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Waste as a resource: "Waste is raw material in the wrong place"
C H A P T E R
1 Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place” Barbara Zeschmar-Lahl BZL Communication and Project Management GmbH, Oyten, Germany
“Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
resources contained in waste usable again, as much as possible. In the recycling of mineral raw materials, for example, the use of primary raw materials can be reduced, which reduces dependence on imports, conserves natural resources, and reduces the quantities of residual materials to be landfilled. Compared with primary production, energy requirements and greenhouse gas emissions are reduced, too. Municipal waste contains many end-of-life products that can in principle be recycled, be it by mechanical (such as metals and selected plastic fractions such as beverage bottles made of PET, or agricultural film) or chemical recovery (solid plastic waste, by chemolysis, pyrolysis, fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), hydrogen technologies, and others) [3]. However, such recovery requires separate collection systems or material splitting plants and suitable recycling plants and is often not economically feasible and within easy reach of waste treatment facilities or is still in the pilot stage with only low throughputs. As a consequence, the raw material potential of many types of waste is often not or only insufficiently exploited. The same applies to sewage sludge from municipal
It is not known to whom this slogan can be attributed to. In Germany, it appears in 1975 for the first time as a press quote from State Secretary Hartkopf [1]. Today, it is common knowledge, and it is gladly used for this chapter’s title or expanded, for example, “Waste is raw materials at the wrong time in the wrong place.” Most European countries are net importers of raw materials. The EU currently imports about half the resources it consumes (in raw material equivalents) [2]. In particular, primary raw materials, such as almost all metals, rare earths, and phosphorus, have to be purchased and imported on the world markets. Other raw materials, such as gravel and sand for the construction industry and potash and salts for the chemical and agricultural industries, are (still) available in sufficient quantities in Europe. However, their extraction is often associated with high energy consumption; emissions to water, air, and soil; and landscape consumption and loss of biodiversity. Therefore, it is necessary, not only from an economic but also from an ecological point of view, to make the
Wastewater Treatment Residues as Resources For Biorefinery Products and Biofuels https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816204-0.00001-1
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1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
wastewater treatment, which contains very high levels of essential plant nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. For selected waste streams, known to contain high concentrations of valuable raw materials or pollutants, there are European Union (EU) regulations for separate collection for the purpose of treatment and recovery of valuables or separation and safe disposal of pollutants, such as for end-of-life vehicles (ELVs),a batteries and accumulators,b waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE),c and packaging waste.d
Waste generation in the European Union (EU) In the EU-28, roughly 7400 million (7.4 billion) tonnes of materials are processed every year, with 4700 million tonnes of outputs; these are all wastes and emissions that leave the economy (including CO2 emissions and waste deposited onto land) [2]. In 2016, total waste generation in the EU-28 was about 2500 million tonnes. This means that about one-third of the material consumed in the EU leaves the system as waste. Most of it comes from construction and demolition (36%), mining and quarrying sectors (25%), followed by manufacturing (10%), waste collection, treatment and disposal activities, and materials recovery (9%) and households (8%) (see Table 1.1). In 2016, manufacturing is the third largest waste producer in the EU-28 (10%), ahead of households and others (sum of further NACE codes, each below manufacturing). Table 1.2 shows the contributions of the different sectors to waste generation in manufacturing. The largest contributions to waste generation are from a
manufacture of basic metals and fabricated metal products (27%) and manufacture of chemical, pharmaceutical, rubber, and plastic products (22%). Across EU-28, mineral and solidified wastes account for 71% of the total waste generated, mixed ordinary wastes (i.e., household and similar wastes, mixed and undifferentiated materials, and sorting residues) for 12%, and recyclable wastes (i.e., metal, glass, paper and cardboard, rubber, plastic, wood, and textile wastes) for 10% in 2016 (see Table 1.3). The total amount of waste generated in 2016 includes almost 100 million tonnes of hazardous waste, with the largest shares from Germany (22.9), Bulgaria (13.3), and France (11.0 million tonnes). Based on the total amount of waste (hazardous plus nonhazardous) generated in 2016, each EU citizen produced on average 5 tonnes of waste (4.962 tonnes), ranging from 1.3 tonnes/capita (cap) in Croatia to 22.4 tonnes/cap in Finland. Excluding major mineral wastes, the EU-28 average amounts to a waste generation of 1.8 t/cap in EU-28, with a range of 828 kg/cap in Croatia to nearly 10tonnes/cap in Estonia. This large inhabitant-specific value for Estonia is related to energy production based on oil shale, which accounts for a large share of the waste generated in this Member State. Regarding solely waste from households, which contributes only to 8.5% to the total amount of waste generated in 2016 in the EU-28, the average total waste production is 420 kg/cap with a range from 208 (Romania) to 1099kg/cap (Luxembourg) in 2016. Generation of waste from households excluding major mineral wastes amounted to 408 kg/cap with a range from 198 (Romania) to 606 kg/cap (Denmark) in 2016 [4].
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2000/53/oj.
b
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2006/66/oj.
c
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2012/19/oj.
d
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/1994/62/oj.
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
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Waste treatment in the European Union (EU)
TABLE 1.1 Waste generation by economic activities and households, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2016, in million tonnes, based on EUROSTAT [4].
Construction and demolition
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing
Households
Waste collection, treatment and disposal activities; materials recovery
Mineral and solidified wastes
884.5
631.2
107.9
6.0
58.2
106.6
1794
71
Mixed ordinary wastesa
6.7
0.5
25.3
133.2
97.6
45.8
309
12
Recyclable wastesb
30.5
0.4
67.8
38.0
46.0
62.3
245
10
Animal and vegetal wastes
1.5
0.0
25.4
33.1
4.9
29.2
94
4
Chemical and medical wastes
0.4
0.9
29.4
0.2
13.7
9.0
54
2
Common sludges
0.1
0.0
4.4
0.1
2.2
14.2
21
1
Equipment
0.1
0.1
0.5
3.8
2.9
10.3
18
1
Total waste
923.9
633.1
260.8
214.4
225.4
277.4
2535
100
Share of total waste (%)
36
25
10
8
9
11
100
European Union (EU-28)
a b
Others
Total waste
Share of total waste (%)
Household and similar wastes, mixed and undifferentiated materials and sorting residues. Metal, glass, paper and cardboard, rubber, plastic, wood, and textile wastes.
Waste treatment in the European Union (EU) In general data on waste generation and on waste treatment in the EU-28 are not coherent [5]: “The information on the generation of waste cannot be directly linked to the information on the treatment of waste for several reasons. The generation of waste concerns the waste produced in the country, the treatment of waste the waste treated in the country, so differences can occur due to import and export of waste.” This will be the case for discarded vehicles (generation,
9.2 million tonnes; treatment, 5.7 million tonnes) or other discarded equipment (5.3 vs 3.8 million tonnes), for example. “Moreover, the generation of waste includes the waste produced by waste treatment activities (sorting, composting, incineration), whereas the treatment table only includes the final treatment. Waste treatment is a process which takes time and in the meanwhile some of the weight might be lost (drying).” This is the case for common sludges (18.5 vs 12.3 million tonnes), for example. “In short, the two components of waste statistics, generation and treatment, will be equal rather by coincidence.”
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
TABLE 1.2 Waste generation by economic activities and households, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2016, in million tonnes, based on EUROSTAT [4]. Manufacturing of Basic metals and metal products
Chemicals
Mineral and solidified wastes
41.5
Mixed ordinary wastesa
Textiles
Sum of manufacturing
Share of manufacturing waste (%)
0.4
0.03
107.9
41
0.1
0.7
0.4
25.3
10
15.3
0.1
3.4
1.2
67.8
26
0.1
0.2
0.02
0.1
0.03
24.5
9
0.5
2.3
0.5
2.3
0.4
0.7
29.4
11
1.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.4
2
0.02
0.01
0.24
0.00
0.01
0.07
0.01
0.5
0 100
Food
Paper products
Nonmetallic mineral products
EEE/ IT
Wood products
Petroleum products
Furniture, jewelry, toys
35.3
3.7
1.6
14.3
1.7
1.2
8.1
6.1
3.9
5.1
5.4
1.3
1.8
0.4
Recyclable wastesb
16.4
4.0
3.2
10.8
2.5
11.0
Animal and vegetal wastes
0.02
1.15
22.9
0.1
0.01
Chemical and medical wastes
6.0
11.6
1.6
3.6
Common sludges
0.0
0.2
3.0
Others
0.1
0.03
0.02
European Union (EU-28)
c
Total manufacturing waste
70.2
56.1
40.3
22.7
18.8
17.1
17.6
10.6
5.1
2.3
260.8
Share of manufacturing waste (%)
26.9
21.5
15.5
8.7
7.2
6.6
6.7
4.1
2.0
0.9
100.0
a b c
Household and similar wastes, mixed and undifferentiated materials and sorting residues. Metal, glass, paper and cardboard, rubber, plastic, wood, and textile wastes. The value for the total manufacturing waste given in the database exceeds the sum of the different types of waste.
