulation is built is described by Wellington [3] as a 'simplified representation'. He continues: "In a simulation the model is ready-created by the programmer. The user can then alter and experiment with the external conditions and variables affecting the model, but cannot tamper with the model itself, i.e. internal conditions." The Southern Region Primary Group, [6] outline the main benefits of simulations as follows: (1) They help develop logical thinking skills and strategies for problem solving. (2) They encourage co-operation, group discussion and team work. (3) They provide a more stimulating method of learning, where skills are grasped because they are needed, and remembered because they have been used in practice. (4) Writing is now seen to have a purpose beyond a mere exercise. A well-written letter is required to obtain a grant. A well-kept log is essential for the continuation of work on another day.
Table 1 Children programming computer
Computer programming children
Teaching Programs Tutorial skill-and-drill
Learning Programs Educational (games) simulations
Tools
Open-ended Use?
Databases Word-processing
e.g. Logo in use
P. Bleach / The Use of Inter-disciplinary Programs
(5) They provide motivation for improving research skills. (6) Many of the programs help develop map-reading skills, including scale, bearings, latitude & longitude and wind direction. The children will also need to make their own maps to show the position of various things. (7) The programs often stimulate enquiry into many aspects of the real-life situation (e.g. in "Mary Rose" the children may wish to find out more about diving). (8) Some of the programs help the children to understand technical terminology, e.g. parts of a ship, diving equipment, scans, excavations and sarcophagi. (9) Children can apply the "what if..?" technique to their problems to see the relationship between cause and effect--often difficult to achieve in the real world. (10) When role playing in this way, the children "experience" history, geography or whatever. It becomes more meaningful and memorable. Whilst simulations are used in business and technical training largely on an individual basis, in education their use is envisaged for groups of children working collaboratively. In addition, in educational use, most simulations are not solely computer programs but are major resource packages, including much material allied to the topic in question. Thus, the package offers not only a focal point for the working in the computer program itself but also many and varied off-computer activities. An example of this kind of simulation is 'Wagons West' which has recently been released in the U.K. [7] The package, for pupils of 10 years and above, has been designed to assist young people to simulate the experience of travelling west by wagon train as pioneer emigrants in mid-19th century America. Two computer programs form the basis of the package and these are accompanied by extensive support materials comprising 9 information sheets, 8 group cards, fitting out record sheets, two colour posters and a teachers' guide. These provide a wealth of information and varied activities for the pupils, besides giving management and organisational support for teachers. The program description, given in the Teachers' Guide is as follows:
191
"The pupils are transported back to another time and place--North America, 1852--a high point in the opening up of the American far west. Taking the role of men and women in a group of emigrants, the pupils will make the longest, most exciting--and possibly most dangerous--journey of a lifetime. Travelling from their old homes in the Middle and Eastern States of North America (and often originally from Europe), they will first gather and 'fit out' in one of the Missouri 'jumping off' towns, in this case Independence. They will then set off, as part of a wagon train, on a journey of over 2000 miles (3200 Km) across grassy plains, high mountains and hot deserts, to reach a 'paradise on earth'--the promised land of California. On their long journey they will meet shrewd shopkeepers, rough and ready Mountain Men, have dealings with Indians, visit forts and encounter buffalo and other wild animals of the plains, mountains and deserts. During their travels, a number of 'events' will overtake the pupils in their role as emigrants. These range from the positive, like finding good pasture for their oxen, to the lethal, such as cholera breaking out in the wagon train. These are events over which the emigrants have little control. They will also be faced with a number of decisions-"How many oxen shall we buy?"; "How much flour, bacon, etc. shall we carry?"; "Shall we trust this Mountain Man to guide us to California?" "Should we stop the whole wagon train to look for some missing children?", etc. In these cases the emigrants are able to discuss the options open to them and therefore have greater control over the outcomes. Another factor in the simulation is that the whole journey is a race against time. If the emigrants fail to make good progress they may find themselves trapped, snowbound in the Sierra Nevada mountains--just as happened to the Donner party of emigrants in the winter of 1846/47 (see Information Sheet 6). However, with skill, and a lot of good luck, they will reach the warm, pleasant and fertile land of California, ready to set up a settlement and start a new life--but that's another story. The package is based on the assumption that empathy is a skill which can be developed to various levels. At the first level the focus is upon an understanding of the actions of the emigrants but at the higher levels understanding centres upon