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Waste treatment in the European Union (EU)
TABLE 1.3 Generation of waste by waste category and hazard, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2016, in million tonnes and in percent of total waste (%) [4]. European Union(EU-28)
Nonhazardous waste
Hazardous waste
Total waste
Mineral and solidified wastes
1738
71%
56
56%
1794
71%
305
13%
4
4%
309
12%
Recyclable wastes
243
10%
2
2%
245
10%
Animal and vegetal wastes
94
4%
n.a.
–
94
4%
Chemical and medical wastes
27
1%
27
27%
54
2%
Common sludges
21
1%
n.a.
–
21
1%
Equipment
7
0%
11
11%
18
1%
Sum
2435
100%
100
100%
2535
100%
a
Mixed ordinary wastes b
a b
Household and similar wastes, mixed and undifferentiated materials and sorting residues. Metal, glass, paper and cardboard, rubber, plastic, wood, and textile wastes.
With regard to the absolute amount of wastes going to waste operations in 2014 (2321 million tonnes; data for 2016 are not yet available), the biggest share in EU-28 went to landfilling (945 million tonnes), followed by material recovery (recovery other than energy recovery and except backfilling; 841 million tonnes), and by backfilling (237 million tonnes) (Fig. 1.1). Waste management systems in the EU Member States differ significantly, as can be derived from Fig. 1.2. The EU-28 average for disposal of
untreated waste in landfills in 2014 was 41% with a range from 3% (the Netherlands) to 98% (Bulgaria). Regarding material recovery (except backfilling), the EU-28 average was 36%, with a minimum of 2% (Bulgaria) and a maximum of 77% (Italy) (Fig. 1.2). Only a few countries had a share of more than 10% of incineration with energy recovery (R1); these were Denmark (21%), Belgium (13%), and Germany (11%). Table 1.4 shows the treatment of waste by waste category, 2014, in EU-28 in million tonnes.
FIG. 1.1 Treatment of waste in the European Union (EU-28, hazardous and nonhazardous) by waste operations, in million tonnes. Graph generated based on data from EUROSTAT [6].
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
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1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
Italy
Hazardous + nonhazardous waste, 2014
Belgium Denmark Latvia Portugal France Slovenia Poland Czech Republic Hungary
Deposit onto or into land
Netherlands
Land treatment and release into water bodies
Croatia United Kingdom
Incineration/disposal (D10)
Luxembourg Germany
Incineration/energy recovery (R1)
Slovakia European Union
Recovery other than energy recovery—backfilling
Spain Austria
Recovery other than energy recovery—except backfilling
Malta Lithuania Estonia Finland Cyprus Ireland Sweden Romania Greece Bulgaria
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
FIG. 1.2 Treatment of waste in the European Union (EU-28, hazardous and nonhazardous) by waste operations, sorted by material recovery, except backfilling (bar far right). Graph generated based on data from EUROSTAT [6].
Disposal—landfill and other—is still the major treatment for mixed ordinary waste (42%) and the second most for chemical and medical wastes (24%). Energy recovery is the major treatment for wood wastes (52%) and rubber wastes (45%). Regarding other recyclable wastes, material recovery is predominant in discarded equipment (98%), animal and vegetable waste (89%), common sludges (57%), and chemical and
medical wastes (45%). The referring data for 2016 are not yet available at EUROSTAT. On the other hand, it is unsatisfactory that some of the separately collected recyclables (wood, rubber, and plastic waste) do not meet the high material recycling rates achieved in discarded equipment (96%–99%). As for mixed ordinary waste, the situation is still worse. Here, material recycling amounts to only 19%, far
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
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Waste treatment in the European Union (EU)
TABLE 1.4 Treatment of waste by waste category, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2014, in million tonnes, based on EUROSTAT [4]. European Union (EU-28)
Waste treatment
Disposal— landfill and other (%)
Disposal— incineration (%)
Recovery— energy recovery (%)
Recovery— recycling (%)
Recovery— backfilling (%)
Total (including mineral and solidified wastes)
2321
47
1
5
36
10
Mixed ordinary waste
241
42
11
28
19
1
Recyclable waste
202
1
0
13
86
0
Metallic waste
89
0
0
0
100
0
Wood wastes
44
1
1
52
46
0
Paper and cardboard
36
0
0
1
99
0
Glass wastes
16
1
0
0
98
0
Plastic wastes
13
6
1
13
80
0
Rubber wastes
3
1
1
45
53
0
Textile wastes
2
8
1
8
82
1
Animal and vegetable waste
72
4
1
6
89
0
Chemical and medical wastes
30
24
14
17
45
0
Common sludges
12
17
11
14
57
0
Discarded equipment
11
2
0
1
98
0
Discarded vehicles
6
1
0
0
99
0
Batteries and accumulators waste
2
3
0
0
97
0
Other discarded equipment
4
2
0
1
96
0
behind disposal (42%) and energy recovery (28%). The circular material use rate (CMU) is an indicator that measures the share of material recovered and fed back into the economy—thus saving extraction of primary raw materials—in overall material use (as % of total material
use). In 2016, this indicator reached 11.7% for the European Union (EU-28), with the Top 5 including The Netherlands (29.0%), France (19.5%), Belgium (18.9%), the United Kingdom (17.2%), and Italy (17.1%) [7]. This indicator shows that the use of secondary resources is still far too little realized in the EU-28.
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
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1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
Resources in mixed ordinary wastes Mixed ordinary wastes comprise household and similar waste, mixed and undifferentiated materials, and sorting residues. The main sources of mixed ordinary waste are households (43%) followed by waste management activities (32%) and others (15%) (see Table 1.5). Household and similar waste comprise four waste categories: mixed municipal waste, bulky waste, municipal wastes not otherwise specified, and street-cleaning residues. Of these, mixed municipal waste and bulky waste contain a lot of valuable resources. The compositions of these wastes are further elaborated in the next few sections.
Household waste/municipal waste Fig. 1.3 shows the typical qualitative composition of municipal waste. A majority, 55%, of TABLE 1.5 Generation of mixed ordinary waste by economic activities and households, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2016, in million tonnes, based on EUROSTAT [4].
European Union (EU-28), 2016
Mixed ordinary waste, million tonnes, and percent of total (%)
Households
133.2
43%
Waste collection, treatment and disposal activities, and material recovery
97.6
32%
Others
45.8
15%
Manufacturing
25.3
8%
Construction and demolition
6.7
2%
Mining and quarrying
0.5
0%
Total mixed ordinary waste
309
100%
Share of total waste (¼ 2535 Mio. tonnes)
12%
the waste comes from three categories: food waste (25%), paper and board (18%), and plastics (12%). Although food waste is in principle readily biodegradable and, therefore, easily recyclable (as animal feed, compost or digestate, and biogas), this is a waste for which the priority of waste avoidance is particularly urgent. Despite the existing collection and recycling infrastructure in Europe, nearly a fifth of municipal waste consists of paper and board. Further efforts are needed to raise the remaining potential and achieve higher recycling rates. In 2017, the recycling rate in Europe increased to 72.3% (from 72.0% in 2016) [9]. For plastics, mechanical recycling (direct return of the ground material or the melt and regranulation) is practiced, above all, in the case of singlevariety plastic waste (production scrap and processing residues from industry). For postconsumer waste, this is only possible for selected plastic waste with suitable collection systems (e.g., polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles). As a rule, the postconsumer plastic waste generated is too heavily mixed and/or contaminated, so that only downcycling in the form of inferior plastic products is possible. In the case of raw material recycling, used plastics are either used as reducing agents in the steelworks or broken down into their starting substances or into chemical or petrochemical raw materials. However, this option hardly plays a role today. In 2015, for example, only 1% (around 70,000 tonnes) of the plastic waste generated in Germany was directed toward raw material recycling [10]. With regard to the high share of waste lost for recovery of valuable resources like biowaste, paper and cardboard, plastic, or glass, the EU Council decided in May 2018 to set new rules for waste management and to establish legally binding targets for reuse and recycling of municipal waste and packaging (see Table 1.6). The referring directives entered into force on July 4, 2018 and have to be implemented in national regulation on July 5, 2020, at the latest.
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
Resources in mixed ordinary wastes
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FIG. 1.3 Typical qualitative composition of municipal waste. Graph generated based on data from Zero Waste Europe, 2015 [8].
TABLE 1.6 Targets for increased preparing for reuse and recycling of municipal waste [11] and packaging [12] in the European Union, in % (w/w). By 2025 (%)
By 2030 (%)
By 2035 (%)
Municipal waste
55
60
65
All packaging
65
70
–
Plastic
50
55
–
Wood
25
30
–
Ferrous metals
70
80
–
Aluminum
50
60
–
Glass
70
75
–
Paper and cardboard
75
85
–
Member States have to set up, by January 1, 2025, separate collections of textiles and hazardous waste from households. In addition, they have to ensure that by December 31, 2023, biowaste is either collected separately or recycled at source (e.g., home composting). Furthermore,
Member States shall take the necessary measures to ensure that by 2035 the amount of municipal waste landfilled is reduced to 10% (w/w) or less of the total amount of municipal waste generated. A Member State may postpone the deadline for attaining the target by up to 5 years provided that it landfilled more than 60% (w/w) of its municipal waste generated in 2013. It has to notify the commission of its intention to postpone the deadline and to submit an implementation plan. In the event of postponing the deadline in accordance with the rules, the target value by 2035 may reach a maximum of 25%. This exemption rule can be used by the 10 Member States with shares of landfilling in 2013 above 60% (w/w, shares in brackets): Malta (85%), Greece (84%), Croatia (82%), Cyprus (79%), Latvia (74%), Slovakia (70%), Bulgaria (69%), Romania (69%), Hungary (65%), and Lithuania (62%).
Bulky waste The quantity and composition of bulky waste depend on many factors, such as collection system (curbside collection or transporting system),
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
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1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
TABLE 1.7 Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP): average composition, by theme, for curbside bulky waste collections and household waste recycling centers (HWRCs) in the United Kingdom [13].
TABLE 1.8 Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP): range and average composition of bulky waste categories in the United Kingdom [14].
Constituent
Share (%)
Category of material
Furniture
41.9
Textiles
19.4
WEEE
19.4
Fixtures and fittings
9.0
Garden/outdoor
4.6
Mixed
4.3
Nonbulky
1.5
fee systems, settlement structure, disposable income, and consumption behavior and offer for repair, reuse, or recycling of bulky items. Table 1.7 shows the average composition, by theme, for curbside bulky waste collections and household waste recycling centers (HWRCs) in the United Kingdom. As Table 1.8 shows, around 30% of bulky waste (mainly furniture and so-called white goods, i.e., major household appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, washing machines, and dryers that are typically finished in white enamel) is estimated to be repairable/reuseable; another 20% (white goods and other metal) is recyclable.
Resources in mineral and solidified wastes Mineral and solidified wastes are the dominant waste stream in the EU-28 in 2016 (71%) (see Table 1.1) and should, therefore, be regarded as a potential source of valuable resources, too. Mineral and solidified waste are mainly (85%) generated by the construction and demolition sector (49 of 71%) and the mining and quarrying sectors (35%). The remaining part of the mineral and solidified waste (15%) is from the following sectors: manufacturing (6%); electricity, gas,
Range of composition (%)
Average (%)
Furniture: reusable in current condition
5–10
7.5
Furniture: potentially repairable
10–20
15
White goods: potentially repairable
5–10
7.5
White goods and other metal: recyclable
10–30
20
Disposal
30–70
50
Overall reuse rate
30
Overall recycling rate
20
Residual waste
50
steam, and air-conditioning supply (6%); and waste collection, treatment and disposal activities, and materials recovery (3%).
Wastes from the construction and demolition sector The composition of construction and demolition wastes (CDW) varies widely as a function of the type of site. For example, road construction generates a huge amount of excavated materials that, if no further use is possible, will become waste, while a building demolition site will generate a large amount of waste concrete [15]. In general, concrete and masonry are the main material in CDW, if excavated materials are excluded. Other important CDW waste materials are bricks and tiles, timber, glass, plastics, bituminous mixtures, metal mixtures, insulation materials, gypsum-based construction materials, and construction and demolition wastes (including mixed wastes) containing hazardous substances. The stony fraction accounts for about 80% of the total CDW [16].
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
Resources in mineral and solidified wastes
Article 11.2 of the Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC)e stipulates that by 2020 a minimum of 70% (w/w) of nonhazardous construction and demolition waste, excluding naturally occurring material, shall be prepared for reuse and recycled or undergo other material recovery (including backfilling operations using waste to substitute other materials). Following the Innovative Strategies for High-Grade Material Recovery from Construction and Demolition Waste project, “some EU countries have attained high recycling rates for the stony fraction, but most of the derived recycled products (recycled aggregates and sands) are used in low-grade applications in civil engineering unbound applications. This market for recycled aggregates, however, is getting more and more saturated.” As clean crushed concrete aggregates have a much higher applicability than mixed crushed masonry-concrete aggregates, it is necessary to use only well sorted waste for production of high-quality aggregates. Waste sorting and processing should, therefore, already address the quality of recycled aggregates. Besides on-site segregation, clear and unambiguous waste acceptance criteria and clear quality criteria for the recycled material, like standards and quality labels, are necessary. Other construction and demolition waste fractions contain valuable resources, too. “For flat glass (used for windows, etc.), 1 tonne of recycled material results in savings of 1200 kg of virgin material, 25% of energy and 300 kg of CO2 emissions (directly linked to the melting process). There are similar savings in terms of energy and CO2 emissions for recycled glass wool. For stone wool, the gains may be in the order of 5% with regard to energy consumption and related emissions. As for gypsum, life-cycle assessments have shown typical reductions in global warming potential, human toxicity and eutrophication of about 4%–5% when producing
e
13
a board with 25% recycled content as opposed to only using virgin material” [17]. Almost all the waste plasterboard can be successfully fed into the manufacture of new plasterboard. In general, the presence of fibers in the waste limits its applicability to 25% of the total raw meal for new plasterboard. Other uses of high-quality gypsum from reprocessing waste plasterboard are raw material for cement manufacture, road subbase, and soil improvement for agriculture. In addition, waste plasterboard segregation benefits other CDW recycling, as sulfates, generally coming from plasterboard, are mixed with other CDW fractions in unsorted waste management, which prevents the application of the recycled aggregate [18].
Waste from mining and quarrying operations Waste from extractive operations (i.e., waste from extraction and processing of mineral resources) consists of mainly inert materials like topsoil, hard rock, waste rock, and tailings. The Best Available Techniques reference document (BREF) for the management of tailings and waste rock in mining activities from 2009 [19] is currently under revision. The draft of the revised BREF [20] does not include any example of recovered waste for the base metal sector (12 example sites), the precious metal sector (7), the potash sector (6), the coal and lignite sector (4), the iron and chromium sector (surface mining), the industrial and construction mineral sector (underground mining), the bauxite sector and the uranium sector (3 each), the titanium ore sector, the oil shale sector, and the peat sector (1 each). The few examples reported for other sectors are shown in Table 1.9. In a report on Member States’ performance regarding the implementation of the Extractive Waste Directive, published by the European
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri¼CELEX:32008L0098&from¼EN.
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
14
TABLE 1.9 Examples of extracted material classification and their relative share; own compilation based on [20].