P. Bleach / The Use of Inter-disciplinary Programs
192
the thoughts and problems and the attitudes and beliefs of the emigrants. The principal aim is to assist children to empathise with the pioneer emigrants. Incidental to this main aim is the assumption that the pupils will become more fully informed about the relevant historical, social and geographical details of North America at the time, and the 19th century migrations to the American far west in particular. As a working simulation, Wagons West certainly fulfils these aims, and the random generation of the various alternatives ensures that each group of children experiences them in a different way. Primary school teachers who have made use of the program not only had to familiarise themselves fully with the content of the package but also had to consider the implications for classroom management and organisation. To be used effectively, the program had to form the central focus of the classwork for a whole term. Whilst the main curriculum area covered is obviously history, scope is also given to include geography, english and language development (both spoken and written), drama, mathematics, creative art and craft work, environmental studies, health education, movement, scientific investigation, research, problem-solving and logic, and moral issues. Thus, the package pervades and influences every aspect of the curriculum and the interactive nature of the computer element elicits a kind of working and response not previously available through traditional classroom methodologies. Primary school children who had the opportunity to experience Wagons West were immediately motivated and enthusiastic, entering wholeheartedly into the role-play situation. In their summing up afterwards they concluded that this project was much more exciting than 'normal' classroom topics and they particularly appreciated the mixture of the computer based element with the resource activities away from the computer. Belonging to a group of actual emigrants of the time had brought an increased understanding and realism to their work. The integral nature of the group working was seen to encourage skills of: • collaboration, • co-operation, turn-taking, • sociality, • greater confidence, • self motivation, •
whilst the generated discussion engendered: • increased success in the outcomes, • the development of oral and verbal skills, • seeking information and consultations, • listening and acting upon information received, • negotiating techniques, • positive contradiction and argument, • providing rationale for ideas, • the sharing of difficulties and insights, • the ability to infer and draw conclusions, • the generation of alternative solutions, • the ability to discriminate between fact and opinion. In relation to the pedagogical aspects, the program tended to encourage worthwhile higher order skills, and in particular: • empathising, • speculation, • problem-solving techniques, • hypothesis forming and testing, • trial and error approaches, • short and long term planning, • the development of logical throught and deduction, • reasoning, • decision making, • strategy formulation. Several practical outcomes of using the program were also observed. Besides being able to deal with a variety of reading, writing and research activities, children developed competence in: • recording skills, • keeping diaries, • locating and using reference materials, • reading non-fiction texts, • understanding and creating biographies, • letter writing, • making logs, • map reading. Simulations such as Wagons West demand a committed involvement from both teacher and pupils over an extended period of time and whilst they engage children in a new independent mode of discovery learning, they also promote a new role for teachers. Teachers are no longer didactic imparters of knowledge in a single subject discipline. Instead, they become managers of the children's learning across the whole curriculum. What is most important, is that teachers should
P. Bleach / The Use of Inter-disciplinary Programs
identify exactly what they are developing when they embark on a cross-curricular package. It is not the ultimate solution which matters so much as the various skills and concepts which can be engendered along the way. Often, children will envisage solving the problem as the only criterion that matters, but teachers should be aware that it is the one which matters least.
[2] [3] [4]
[5]
193
Learning, Occasional paper No. 5, Centre for Applied Research in Education (CARE), University of East Anglia. Schenk, C. (1985), Computers in primary education, in: [3]. Wellington, J. (1985), Children, Computers and the Curriculum (Harper and Row, London). Sage, M., and Smith, D. (1983), Microcomputers in Education: A Framework for Research (Social Science Research Council, London--renamed Economic and Social Research Council, 1984). Letheren, R. (1982), Computers in primary schools, in: Primary Education Review: Microcomputers in Primary Education (National Union of Teachers (NUT), London,
Acknowledgements A c k n o w l e d g m e n t is given to the Research Board and to the School of Education of the University of Reading, both of w h o m kindly provided funding for attendance at the conference in G e n t at which this paper wa s presented.
References [1] Kemmis, S., Atkin, R., and Wright, E. (1977), How do students learn?--Working Papers on Computer Assisted
Summer 1982) p. 7. [6] Southern Region Primary Group (1984), Information Leaflet No. 206: Simulations in the Classroom (Southern Micro- electronics Information Centre, Crawley). [7] Tressell (1986), Wagons West: A Computer Assisted Learning Package (TresseIl Publications, Brighton).