Sector
Extraction method
Iron and chromium sector
Underground mining
A— Products (%)
B—Byproducts (%)
C— Nonhazardous wastes (%)
D— Hazardous wastes (%)
E— Recovered wastes (%)
Type and share or recovered waste
Example 2
55
–
40
0
5
Tailings: 3% Waste rock: 2%
Example 3
47
–
53
0
6a
Waste rock: 6%
Tungsten sector
Surface mining
Example 2
<0.05
0.7
86
0
13
Waste rock: 13%
Alumina sector
Alumina refining
Example 1
53
3
40
1
3
Waste sand: 3%
Industrial and construction mineral sector
Surface mining (eight example sites)
Minimum
1
0b
5
0
0c
NA
Average
32
14
44
0
9
Tailings: 70%d, topsoil and tailings: 5%d
Maximum
90
48
99
0
70
NA
e
Construction rocks, aggregates, gravel and sand sector
Surface mining (five example sites)
Minimum
50
0
0.1
0
0
NA
Average
85
0
14
0
1
Hard rock fragments: 4%
Maximum
99.9
0
50
0
4
NA
NA, not available. a Recovered waste from the year before the year of reference and therefore not included in the total extraction. b Two sites reported having no by-products. c Six sites reported having no recovered wastes. d One site each. e Four sites reported having no recovered wastes.
1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
Relative share of extracted materials (%-w/w)
15
Resources in common sludges
Commission in June 2017, the authors summarize their findings concerning the reprocessing of extractive waste [21]: “… a narrow range of waste reprocessing was observed with a focus on the reuse of waste rock and overburden for construction related purposes. Only a limited number of examples indicated reprocessing waste and tailings to extract minerals indicating that at the current time, reprocessing activities are typically the productive utilization of inert waste materials rather than innovative reprocessing activities to extract greater value associated with recovery of substances and minerals.” Mining waste provides a potential source of secondary critical raw materials (CRM). The amounts of some CRM in the extraction waste (tailings) disposed in situ (therefore, lost for recovery) in the EU-28 range from 100 kg to more than 10,000 tonnes per year (see Table 1.10). The stock in tailings, that is, the extraction waste disposed in situ/tailings accumulated over time, is about a factor of 10 above, following the European Commission, Joint Research Centre [22]. Though the losses of CRM by mining/tailing are smaller than those by landfill, they should not be neglected. Best practice for recovery of CRM is system-integrated material production: Taking optimal account of the fact that certain metals in nature are often associated with other metals (e.g., Cd with Zn, Cu and Pb,
or neodymium (Nd) with other lanthanides), developing a dedicated national (or regional) strategy, or guidance, for the reprocessing of extractive waste and improving the state of knowledge on extractive waste sites, among others. Furthermore, it is recommended to support the development of technologies to efficiently extract CRMs from primary ores and extractive wastes [22].
Resources in common sludges Compared with other waste streams in the EU-28, common sludges and, as a part of them, wastewater treatment residues seem to be a minor waste stream. But generation of common sludges amounted to 18.5 million tonnes dry matter (d.m.) in the EU-28 in 2014, which is the same order of magnitude of the amount of separately collected glass waste in the same year. The amount of common sludges treated in 2014 is 12.3 million tonnes (d.m.). Only 57% of common sludge in the EU-28 has been recycled in 2014, most of it in agriculture, while disposal was the second most common treatment (17%), even before energy recovery (see Table 1.4). According to Annex III of the European Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2150/2002 [23], common sludges include sludges from
TABLE 1.10 Annual loss of some critical raw materials in the extraction waste in the European Union (EU-28) via disposal, in tonnes per year (based on Figs. 9 and 11 in [22]). CRM
Mining
Landfill
CRM
Mining
Landfill
Silicon metal
>10,000
>100,000
Indium
10
<100
Phosphate rock
>10,000
<100,000
Natural graphite
<10
>100,000
Tungsten
<1000
<10,000
Platinum
>0.1
<10
Cobalt
>100
<10,000
Palladium
>0.1
<10
Gallium
<100
<1000
Rhodium
>0.01
0.7
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
16
1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
treatment of urban and industrial wastewater, sludges from on-site effluent treatment, waste from cooling columns, boiler feedwater sludges, sludges from water clarification, unpolluted dredging spoils, and septic tank sludge. Depending on the referring source, common sludges contain different valuable resources of interest, like metals (Cr, Cu, and Ni), organic compounds (amino acids and proteins), and nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen). Currently, the EU imports more than 6 million tonnes of phosphate rock a year, but, “according to the Commission, it could recover up to 2 million tonnes of phosphorus from sewage sludge, biodegradable waste, meat and bone meal or manure.” [24] In addition, most of the organic content is renewable; only a small amount of polymeric flocculants may be of fossil origin. There are different approaches to using these resources more efficiently than through simple application of sludges in agriculture. These approaches are the core of the following chapters in this book.
Conclusion Recycling is not the goal, but the way. Waste is a resource, but recycling activities should not endanger man and the environment through carryover of contaminants. Hazardous chemicals in wastes, like heavy metals, can impede the circular economy, as is exemplarily shown by cadmium (Cd) compounds used as stabilizers for PVC profiles [25]. Used products containing hazardous substances ought to be recycled without contaminating the environment or recycled materials. Therefore, it can be restated that “waste is raw materials at the wrong time in the wrong place.” This finding is still correct for relevant waste streams in the EU-28, like mixed ordinary wastes, minerals and solidified wastes, and common sludges. To better use the existing potential of recyclables, innovative solutions are required. This is
true for common sludges, especially wastewater treatment residues, with regard to their hitherto comparably low share of recycling.
References [1] State Secretary Hartkopf, Federal Ministry of the Interior, quoted after Handelsblatt, 28.5.1975, cited by R. Keller, Chronik einer angek€ undigten Katastrophe: Die bundesdeutsche Abfalldiskussion, in: M€ ull – Die gesellschaftliche Konstruktion des Wertvollen, VS Verlag f€ ur Sozialwissenschaften, 2009, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-531-91731-3_6. [2] European Parliamentary Research Service, Circular economy, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/ infographics/circulareconomy/public/index.html, 2018. (Accessed 4 February 2019). [3] K. Ragaert, L. Delva, K. Van Geem, Mechanical and chemical recycling of solid plastic waste, Waste Manage. 69 (2017) 24–58. ISSN 0956-053X, https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.wasman.2017.07.044 http://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S0956053X17305354. (Accessed 30 January 2019). [4] EUROSTAT, Generation of waste by waste category, hazardousness and NACE Rev. 2 activity [env_wasgen], Last update: 25-01-2019. https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa. eu/nui/show.do?dataset=env_wasgen&lang¼en, 2019, (Accessed 4 February 2019). [5] EUROSTAT, Waste generation and treatment (env_wasgt). Reference Metadata in Euro SDMX Metadata Structure (ESMS), Compiling Agency: Eurostat, the Statistical Office of the European Union, http://ec. europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/en/env_wasgt_ esms.htm#coher_compar1526550644485, 15.4. Coherence-internal, 2018. (Accessed 10 July 2018). [6] EUROSTAT, Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste operations [env_wastrt], Last update: 15-05-2018, https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa. eu/nui/show.do?dataset=env_wastrt&lang¼en, 2018. (Accessed 10 July 2018). [7] EUROSTAT, Circular material use rate [env_ac_cur], Last update: 18-01-2019, https://appsso.eurostat.ec. europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=env_ac_cur& lang¼en, 2019. (Accessed 4 February 2019). [8] B. Zeschmar-Lahl, H. Sch€ onberger, D. Styles, J.-L. Galvez-Martos, Background Report on Best Environmental Management Practice in the Waste Management Sector. Preparatory Findings to Support the Development of an EMAS Sectoral Reference Document, Report for the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre, 2016, http://susproc.jrc.ec.europa. eu/activities/emas/documents/WasteManagement BackgroundReport.pdf. (Accessed 17 July 2018).
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
17
References
[9] European Paper Recycling Council (EPRC), Monitoring Report 2017, European Declaration on Paper Recycling 2016–2020, http://www.paperforrecycling.eu/ download/900/, 2017. (Accessed 4 February 2019). [10] CONSULTIC, Produktion, Verarbeitung und Verwertung von Kunststoffen in Deutschland 2015 – Kurzfassung, 23.09.2016, https://www.bkv-gmbh.de/ fileadmin/documents/Studien/Consultic_2015__23. 09.2016__Kurzfassung.pdf. (Accessed 24 January 2017). [11] Directive (EU) 2018/851 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018 Amending Directive 2008/ 98/EC on Waste (Text with EEA Relevance). OJ L 150, 14.6.2018. p. 109–140, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri¼CELEX:32018L0851& from¼EN [12] Directive (EU) 2018/852 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018 amending Directive 94/62/EC on packaging and packaging waste (Text with EEA relevance). OJ L 150, 14.6.2018, p. 141–154, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/ PDF/?uri¼CELEX:32018L0852&from¼EN [13] Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP), Composition of kerbside and HWRC bulky waste, Availabe after submitting user data, http://www. wrap.org.uk/content/bulky-waste-technical-report, 2012. (Accessed 18 July 2018). [14] Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP), Bulky waste – overview, http://www.wrap.org.uk/content/ bulky-waste-overview. (Accessed 18 July 2018). [15] J.L. Ga´lvez-Martos, D. Styles, H. Schoenberger, B. Zeschmar-Lahl, Construction and demolition waste best management practice in Europe, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 136 (2018) 166–178. ISSN 0921-3449. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.04.016. [16] European Commission, Final Report Summary– IRCOW (Innovative Strategies for High-Grade Material Recovery From Construction and Demolition Waste), Executive Summary, https://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/ 153155_en.html, 2015. (Accessed 16 July 2018). [17] Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on Resource Efficiency Opportunities in the Building Sector. COM/2014/0445 final. https://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri¼CELEX %3A52014DC0445 [18] J.L. Ga´lvez-Martos, D. Styles, H. Schoenberger, B. Zeschmar-Lahl, Construction and demolition waste
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
best management practice in Europe, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 136 (2018) 166–178. ISSN 0921-3449. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.04.016. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities, http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reference/ BREF/mmr_adopted_0109.pdf (web archive link, 03 February 2018), 2009. (Accessed 16 July 2018) http:// www.mdpi.com/2313-4321/3/2/18/pdf (Accessed 16 July 2018). European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Best Available Techniques Reference Document for the Management of Waste from the Extractive Industries in Accordance with Directive 2006/21/EC. Draft Document, http://susproc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ activities/waste/documents/MWEI_BREF_Draft.pdf, 2016. (Accessed 16 July 2018). European Commission, Assessment of Member States’ performance regarding the implementation of the Extractive Waste Directive; appraisal of implementation gaps and their root causes; identification of proposals to improve the implementation of the Directive. Final Report. Written by Amec Foster Wheeler Environment & Infrastructure UK Ltd, BiPRO and Milieu, (2017). ISBN 978-92-79-71767-3. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ waste/studies/pdf/KH-01-17-904-EN-N.pdf https:// doi.org/10.2779/278202. (Accessed 11 July 2018). European Commission, Commission Staff Working Document: Report on Critical Raw Materials and the Circular Economy, Brussels, 16.1.2018., SWD(2018) 36 Final, https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/27 348/attachments/1/translations/en/renditions/native. (Accessed 17 July 2018). Regulation (EC) No. 2150/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2002 on waste statistics. OJ L 332, 9.12.2002, pp. 1–36. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/? uri¼CELEX:32002R2150 European Parliament, Boosting the use of organic and safer fertilisers in the EU. Press Release, 24-10-2017, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/ 20171020IPR86544/boosting-the-use-of-organic-andsafer-fertilisers-in-the-eu. (Accessed 1 August 2018). H. Friege, B. Zeschmar-Lahl, A. Borgmann, Managing Cd containing waste – caught by the past, the circular economy needs new answers, Theatr. Rec. 3 (2018) 18, https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling3020018.
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
1 Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place” Barbara Zeschmar-Lahl BZL Communication and Project Management GmbH, Oyten, Germany
“Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
resources contained in waste usable again, as much as possible. In the recycling of mineral raw materials, for example, the use of primary raw materials can be reduced, which reduces dependence on imports, conserves natural resources, and reduces the quantities of residual materials to be landfilled. Compared with primary production, energy requirements and greenhouse gas emissions are reduced, too. Municipal waste contains many end-of-life products that can in principle be recycled, be it by mechanical (such as metals and selected plastic fractions such as beverage bottles made of PET, or agricultural film) or chemical recovery (solid plastic waste, by chemolysis, pyrolysis, fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), hydrogen technologies, and others) [3]. However, such recovery requires separate collection systems or material splitting plants and suitable recycling plants and is often not economically feasible and within easy reach of waste treatment facilities or is still in the pilot stage with only low throughputs. As a consequence, the raw material potential of many types of waste is often not or only insufficiently exploited. The same applies to sewage sludge from municipal
It is not known to whom this slogan can be attributed to. In Germany, it appears in 1975 for the first time as a press quote from State Secretary Hartkopf [1]. Today, it is common knowledge, and it is gladly used for this chapter’s title or expanded, for example, “Waste is raw materials at the wrong time in the wrong place.” Most European countries are net importers of raw materials. The EU currently imports about half the resources it consumes (in raw material equivalents) [2]. In particular, primary raw materials, such as almost all metals, rare earths, and phosphorus, have to be purchased and imported on the world markets. Other raw materials, such as gravel and sand for the construction industry and potash and salts for the chemical and agricultural industries, are (still) available in sufficient quantities in Europe. However, their extraction is often associated with high energy consumption; emissions to water, air, and soil; and landscape consumption and loss of biodiversity. Therefore, it is necessary, not only from an economic but also from an ecological point of view, to make the
Wastewater Treatment Residues as Resources For Biorefinery Products and Biofuels https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816204-0.00001-1
3
# 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4
1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
wastewater treatment, which contains very high levels of essential plant nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. For selected waste streams, known to contain high concentrations of valuable raw materials or pollutants, there are European Union (EU) regulations for separate collection for the purpose of treatment and recovery of valuables or separation and safe disposal of pollutants, such as for end-of-life vehicles (ELVs),a batteries and accumulators,b waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE),c and packaging waste.d
Waste generation in the European Union (EU) In the EU-28, roughly 7400 million (7.4 billion) tonnes of materials are processed every year, with 4700 million tonnes of outputs; these are all wastes and emissions that leave the economy (including CO2 emissions and waste deposited onto land) [2]. In 2016, total waste generation in the EU-28 was about 2500 million tonnes. This means that about one-third of the material consumed in the EU leaves the system as waste. Most of it comes from construction and demolition (36%), mining and quarrying sectors (25%), followed by manufacturing (10%), waste collection, treatment and disposal activities, and materials recovery (9%) and households (8%) (see Table 1.1). In 2016, manufacturing is the third largest waste producer in the EU-28 (10%), ahead of households and others (sum of further NACE codes, each below manufacturing). Table 1.2 shows the contributions of the different sectors to waste generation in manufacturing. The largest contributions to waste generation are from a
manufacture of basic metals and fabricated metal products (27%) and manufacture of chemical, pharmaceutical, rubber, and plastic products (22%). Across EU-28, mineral and solidified wastes account for 71% of the total waste generated, mixed ordinary wastes (i.e., household and similar wastes, mixed and undifferentiated materials, and sorting residues) for 12%, and recyclable wastes (i.e., metal, glass, paper and cardboard, rubber, plastic, wood, and textile wastes) for 10% in 2016 (see Table 1.3). The total amount of waste generated in 2016 includes almost 100 million tonnes of hazardous waste, with the largest shares from Germany (22.9), Bulgaria (13.3), and France (11.0 million tonnes). Based on the total amount of waste (hazardous plus nonhazardous) generated in 2016, each EU citizen produced on average 5 tonnes of waste (4.962 tonnes), ranging from 1.3 tonnes/capita (cap) in Croatia to 22.4 tonnes/cap in Finland. Excluding major mineral wastes, the EU-28 average amounts to a waste generation of 1.8 t/cap in EU-28, with a range of 828 kg/cap in Croatia to nearly 10tonnes/cap in Estonia. This large inhabitant-specific value for Estonia is related to energy production based on oil shale, which accounts for a large share of the waste generated in this Member State. Regarding solely waste from households, which contributes only to 8.5% to the total amount of waste generated in 2016 in the EU-28, the average total waste production is 420 kg/cap with a range from 208 (Romania) to 1099kg/cap (Luxembourg) in 2016. Generation of waste from households excluding major mineral wastes amounted to 408 kg/cap with a range from 198 (Romania) to 606 kg/cap (Denmark) in 2016 [4].
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2000/53/oj.
b
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2006/66/oj.
c
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2012/19/oj.
d
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/1994/62/oj.
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
5
Waste treatment in the European Union (EU)
TABLE 1.1 Waste generation by economic activities and households, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2016, in million tonnes, based on EUROSTAT [4].