Using Inter-disciplinary Programs to Encourage Integrated Work Across the Curriculum Pauline BLEACH Research Fellow, Reading and Language Information Centre, University of Reading, School of Education, Reading. UK
If microcomputers are to be used to support and extend good primary practice, a learning model which allows children to discover freely needs to be employed. The most effective type of software to encourage this is that described as 'revelatory'. Simulations, which fulfil both demands, stimulate skill development in a way not previously available via traditional classroom methods. By using a full resource package, such as Wagons West, in a group collaborative situation, many social, verbal and pedagogical skills can be engendered. The emphasis is upon skill-based and conceptual learning across the curriculum rather than on the acquisition of discrete subject-based knowledge. This leads to a new role for teachers as managers of children's learning rather than as didactic imparters of knowledge.
Keywords: Microcomputers, Simulations, Cross-curricular Work, Group Collaboration, Inter-disciplinary Programs, Integrated Computer Work, Resource Packages, Revelatory.
Pauline Bleach, following a wide and varied teaching career, covering 15 years of classroom experience with all ages of children from 2-12 years, is at present Research Fellow for language development with microcomputers at the Reading and Language Information Centre at the University of Reading, School of Education. Her main research is into primary school children's comprehension of non-fiction texts, at the transition to secondary schools, and she is also responsible for the publication of evaluations for teachers of language development software. She is also concerned with inservice training of teachers in computer literacy through lectures, seminars and courses.
North-Holland Education & Computing 3 (1987) 189-193 0067-9287/87/$3.50 © 1987, IFIP
Long before the recent advent of microcomputers in primary schools, Kemmis et al. [1] proposed a useful framework within which to discuss the educational implications of different types of computer assisted learning (CAL). The framework is characterised, as follows, by four educational paradigms: 1. The Instructional paradigm A form of CAL akin to programming learning in which the student is led through the learning material via a structured question and answer dialogue. The focus of the instruction is on the subject material and on the student's mastery of the various concepts within it. 2. The Revelatory paradigm A form of CAL in which the user is guided through a process of discovery so that the subject matter and the underlying theory are progressively revealed to him as he proceeds through the CAL package. The computer acts as a mediator between the student and a hidden model of some real-fife situation. 3. The Conjectural paradigm The use of the computer to assist the student in his manipulation and testing of ideas and hypotheses. It is based on the concept that knowledge can be created through the student's experiences; its emphasis is on the student's exploration of information on a particular topic. 4. The Emancipator?/ paradigm The use of the computer as a means of reducing the student's workload, for example as an aid for numerical calculations or for information retrieval. In the early use of microcomputers in schools many, if not most, of the programs were based upon the behaviouristic model of the first paradigm. Typically, these programs were fairly short, supporting a drill and practice conception of
P. Bleach / The Use of Inter-disciplinary Programs
190
teaching and learning and failed to make use of the more powerful capabifities of the machines. Fortunately the last few years have seen a much greater concentration by software producers on programs which are based upon the educational perceptions of the other three paradigms and whilst some of the most worthwhile software is to be found in the last two paradigms, it is with the second one that this paper is mainly concerned. Schenk [2, p. 100] writes that: "Perhaps the real justification for having micros in primary schools is that they can be used, as one resource among many, to support and extend what already goes on in good primary classrooms and can provide new opportunities for young children to learn through activity." The amount, type and quality of this activity is often dictated by the software itself. At one end of the continuum the computer activity firmly controls the children's working whilst at the other, the children are much more free to control the computer. Wellington [3] represents the model as shown in Table 1. Microcomputers have changed aspects of society at large. Few can doubt that they will also effect a change on education: " I t is fast becoming possible to conceive and develop new teaching techniques and learning environments, by means of which educational goals may be attained which have long been considered desirable, but which were hitherto beyond our grasp." [4] One of the 'desirable goals' is a true integration of the many subject disciplines in the primary school. To date, this has been attempted, and some success achieved, through project or topic based work carried out through traditional classroom methodology, but with the introduction of micros we now have "the potential for extending the intellectual capabilities of our children in a
way limited only by the boundaries of our own imagination." [5] By combining the idea of 'learning' programs in Wellington's model with Kemmis et al.'s Revelatory paradigm we can make use of simulation programs to achieve the desirable goal of cross curricular working. Simulations are based on a model of a situation, usually real, and they expose children to one of the most powerful computer techniques known. This complex form of mediated learning can be used to simulate dangerous, distant, time-consuming or costly activities in which children could not normally be involved. A computer simulation involves the use of a model to study how a system changes over time. It does this by showing simulated views, maps or information sheets and by posing problems of a kind which exercise the children's initiative. The model upon which the simulation is built is described by Wellington [3] as a 'simplified representation'. He continues: "In a simulation the model is ready-created by the programmer. The user can then alter and experiment with the external conditions and variables affecting the model, but cannot tamper with the model itself, i.e. internal conditions." The Southern Region Primary Group, [6] outline the main benefits of simulations as follows: (1) They help develop logical thinking skills and strategies for problem solving. (2) They encourage co-operation, group discussion and team work. (3) They provide a more stimulating method of learning, where skills are grasped because they are needed, and remembered because they have been used in practice. (4) Writing is now seen to have a purpose beyond a mere exercise. A well-written letter is required to obtain a grant. A well-kept log is essential for the continuation of work on another day.