Construction and demolition
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing
Households
Waste collection, treatment and disposal activities; materials recovery
Mineral and solidified wastes
884.5
631.2
107.9
6.0
58.2
106.6
1794
71
Mixed ordinary wastesa
6.7
0.5
25.3
133.2
97.6
45.8
309
12
Recyclable wastesb
30.5
0.4
67.8
38.0
46.0
62.3
245
10
Animal and vegetal wastes
1.5
0.0
25.4
33.1
4.9
29.2
94
4
Chemical and medical wastes
0.4
0.9
29.4
0.2
13.7
9.0
54
2
Common sludges
0.1
0.0
4.4
0.1
2.2
14.2
21
1
Equipment
0.1
0.1
0.5
3.8
2.9
10.3
18
1
Total waste
923.9
633.1
260.8
214.4
225.4
277.4
2535
100
Share of total waste (%)
36
25
10
8
9
11
100
European Union (EU-28)
a b
Others
Total waste
Share of total waste (%)
Household and similar wastes, mixed and undifferentiated materials and sorting residues. Metal, glass, paper and cardboard, rubber, plastic, wood, and textile wastes.
Waste treatment in the European Union (EU) In general data on waste generation and on waste treatment in the EU-28 are not coherent [5]: “The information on the generation of waste cannot be directly linked to the information on the treatment of waste for several reasons. The generation of waste concerns the waste produced in the country, the treatment of waste the waste treated in the country, so differences can occur due to import and export of waste.” This will be the case for discarded vehicles (generation,
9.2 million tonnes; treatment, 5.7 million tonnes) or other discarded equipment (5.3 vs 3.8 million tonnes), for example. “Moreover, the generation of waste includes the waste produced by waste treatment activities (sorting, composting, incineration), whereas the treatment table only includes the final treatment. Waste treatment is a process which takes time and in the meanwhile some of the weight might be lost (drying).” This is the case for common sludges (18.5 vs 12.3 million tonnes), for example. “In short, the two components of waste statistics, generation and treatment, will be equal rather by coincidence.”
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
TABLE 1.2 Waste generation by economic activities and households, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2016, in million tonnes, based on EUROSTAT [4]. Manufacturing of Basic metals and metal products
Chemicals
Mineral and solidified wastes
41.5
Mixed ordinary wastesa
Textiles
Sum of manufacturing
Share of manufacturing waste (%)
0.4
0.03
107.9
41
0.1
0.7
0.4
25.3
10
15.3
0.1
3.4
1.2
67.8
26
0.1
0.2
0.02
0.1
0.03
24.5
9
0.5
2.3
0.5
2.3
0.4
0.7
29.4
11
1.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.4
2
0.02
0.01
0.24
0.00
0.01
0.07
0.01
0.5
0 100
Food
Paper products
Nonmetallic mineral products
EEE/ IT
Wood products
Petroleum products
Furniture, jewelry, toys
35.3
3.7
1.6
14.3
1.7
1.2
8.1
6.1
3.9
5.1
5.4
1.3
1.8
0.4
Recyclable wastesb
16.4
4.0
3.2
10.8
2.5
11.0
Animal and vegetal wastes
0.02
1.15
22.9
0.1
0.01
Chemical and medical wastes
6.0
11.6
1.6
3.6
Common sludges
0.0
0.2
3.0
Others
0.1
0.03
0.02
European Union (EU-28)
c
Total manufacturing waste
70.2
56.1
40.3
22.7
18.8
17.1
17.6
10.6
5.1
2.3
260.8
Share of manufacturing waste (%)
26.9
21.5
15.5
8.7
7.2
6.6
6.7
4.1
2.0
0.9
100.0
a b c
Household and similar wastes, mixed and undifferentiated materials and sorting residues. Metal, glass, paper and cardboard, rubber, plastic, wood, and textile wastes. The value for the total manufacturing waste given in the database exceeds the sum of the different types of waste.
7
Waste treatment in the European Union (EU)
TABLE 1.3 Generation of waste by waste category and hazard, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2016, in million tonnes and in percent of total waste (%) [4]. European Union(EU-28)
Nonhazardous waste
Hazardous waste
Total waste
Mineral and solidified wastes
1738
71%
56
56%
1794
71%
305
13%
4
4%
309
12%
Recyclable wastes
243
10%
2
2%
245
10%
Animal and vegetal wastes
94
4%
n.a.
–
94
4%
Chemical and medical wastes
27
1%
27
27%
54
2%
Common sludges
21
1%
n.a.
–
21
1%
Equipment
7
0%
11
11%
18
1%
Sum
2435
100%
100
100%
2535
100%
a
Mixed ordinary wastes b
a b
Household and similar wastes, mixed and undifferentiated materials and sorting residues. Metal, glass, paper and cardboard, rubber, plastic, wood, and textile wastes.
With regard to the absolute amount of wastes going to waste operations in 2014 (2321 million tonnes; data for 2016 are not yet available), the biggest share in EU-28 went to landfilling (945 million tonnes), followed by material recovery (recovery other than energy recovery and except backfilling; 841 million tonnes), and by backfilling (237 million tonnes) (Fig. 1.1). Waste management systems in the EU Member States differ significantly, as can be derived from Fig. 1.2. The EU-28 average for disposal of
untreated waste in landfills in 2014 was 41% with a range from 3% (the Netherlands) to 98% (Bulgaria). Regarding material recovery (except backfilling), the EU-28 average was 36%, with a minimum of 2% (Bulgaria) and a maximum of 77% (Italy) (Fig. 1.2). Only a few countries had a share of more than 10% of incineration with energy recovery (R1); these were Denmark (21%), Belgium (13%), and Germany (11%). Table 1.4 shows the treatment of waste by waste category, 2014, in EU-28 in million tonnes.
FIG. 1.1 Treatment of waste in the European Union (EU-28, hazardous and nonhazardous) by waste operations, in million tonnes. Graph generated based on data from EUROSTAT [6].
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
8
1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
Italy
Hazardous + nonhazardous waste, 2014
Belgium Denmark Latvia Portugal France Slovenia Poland Czech Republic Hungary
Deposit onto or into land
Netherlands
Land treatment and release into water bodies
Croatia United Kingdom
Incineration/disposal (D10)
Luxembourg Germany
Incineration/energy recovery (R1)
Slovakia European Union
Recovery other than energy recovery—backfilling
Spain Austria
Recovery other than energy recovery—except backfilling
Malta Lithuania Estonia Finland Cyprus Ireland Sweden Romania Greece Bulgaria
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
FIG. 1.2 Treatment of waste in the European Union (EU-28, hazardous and nonhazardous) by waste operations, sorted by material recovery, except backfilling (bar far right). Graph generated based on data from EUROSTAT [6].
Disposal—landfill and other—is still the major treatment for mixed ordinary waste (42%) and the second most for chemical and medical wastes (24%). Energy recovery is the major treatment for wood wastes (52%) and rubber wastes (45%). Regarding other recyclable wastes, material recovery is predominant in discarded equipment (98%), animal and vegetable waste (89%), common sludges (57%), and chemical and
medical wastes (45%). The referring data for 2016 are not yet available at EUROSTAT. On the other hand, it is unsatisfactory that some of the separately collected recyclables (wood, rubber, and plastic waste) do not meet the high material recycling rates achieved in discarded equipment (96%–99%). As for mixed ordinary waste, the situation is still worse. Here, material recycling amounts to only 19%, far
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
9
Waste treatment in the European Union (EU)
TABLE 1.4 Treatment of waste by waste category, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2014, in million tonnes, based on EUROSTAT [4]. European Union (EU-28)
Waste treatment
Disposal— landfill and other (%)
Disposal— incineration (%)
Recovery— energy recovery (%)
Recovery— recycling (%)
Recovery— backfilling (%)
Total (including mineral and solidified wastes)
2321
47
1
5
36
10
Mixed ordinary waste
241
42
11
28
19
1
Recyclable waste
202
1
0
13
86
0
Metallic waste
89
0
0
0
100
0
Wood wastes
44
1
1
52
46
0
Paper and cardboard
36
0
0
1
99
0
Glass wastes
16
1
0
0
98
0
Plastic wastes
13
6
1
13
80
0
Rubber wastes
3
1
1
45
53
0
Textile wastes
2
8
1
8
82
1
Animal and vegetable waste
72
4
1
6
89
0
Chemical and medical wastes
30
24
14
17
45
0
Common sludges
12
17
11
14
57
0
Discarded equipment
11
2
0
1
98
0
Discarded vehicles
6
1
0
0
99
0
Batteries and accumulators waste
2
3
0
0
97
0
Other discarded equipment
4
2
0
1
96
0
behind disposal (42%) and energy recovery (28%). The circular material use rate (CMU) is an indicator that measures the share of material recovered and fed back into the economy—thus saving extraction of primary raw materials—in overall material use (as % of total material
use). In 2016, this indicator reached 11.7% for the European Union (EU-28), with the Top 5 including The Netherlands (29.0%), France (19.5%), Belgium (18.9%), the United Kingdom (17.2%), and Italy (17.1%) [7]. This indicator shows that the use of secondary resources is still far too little realized in the EU-28.
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
10
1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
Resources in mixed ordinary wastes Mixed ordinary wastes comprise household and similar waste, mixed and undifferentiated materials, and sorting residues. The main sources of mixed ordinary waste are households (43%) followed by waste management activities (32%) and others (15%) (see Table 1.5). Household and similar waste comprise four waste categories: mixed municipal waste, bulky waste, municipal wastes not otherwise specified, and street-cleaning residues. Of these, mixed municipal waste and bulky waste contain a lot of valuable resources. The compositions of these wastes are further elaborated in the next few sections.
Household waste/municipal waste Fig. 1.3 shows the typical qualitative composition of municipal waste. A majority, 55%, of TABLE 1.5 Generation of mixed ordinary waste by economic activities and households, for the European Union (EU-28), in 2016, in million tonnes, based on EUROSTAT [4].
European Union (EU-28), 2016
Mixed ordinary waste, million tonnes, and percent of total (%)
Households
133.2
43%
Waste collection, treatment and disposal activities, and material recovery
97.6
32%
Others
45.8
15%
Manufacturing
25.3
8%
Construction and demolition
6.7
2%
Mining and quarrying
0.5
0%
Total mixed ordinary waste
309
100%
Share of total waste (¼ 2535 Mio. tonnes)
12%
the waste comes from three categories: food waste (25%), paper and board (18%), and plastics (12%). Although food waste is in principle readily biodegradable and, therefore, easily recyclable (as animal feed, compost or digestate, and biogas), this is a waste for which the priority of waste avoidance is particularly urgent. Despite the existing collection and recycling infrastructure in Europe, nearly a fifth of municipal waste consists of paper and board. Further efforts are needed to raise the remaining potential and achieve higher recycling rates. In 2017, the recycling rate in Europe increased to 72.3% (from 72.0% in 2016) [9]. For plastics, mechanical recycling (direct return of the ground material or the melt and regranulation) is practiced, above all, in the case of singlevariety plastic waste (production scrap and processing residues from industry). For postconsumer waste, this is only possible for selected plastic waste with suitable collection systems (e.g., polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles). As a rule, the postconsumer plastic waste generated is too heavily mixed and/or contaminated, so that only downcycling in the form of inferior plastic products is possible. In the case of raw material recycling, used plastics are either used as reducing agents in the steelworks or broken down into their starting substances or into chemical or petrochemical raw materials. However, this option hardly plays a role today. In 2015, for example, only 1% (around 70,000 tonnes) of the plastic waste generated in Germany was directed toward raw material recycling [10]. With regard to the high share of waste lost for recovery of valuable resources like biowaste, paper and cardboard, plastic, or glass, the EU Council decided in May 2018 to set new rules for waste management and to establish legally binding targets for reuse and recycling of municipal waste and packaging (see Table 1.6). The referring directives entered into force on July 4, 2018 and have to be implemented in national regulation on July 5, 2020, at the latest.
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
Resources in mixed ordinary wastes
11
FIG. 1.3 Typical qualitative composition of municipal waste. Graph generated based on data from Zero Waste Europe, 2015 [8].
TABLE 1.6 Targets for increased preparing for reuse and recycling of municipal waste [11] and packaging [12] in the European Union, in % (w/w). By 2025 (%)
By 2030 (%)
By 2035 (%)
Municipal waste
55
60
65
All packaging
65
70
–
Plastic
50
55
–
Wood
25
30
–
Ferrous metals
70
80
–
Aluminum
50
60
–
Glass
70
75
–
Paper and cardboard
75
85
–
Member States have to set up, by January 1, 2025, separate collections of textiles and hazardous waste from households. In addition, they have to ensure that by December 31, 2023, biowaste is either collected separately or recycled at source (e.g., home composting). Furthermore,
Member States shall take the necessary measures to ensure that by 2035 the amount of municipal waste landfilled is reduced to 10% (w/w) or less of the total amount of municipal waste generated. A Member State may postpone the deadline for attaining the target by up to 5 years provided that it landfilled more than 60% (w/w) of its municipal waste generated in 2013. It has to notify the commission of its intention to postpone the deadline and to submit an implementation plan. In the event of postponing the deadline in accordance with the rules, the target value by 2035 may reach a maximum of 25%. This exemption rule can be used by the 10 Member States with shares of landfilling in 2013 above 60% (w/w, shares in brackets): Malta (85%), Greece (84%), Croatia (82%), Cyprus (79%), Latvia (74%), Slovakia (70%), Bulgaria (69%), Romania (69%), Hungary (65%), and Lithuania (62%).
Bulky waste The quantity and composition of bulky waste depend on many factors, such as collection system (curbside collection or transporting system),
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
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1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
TABLE 1.7 Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP): average composition, by theme, for curbside bulky waste collections and household waste recycling centers (HWRCs) in the United Kingdom [13].
TABLE 1.8 Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP): range and average composition of bulky waste categories in the United Kingdom [14].
Constituent
Share (%)
Category of material
Furniture
41.9
Textiles
19.4
WEEE
19.4
Fixtures and fittings
9.0
Garden/outdoor
4.6
Mixed
4.3
Nonbulky
1.5
fee systems, settlement structure, disposable income, and consumption behavior and offer for repair, reuse, or recycling of bulky items. Table 1.7 shows the average composition, by theme, for curbside bulky waste collections and household waste recycling centers (HWRCs) in the United Kingdom. As Table 1.8 shows, around 30% of bulky waste (mainly furniture and so-called white goods, i.e., major household appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, washing machines, and dryers that are typically finished in white enamel) is estimated to be repairable/reuseable; another 20% (white goods and other metal) is recyclable.
Resources in mineral and solidified wastes Mineral and solidified wastes are the dominant waste stream in the EU-28 in 2016 (71%) (see Table 1.1) and should, therefore, be regarded as a potential source of valuable resources, too. Mineral and solidified waste are mainly (85%) generated by the construction and demolition sector (49 of 71%) and the mining and quarrying sectors (35%). The remaining part of the mineral and solidified waste (15%) is from the following sectors: manufacturing (6%); electricity, gas,
Range of composition (%)
Average (%)
Furniture: reusable in current condition
5–10
7.5
Furniture: potentially repairable
10–20
15
White goods: potentially repairable
5–10
7.5
White goods and other metal: recyclable
10–30
20
Disposal
30–70
50
Overall reuse rate
30
Overall recycling rate
20
Residual waste
50
steam, and air-conditioning supply (6%); and waste collection, treatment and disposal activities, and materials recovery (3%).
Wastes from the construction and demolition sector The composition of construction and demolition wastes (CDW) varies widely as a function of the type of site. For example, road construction generates a huge amount of excavated materials that, if no further use is possible, will become waste, while a building demolition site will generate a large amount of waste concrete [15]. In general, concrete and masonry are the main material in CDW, if excavated materials are excluded. Other important CDW waste materials are bricks and tiles, timber, glass, plastics, bituminous mixtures, metal mixtures, insulation materials, gypsum-based construction materials, and construction and demolition wastes (including mixed wastes) containing hazardous substances. The stony fraction accounts for about 80% of the total CDW [16].