Table 1 Children programming computer
Computer programming children
Teaching Programs Tutorial skill-and-drill
Learning Programs Educational (games) simulations
Tools
Open-ended Use?
Databases Word-processing
e.g. Logo in use
P. Bleach / The Use of Inter-disciplinary Programs
(5) They provide motivation for improving research skills. (6) Many of the programs help develop map-reading skills, including scale, bearings, latitude & longitude and wind direction. The children will also need to make their own maps to show the position of various things. (7) The programs often stimulate enquiry into many aspects of the real-life situation (e.g. in "Mary Rose" the children may wish to find out more about diving). (8) Some of the programs help the children to understand technical terminology, e.g. parts of a ship, diving equipment, scans, excavations and sarcophagi. (9) Children can apply the "what if..?" technique to their problems to see the relationship between cause and effect--often difficult to achieve in the real world. (10) When role playing in this way, the children "experience" history, geography or whatever. It becomes more meaningful and memorable. Whilst simulations are used in business and technical training largely on an individual basis, in education their use is envisaged for groups of children working collaboratively. In addition, in educational use, most simulations are not solely computer programs but are major resource packages, including much material allied to the topic in question. Thus, the package offers not only a focal point for the working in the computer program itself but also many and varied off-computer activities. An example of this kind of simulation is 'Wagons West' which has recently been released in the U.K. [7] The package, for pupils of 10 years and above, has been designed to assist young people to simulate the experience of travelling west by wagon train as pioneer emigrants in mid-19th century America. Two computer programs form the basis of the package and these are accompanied by extensive support materials comprising 9 information sheets, 8 group cards, fitting out record sheets, two colour posters and a teachers' guide. These provide a wealth of information and varied activities for the pupils, besides giving management and organisational support for teachers. The program description, given in the Teachers' Guide is as follows:
191
"The pupils are transported back to another time and place--North America, 1852--a high point in the opening up of the American far west. Taking the role of men and women in a group of emigrants, the pupils will make the longest, most exciting--and possibly most dangerous--journey of a lifetime. Travelling from their old homes in the Middle and Eastern States of North America (and often originally from Europe), they will first gather and 'fit out' in one of the Missouri 'jumping off' towns, in this case Independence. They will then set off, as part of a wagon train, on a journey of over 2000 miles (3200 Km) across grassy plains, high mountains and hot deserts, to reach a 'paradise on earth'--the promised land of California. On their long journey they will meet shrewd shopkeepers, rough and ready Mountain Men, have dealings with Indians, visit forts and encounter buffalo and other wild animals of the plains, mountains and deserts. During their travels, a number of 'events' will overtake the pupils in their role as emigrants. These range from the positive, like finding good pasture for their oxen, to the lethal, such as cholera breaking out in the wagon train. These are events over which the emigrants have little control. They will also be faced with a number of decisions-"How many oxen shall we buy?"; "How much flour, bacon, etc. shall we carry?"; "Shall we trust this Mountain Man to guide us to California?" "Should we stop the whole wagon train to look for some missing children?", etc. In these cases the emigrants are able to discuss the options open to them and therefore have greater control over the outcomes. Another factor in the simulation is that the whole journey is a race against time. If the emigrants fail to make good progress they may find themselves trapped, snowbound in the Sierra Nevada mountains--just as happened to the Donner party of emigrants in the winter of 1846/47 (see Information Sheet 6). However, with skill, and a lot of good luck, they will reach the warm, pleasant and fertile land of California, ready to set up a settlement and start a new life--but that's another story. The package is based on the assumption that empathy is a skill which can be developed to various levels. At the first level the focus is upon an understanding of the actions of the emigrants but at the higher levels understanding centres upon
P. Bleach / The Use of Inter-disciplinary Programs
192