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
Resources in mineral and solidified wastes
Article 11.2 of the Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC)e stipulates that by 2020 a minimum of 70% (w/w) of nonhazardous construction and demolition waste, excluding naturally occurring material, shall be prepared for reuse and recycled or undergo other material recovery (including backfilling operations using waste to substitute other materials). Following the Innovative Strategies for High-Grade Material Recovery from Construction and Demolition Waste project, “some EU countries have attained high recycling rates for the stony fraction, but most of the derived recycled products (recycled aggregates and sands) are used in low-grade applications in civil engineering unbound applications. This market for recycled aggregates, however, is getting more and more saturated.” As clean crushed concrete aggregates have a much higher applicability than mixed crushed masonry-concrete aggregates, it is necessary to use only well sorted waste for production of high-quality aggregates. Waste sorting and processing should, therefore, already address the quality of recycled aggregates. Besides on-site segregation, clear and unambiguous waste acceptance criteria and clear quality criteria for the recycled material, like standards and quality labels, are necessary. Other construction and demolition waste fractions contain valuable resources, too. “For flat glass (used for windows, etc.), 1 tonne of recycled material results in savings of 1200 kg of virgin material, 25% of energy and 300 kg of CO2 emissions (directly linked to the melting process). There are similar savings in terms of energy and CO2 emissions for recycled glass wool. For stone wool, the gains may be in the order of 5% with regard to energy consumption and related emissions. As for gypsum, life-cycle assessments have shown typical reductions in global warming potential, human toxicity and eutrophication of about 4%–5% when producing
e
13
a board with 25% recycled content as opposed to only using virgin material” [17]. Almost all the waste plasterboard can be successfully fed into the manufacture of new plasterboard. In general, the presence of fibers in the waste limits its applicability to 25% of the total raw meal for new plasterboard. Other uses of high-quality gypsum from reprocessing waste plasterboard are raw material for cement manufacture, road subbase, and soil improvement for agriculture. In addition, waste plasterboard segregation benefits other CDW recycling, as sulfates, generally coming from plasterboard, are mixed with other CDW fractions in unsorted waste management, which prevents the application of the recycled aggregate [18].
Waste from mining and quarrying operations Waste from extractive operations (i.e., waste from extraction and processing of mineral resources) consists of mainly inert materials like topsoil, hard rock, waste rock, and tailings. The Best Available Techniques reference document (BREF) for the management of tailings and waste rock in mining activities from 2009 [19] is currently under revision. The draft of the revised BREF [20] does not include any example of recovered waste for the base metal sector (12 example sites), the precious metal sector (7), the potash sector (6), the coal and lignite sector (4), the iron and chromium sector (surface mining), the industrial and construction mineral sector (underground mining), the bauxite sector and the uranium sector (3 each), the titanium ore sector, the oil shale sector, and the peat sector (1 each). The few examples reported for other sectors are shown in Table 1.9. In a report on Member States’ performance regarding the implementation of the Extractive Waste Directive, published by the European
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri¼CELEX:32008L0098&from¼EN.
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
14
TABLE 1.9 Examples of extracted material classification and their relative share; own compilation based on [20].
Sector
Extraction method
Iron and chromium sector
Underground mining
A— Products (%)
B—Byproducts (%)
C— Nonhazardous wastes (%)
D— Hazardous wastes (%)
E— Recovered wastes (%)
Type and share or recovered waste
Example 2
55
–
40
0
5
Tailings: 3% Waste rock: 2%
Example 3
47
–
53
0
6a
Waste rock: 6%
Tungsten sector
Surface mining
Example 2
<0.05
0.7
86
0
13
Waste rock: 13%
Alumina sector
Alumina refining
Example 1
53
3
40
1
3
Waste sand: 3%
Industrial and construction mineral sector
Surface mining (eight example sites)
Minimum
1
0b
5
0
0c
NA
Average
32
14
44
0
9
Tailings: 70%d, topsoil and tailings: 5%d
Maximum
90
48
99
0
70
NA
e
Construction rocks, aggregates, gravel and sand sector
Surface mining (five example sites)
Minimum
50
0
0.1
0
0
NA
Average
85
0
14
0
1
Hard rock fragments: 4%
Maximum
99.9
0
50
0
4
NA
NA, not available. a Recovered waste from the year before the year of reference and therefore not included in the total extraction. b Two sites reported having no by-products. c Six sites reported having no recovered wastes. d One site each. e Four sites reported having no recovered wastes.
1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
Relative share of extracted materials (%-w/w)
15
Resources in common sludges
Commission in June 2017, the authors summarize their findings concerning the reprocessing of extractive waste [21]: “… a narrow range of waste reprocessing was observed with a focus on the reuse of waste rock and overburden for construction related purposes. Only a limited number of examples indicated reprocessing waste and tailings to extract minerals indicating that at the current time, reprocessing activities are typically the productive utilization of inert waste materials rather than innovative reprocessing activities to extract greater value associated with recovery of substances and minerals.” Mining waste provides a potential source of secondary critical raw materials (CRM). The amounts of some CRM in the extraction waste (tailings) disposed in situ (therefore, lost for recovery) in the EU-28 range from 100 kg to more than 10,000 tonnes per year (see Table 1.10). The stock in tailings, that is, the extraction waste disposed in situ/tailings accumulated over time, is about a factor of 10 above, following the European Commission, Joint Research Centre [22]. Though the losses of CRM by mining/tailing are smaller than those by landfill, they should not be neglected. Best practice for recovery of CRM is system-integrated material production: Taking optimal account of the fact that certain metals in nature are often associated with other metals (e.g., Cd with Zn, Cu and Pb,
or neodymium (Nd) with other lanthanides), developing a dedicated national (or regional) strategy, or guidance, for the reprocessing of extractive waste and improving the state of knowledge on extractive waste sites, among others. Furthermore, it is recommended to support the development of technologies to efficiently extract CRMs from primary ores and extractive wastes [22].
Resources in common sludges Compared with other waste streams in the EU-28, common sludges and, as a part of them, wastewater treatment residues seem to be a minor waste stream. But generation of common sludges amounted to 18.5 million tonnes dry matter (d.m.) in the EU-28 in 2014, which is the same order of magnitude of the amount of separately collected glass waste in the same year. The amount of common sludges treated in 2014 is 12.3 million tonnes (d.m.). Only 57% of common sludge in the EU-28 has been recycled in 2014, most of it in agriculture, while disposal was the second most common treatment (17%), even before energy recovery (see Table 1.4). According to Annex III of the European Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2150/2002 [23], common sludges include sludges from
TABLE 1.10 Annual loss of some critical raw materials in the extraction waste in the European Union (EU-28) via disposal, in tonnes per year (based on Figs. 9 and 11 in [22]). CRM
Mining
Landfill
CRM
Mining
Landfill
Silicon metal
>10,000
>100,000
Indium
10
<100
Phosphate rock
>10,000
<100,000
Natural graphite
<10
>100,000
Tungsten
<1000
<10,000
Platinum
>0.1
<10
Cobalt
>100
<10,000
Palladium
>0.1
<10
Gallium
<100
<1000
Rhodium
>0.01
0.7
1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource
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1. Waste as a resource: “Waste is raw material in the wrong place”
treatment of urban and industrial wastewater, sludges from on-site effluent treatment, waste from cooling columns, boiler feedwater sludges, sludges from water clarification, unpolluted dredging spoils, and septic tank sludge. Depending on the referring source, common sludges contain different valuable resources of interest, like metals (Cr, Cu, and Ni), organic compounds (amino acids and proteins), and nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen). Currently, the EU imports more than 6 million tonnes of phosphate rock a year, but, “according to the Commission, it could recover up to 2 million tonnes of phosphorus from sewage sludge, biodegradable waste, meat and bone meal or manure.” [24] In addition, most of the organic content is renewable; only a small amount of polymeric flocculants may be of fossil origin. There are different approaches to using these resources more efficiently than through simple application of sludges in agriculture. These approaches are the core of the following chapters in this book.
Conclusion Recycling is not the goal, but the way. Waste is a resource, but recycling activities should not endanger man and the environment through carryover of contaminants. Hazardous chemicals in wastes, like heavy metals, can impede the circular economy, as is exemplarily shown by cadmium (Cd) compounds used as stabilizers for PVC profiles [25]. Used products containing hazardous substances ought to be recycled without contaminating the environment or recycled materials. Therefore, it can be restated that “waste is raw materials at the wrong time in the wrong place.” This finding is still correct for relevant waste streams in the EU-28, like mixed ordinary wastes, minerals and solidified wastes, and common sludges. To better use the existing potential of recyclables, innovative solutions are required. This is
true for common sludges, especially wastewater treatment residues, with regard to their hitherto comparably low share of recycling.
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1. Wastewater treatment as a process and a resource