the thoughts and problems and the attitudes and beliefs of the emigrants. The principal aim is to assist children to empathise with the pioneer emigrants. Incidental to this main aim is the assumption that the pupils will become more fully informed about the relevant historical, social and geographical details of North America at the time, and the 19th century migrations to the American far west in particular. As a working simulation, Wagons West certainly fulfils these aims, and the random generation of the various alternatives ensures that each group of children experiences them in a different way. Primary school teachers who have made use of the program not only had to familiarise themselves fully with the content of the package but also had to consider the implications for classroom management and organisation. To be used effectively, the program had to form the central focus of the classwork for a whole term. Whilst the main curriculum area covered is obviously history, scope is also given to include geography, english and language development (both spoken and written), drama, mathematics, creative art and craft work, environmental studies, health education, movement, scientific investigation, research, problem-solving and logic, and moral issues. Thus, the package pervades and influences every aspect of the curriculum and the interactive nature of the computer element elicits a kind of working and response not previously available through traditional classroom methodologies. Primary school children who had the opportunity to experience Wagons West were immediately motivated and enthusiastic, entering wholeheartedly into the role-play situation. In their summing up afterwards they concluded that this project was much more exciting than 'normal' classroom topics and they particularly appreciated the mixture of the computer based element with the resource activities away from the computer. Belonging to a group of actual emigrants of the time had brought an increased understanding and realism to their work. The integral nature of the group working was seen to encourage skills of: • collaboration, • co-operation, turn-taking, • sociality, • greater confidence, • self motivation, •
whilst the generated discussion engendered: • increased success in the outcomes, • the development of oral and verbal skills, • seeking information and consultations, • listening and acting upon information received, • negotiating techniques, • positive contradiction and argument, • providing rationale for ideas, • the sharing of difficulties and insights, • the ability to infer and draw conclusions, • the generation of alternative solutions, • the ability to discriminate between fact and opinion. In relation to the pedagogical aspects, the program tended to encourage worthwhile higher order skills, and in particular: • empathising, • speculation, • problem-solving techniques, • hypothesis forming and testing, • trial and error approaches, • short and long term planning, • the development of logical throught and deduction, • reasoning, • decision making, • strategy formulation. Several practical outcomes of using the program were also observed. Besides being able to deal with a variety of reading, writing and research activities, children developed competence in: • recording skills, • keeping diaries, • locating and using reference materials, • reading non-fiction texts, • understanding and creating biographies, • letter writing, • making logs, • map reading. Simulations such as Wagons West demand a committed involvement from both teacher and pupils over an extended period of time and whilst they engage children in a new independent mode of discovery learning, they also promote a new role for teachers. Teachers are no longer didactic imparters of knowledge in a single subject discipline. Instead, they become managers of the children's learning across the whole curriculum. What is most important, is that teachers should
P. Bleach / The Use of Inter-disciplinary Programs
identify exactly what they are developing when they embark on a cross-curricular package. It is not the ultimate solution which matters so much as the various skills and concepts which can be engendered along the way. Often, children will envisage solving the problem as the only criterion that matters, but teachers should be aware that it is the one which matters least.
[2] [3] [4]
[5]
193
Learning, Occasional paper No. 5, Centre for Applied Research in Education (CARE), University of East Anglia. Schenk, C. (1985), Computers in primary education, in: [3]. Wellington, J. (1985), Children, Computers and the Curriculum (Harper and Row, London). Sage, M., and Smith, D. (1983), Microcomputers in Education: A Framework for Research (Social Science Research Council, London--renamed Economic and Social Research Council, 1984). Letheren, R. (1982), Computers in primary schools, in: Primary Education Review: Microcomputers in Primary Education (National Union of Teachers (NUT), London,
Acknowledgements A c k n o w l e d g m e n t is given to the Research Board and to the School of Education of the University of Reading, both of w h o m kindly provided funding for attendance at the conference in G e n t at which this paper wa s presented.
References [1] Kemmis, S., Atkin, R., and Wright, E. (1977), How do students learn?--Working Papers on Computer Assisted
Summer 1982) p. 7. [6] Southern Region Primary Group (1984), Information Leaflet No. 206: Simulations in the Classroom (Southern Micro- electronics Information Centre, Crawley). [7] Tressell (1986), Wagons West: A Computer Assisted Learning Package (TresseIl Publications, Brighton).